Geography as a science. Geographic map - a special source of information about reality

Lecture 1

1. Geography as a science. Subject, object of geography
2. Methods of geographical research
3. Sources of geographic information. Geographic map
4. Great explorers of geographical discoveries

1. Geography is a science (more precisely, a system of natural and social sciences) that studies the functioning and evolution of a geographical shell, its interaction and distribution in space. separate parts and components - for the purpose of scientific substantiation of the territorial organization of society, distribution of the population and production, effective use natural resources, preserving the human environment, creating the foundations of a strategy for environmentally safe sustainable development of society. The word "geography" comes from the Greek. ge - m - "earth" and "grapho" - I write.

In fact, geography as a science begins with “travel literature”: getting into other, unfamiliar places, a smart observer recorded everything unusual for himself: how the people of this country look, what they wear, what kind of political system they have, what plants and animals are in this country. country and much more. These were the beginnings of country studies, when the country as a whole is described, “from geology to ideology”, and exactly what distinguishes this country from all the others is mentioned.

The famous Russian geographer Nikolai Baransky formulated this feature of science as follows: “What is everywhere (like air) should not be anywhere in geography.” In other words, it is not necessary to write that in a given country there is air, soil, vegetation - it is everywhere; it is necessary to pay attention to how the air of this country (for example, its climate) is unique, how it differs from neighboring countries.

The most important subject of geographical study is the processes of interaction between man and nature, the patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations in the local, regional, national. (state), continental, oceanic, global levels.

The task of geography is to reveal the specifics of the interaction of all these heterogeneous processes in each territory, to summarize the available materials and create a vivid, memorable image of the place - that is, to solve the problem of describing the territory first (and partially - explaining the processes taking place on it).

Much harder task geographical forecast: what future (or what options for the future) is possible for this territory. Often we have to limit ourselves to identifying restrictions for development: for example, in such and such an area it is impossible to build enterprises even with small emissions harmful substances, since their dispersion in the atmosphere is extremely slow; or else: it is not worth creating a recreation zone here (from the Latin “recreatio” - literally “recovery” of human strength and health), since it is far from the place of residence of potential vacationers.

The object of study of geography is the earth's surface with all its natural and social content.

The complexity of the object of study led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized scientific disciplines, which gives reason to consider modern geography as a complex system of sciences, in which natural (physico-geographical), social (socio-geographical and economic-geographical) sciences, applied geographical sciences and geographic sciences that have an integral (boundary) character. Physical geography includes the complex sciences of the geographical shell as a whole: geography (general physical geography), landscape science (regional physical geography), paleogeography (evolutionary geography). In the course of the long development of geography, private sciences have been formed about the components of the geographical shell - geomorphology, geocryology, climatology and meteorology, hydrology (subdivided into land hydrology, oceanology, limnology), glaciology, soil geography, biogeography.

Socio-economic geography includes general sciences: social geography and economic geography, as well as the geography of the world economy, regional socio-economic geography, and political geography. Private socio-geographical sciences: geography of industry, geography of agriculture, geography of transport, geography of the population, geography of the service sector. The integral geographic sciences include cartography, regional studies, and historical geography. The development of the system of geographical sciences led to the formation of applied geographical sciences and areas - medical geography, recreational geography, military geography, etc. They also perform a connecting function between geography and other scientific disciplines. The desire to identify general geographical patterns in the development of all or many components of the geographic envelope, to model them led to the formation of a theoretical trend in geography.

Geography as a system of sciences was formed not by the convergence of isolated geographical sciences, but by the autonomous development of the once unified geography and its division into specialized scientific disciplines- by components, their combinations, levels of research and degree of generalization, targets and practical needs. Therefore, all private geographic sciences, no matter how far they have diverged from each other, have retained the common features of the geographical approach (territoriality, complexity, concreteness, globality) and the common specific language of science - the map.

2. The methodology of geographical research is a complex system, including: general scientific approaches and methods (mathematical, historical, ecological, modeling, systemic, etc.); specific scientific approaches and methods (geochemical, geophysical, paleogeographic, technical and economic, economic and statistical, sociological, etc.); working methods and operations for obtaining information (balance method; remote methods, including aerospace; laboratory methods, for example, spore-pollen analysis, radiocarbon method; questioning; sampling method, etc.); methods of empirical theoretical generalization of information (indicative, evaluative, analogues, classifications, etc.); methods and techniques for storing and processing information (on electronic media, punched cards, etc.).
A special function of geography is the acquisition, generalization and dissemination of knowledge about our planet and the patterns of its natural historical development, about countries, regions, cities, localities and the peoples inhabiting them, about the history of the discovery and development of the world, about knowing it with the help of space means. An important aspect of human culture over the centuries has been geographical discoveries, which have not stopped until now.

3. There are the following sources of geographic information.
1. Geographic Information Systems (GIS). GIS are computer-generated "archives" geographical knowledge about the territorial organization and interaction of society and nature. The GIS includes:

COMPUTER;
software;
spatial information in the form of cartographic data on natural components, farms, lands, roads, etc.
The functioning of the GIS is carried out in the following sequence:
collection and automated processing of geographic information;
spatial reference of geographic information and its presentation in the form of an electronic map on the display screen;
transfer of this map, if necessary, into paper form (for example, the creation of atlases).
An important component of GIS is aerospace information, data from aero-visual observations, ground-based sensors, etc.

2. Geographic research:
field studies;
travels;
local history excursions
tourism, mountaineering.
Field studies are expeditionary and stationary. Expeditionary includes the study of individual natural components, branches of the economy, etc. Natural and economic complexes are known in the process of complex geographical research (natural-geographical, landscape studies, economic-geographical, etc.). Expeditionary research is divided into three periods:
preparatory;
field forwarding;
cameral (processing materials collected, writing a report, mapping).
During expeditionary research, aero space images earth's surface. They are decrypted, i.e. recognize objects reflected on them by their shape, color, tone of the image.
Artificial satellites provide an opportunity to study the dynamics and periodicity of natural processes, unique phenomena and objects (volcanic eruptions, fires, avalanches, landslides, earth crust fractures, atmospheric pollution, etc.).

3. Sources of geographic information are local history studies and descriptions native land, cities and other settlements. They also include descriptions of travel, tourist and climbing routes, excursions.

4. Maps and atlases are important sources of geographic information. Cartographic images reproduce the dimensions and properties of geographical objects using geographic means and signs (lines, figures), as well as color tone. Combinations of geographical signs and background are means of cartographic modeling, creation of cartographic images (geoimages). To understand the natural and economic objects displayed on the map, the components of natural conditions, processes, as well as the patterns of their distribution, legends are attached to the maps. The text of the legend, geographical names, terms and concepts allow you to "read" the map, use it.
Maps are the most important components of the information building blocks of geographic atlases.
5. A variety of geographical information is stored by regional, district, city museums of local lore.
6. A variety of geographical information is available in textbooks, manuals, statistical reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, scientific journals, and periodicals. Geographical information is filled with mass media: newspapers, radio and television broadcasts. Geographic popular science, documentary and educational films are being created. Geographic information can be found in fiction, paintings, landscape architecture, etc. The Internet provides great opportunities for obtaining and using up-to-date geographic information.

Map- a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or celestial sphere, built on a scale and projection (i.e., according to a mathematical law).

Geographic map- an image of a model of the earth's surface, containing a coordinate grid with conventional signs on a plane in a reduced form.

Having a common idea, maps can be combined into an atlas.

2. What source of geographic information are you most interested in? Why?

Geographic maps are of particular interest. As a source of geographic information, they are unique. With the help of geographical maps, it is possible to compile a sufficient detailed description of any territory on the Earth. They give an idea of ​​the placement of geographic features and the distribution of geographic phenomena. Thus, geographical maps are the main source of geographic information.

3. Analyze any newspaper or magazine. Write down the terms, names, related, in your opinion, to the geography course that you are to study.

In newspapers and magazines, the following terms are most often found, which can be attributed to the course of geography: country, state, territory, border, population, weather, military conflicts, transport, city, industry.

4. Continue definition

Map projections are mathematical methods of image on a surface plane. the globe(ellipsoid).

5. Why do map projections display the earth's surface in a distorted form?

Map projections are an image of the earth's surface on a plane. It is impossible to transfer a spherical surface to a plane without distortion.

6. Complete the scheme

7. What determines the choice of map projection

The choice of cartographic projection depends on the purpose of the map, on the size of the area being depicted and the latitude at which it is located.

8. Give examples of the use of specific map projections for the image: a) polar regions; b) the territory of Russia; c) continents and oceans; d) peace. To do this, use the text of §3 in the textbook.

A) polar regions - azimuthal projection;

b) the territory of Russia - a conic projection;

c) continents and oceans - conical or cylindrical projection;

d) the world is a cylindrical projection.

The photo shows a modern city. The perspective of the photograph speaks of its considerable size. Of the characteristic features, one can note the predominance of medium-rise buildings. High-rise buildings are typical only for the business center. The spiral-shaped swirling tower shown in the picture is a feature of modern large cities in developed countries Oh. The sparse vegetation among the sands speaks of the dryness of the climate.

10. Carefully study figure 3 in the textbook. Choose any map in the atlas for grade 7 and indicate which image methods were used to create it.

Physical map of the world - high-quality background, linear signs, off-scale signs.

11. Analyze the maps in the atlas, select from them:

a) general geographical - a physical map of the world, physical maps of the continents;

b) thematic - a map of the structure of the earth's crust, geological maps, climate maps of the world and continents, soil maps, maps natural areas, political maps, maps of population density and nations.

How do maps in an atlas vary in scale?

The atlas contains small-scale and medium-scale maps.

13. Map projection is:

1. drawing of any territory;

3. graticule

2. mathematical methods of image on the plane of the earth's surface;

14. Choose the correct statement:

1. Map projections display the earth's surface without distortion.

3. Cylindrical projection is used to depict the polar regions.

2. Linear signs the map shows roads, rivers, borders.

15. Territories that are homogeneous in some way are distinguished;

1. isolines;

2. linear signs;

3. quality background;

4. off-scale signs.

3. quality background.

A geographical map is a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface, showing the location, state and relationships of various natural and social phenomena, their changes over time, development and movement in accordance with the purpose of this map.

It is reasonable to consider geographic maps as visual figurative-sign models. They have the main features of models in general: abstraction from the whole for the study of a part - a specific territory, specific phenomena and processes; simplification, which consists in refusing to take into account many characteristics and relationships and in preserving some of the most significant ones; generalization meaning highlighting common features and properties, etc. These abstractions contribute to a deeper understanding of the phenomena depicted on the maps.

The first feature of geographic maps is the construction with the help of cartographic projections, which make it possible to obtain correct data on the position, planned dimensions and shape of depicted terrestrial objects from maps.

The second feature of geographical maps - the use of cartographic signs as a special map language - makes it possible to:

a) depict the earth's surface with the desired reduction (i.e., on the desired scale) in order to cover with a single glance the necessary part or even the entire earth's surface, while reproducing on the map those objects that, due to reduction, are not expressed on the scale of the map, but in their own way value should be shown;

b) show on the map the relief of the earth's surface (for example, using contour lines), i.e., convey terrain irregularities in a flat image;

c) not be limited to displaying the surface of objects on a geographical map, but to indicate their internal properties (for example, on a sea map you can show physiochemical properties waters, currents, topography and soils of the seabed, etc.);

d) show the spread of phenomena that are not directly perceived by our senses (for example, magnetic declination, gravity anomalies, etc.), and make visual connections and relationships inaccessible to direct perception (for example, between sources of raw materials and enterprises for its processing);

e) exclude less significant aspects, particulars and details inherent in single objects, and highlight their common and essential features (for example, characterize settlements by population and administrative significance, refusing to transfer their layout), i.e. resort to abstraction.

Particularly important is the third feature of geographical maps - the selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena, that is, cartographic generalization.

Geographic maps have been and remain the main source of geographic information. Maps allow a one-time overview of space in any range - from a small area to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and relative position of objects, allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the links existing between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of the cards for practice.

Geographical maps, fixing the position, state and spatial relationships of specific objects (phenomena), allow not only to economically and expressively express knowledge about the location of phenomena, but also to find the patterns of this location. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main means of research.

Maps serve as reliable guides on land and ocean, in troop movements and camping trips, for flying in an airship and for walking.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and an indispensable tool for commanding troops and organizing their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as a basis for surveys, design and transfer to nature of an engineering project. Now the best routes railways, highways and pipelines are not found in the field, but are outlined according to topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture for land management, land reclamation, measures to improve soil fertility, to combat erosion, and in general for accounting and the most correct, efficient use of all land funds.

Maps are an indispensable tool for school and out-of-school education. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination, the rise of a common culture. It is no exaggeration to say that cards are used to some extent in all spheres of human activity.

Maps acquired great importance as a means of scientific research, especially geographical ones. Every geographic study, in one way or another, proceeds from existing maps, provides materials for their implementation and improvement. Scope of using cards as a means scientific research expands rapidly as the pace of scientific progress generally increases. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of informatics and in the development of modeling theory.

The study by computer science of the general problems of collecting, storing and transferring knowledge makes it possible to fully appreciate the advantages of geographical maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information. As noted, these advantages lie in the possibility of a one-time, holistic perception of cartographic images, in the visibility of territorial differences and the convenience of analyzing spatial combinations, relationships and patterns.

The modeling method in geography, geoinformation and remote methods are based on the cartographic method. Energetic implementation in modern science modeling methods discovered in application to cartography the real power of maps as generalized and simplified spatial images real world, that is, its models that reflect those aspects, properties and processes of reality that are important for the purposes of specific research. Maps allow you to gain new knowledge, study development processes and predict many phenomena. The development of methods for using maps as a means of research is one of the main tasks of modern cartography.

Despite the introduction of new methods in geography, the cartographic method is one of the main ones in research. And although now maps are often stored in computer memory and are part of geoinformation systems that receive information from satellites and from numerous weather stations, including data banks containing reports on the results of the work of many research teams, the map remains the most perfect way to transmit spatial information.

FROM long time ago man was interested in what is located beyond the horizon - new territories or the edge of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time has come when scientists who have never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. In this they were assisted by sources of geographical information.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, this is the name of all of which a person can get information of interest to him. What sources of geographic information does grade 5 consider (in a secondary school)? Let's list them:

• All geographical maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Various geographical descriptions of a particular area.
• Handbooks, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

Here are the sources of geographic information grade 5 knows in the average general education school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

In recent years, more and more sources are being converted from paper to digital. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can be found today in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized representation of the surface of a piece of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, for this, mathematical methods. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents may have a ratio of 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. Small-scale maps are considered to be all maps whose ratio is less than 1:1,000,000. The usual geographical atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans that are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be depicted on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists in relation to small-scale maps, since they need to contain the maximum amount of useful information with the minimum occupied area of ​​the document. In the generalization itself, an extremely important role is played by the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Terrain plans

This is the name of the drawings of the area, which are carried out on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way, they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• In a centimeter of the plan, more than five real kilometers on the ground are rarely laid. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the ground in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. So, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the maps. Actually, this is why the generalization, which we talked about above, is being carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses off-scale conventions.
• We emphasize once again that when constructing the plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, take it into account without fail.
• There is never a degree grid on the plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Ways of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, all of them make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and can read these drawings.

How long does the map remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. So, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees”, so there is no longer any need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still striking in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are quite stable, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after they were published. These rivers change the relief of the Earth's surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful in a historical perspective.

Geographic descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somehow dry and uninteresting. It is much more exciting to read a description of some region, area or even the mainland, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodesic, biological) studies can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographical plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not display some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, which occurs in some central regions of Africa at every step, for example).

The list of references in geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, Lesson developments; Samkova V. A. We are studying the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / ch. ed. G. I. Vorobyov), just the same, it was formed thanks to the work of researchers who at one time entered all this information on the map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's talk a little about the history of the discovery of the Black Continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal regions were perfectly explored, where they caught black slaves and bought ivory from Arab traders, but almost no one knew what was happening in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary arrived in Africa. It was he who had the honor of discovering the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) was once engaged in the studies of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by slave traders ...

So, with maps and plans, we are actually done. Geographic atlases are in the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, let's consider the principle of sharing old paper maps and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can see for themselves how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans for the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather laborious and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to perform a three-fold binding (three different cards) to the same piece of terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have a fresh aerospace image of the area under study with a topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to enter into the memory of the navigator all three of these drawings of the area. Modern models of such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive volume. random access memory, so you can switch between maps instantly.

Determination of the route

Route planning is best done using modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that there is now a passable area on the site of the swamp, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has changed dramatically. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial and satellite photographs preferred over maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to the products of modern technology? This is for the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release up-to-date terrain plans?
• In the pictures you can literally in real time determine the characteristics of a particular area. On a map or even a topographical plan, the tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in a general order. Simply put, it is quite possible to stumble upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest, and it is much easier to get lost in a dense coniferous forest.

After choosing a route and checking the new images, it is recommended to refer to the old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a field biologist. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over the years. Ideal for all these tasks is the simple overlay of a new card on its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

Here are the sources used by geography. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but one should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made a huge step forward, and therefore it is foolish not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have learned which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, but we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern look.

Lesson #1

Topic: Introduction. Sources of geographic information.

Questions to study

1. Economic and social geography as a science.

2.Traditional and new methods of geographical research.

3. Types of geographic information, its role and use in people's lives.

5. A geographical map is a special source of information about reality. Statistical materials. Other ways and forms of obtaining geographic information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

1. Economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

Geography is one of ancient sciences on Earth and takes pride of place among the favorite school disciplines. The course of economic and social geography of the world is the final stage in the study of geography within school curriculum. The subject of study of economic and social geography is the study development of the economy and the distribution of the population in the world as a whole, in certain regions and countries. Economic geography combines elements of geography, economics and sociology; it widely uses not only economic, but also sociological research methods. You know that sociology is the science of society and human behavior, and economic and social inequality are closely related, so you can not consider the economy without people - the main production force, without the human factor. Thus, by putting man at the center of attention, economic geography became related to social geography. Main stream modern stage development is the strengthening of the social, political, environmental focus of research. The main direction is rational use and transformation natural environment. The long development of geography has led to a deepening of its internal differentiation. In economic geography: geography of the population, industry, agriculture, transport, services and services. Today, geography has turned from a descriptive and cognitive science into a constructive science.

In modern geography, various methods of geographical research are known. The most popular are traditional geographical research methods:

I.Traditional methods-

a) descriptive - the study and description of any territory is carried out according to a specific plan. The description can be either single-element (when only one component is considered, for example, the hydrological network, relief, landscapes), or complex (when the entire territorial complex is considered: nature - population - economy).

b) comparative- when studying various territories and geographical objects, it is often used comparative analysis. The objects of study can be located close to each other (for example, the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas) or remote (for example, the mountain systems of the Cenozoic folding regions of South America and Europe) and similar features are analyzed. As a result, elements of similarity and differences are highlighted and appropriate conclusions are drawn.

c) cartographic- special maps or a series of thematic maps are created for the study area in order to understand a certain phenomenon. Certain elements of the territory under consideration (relief, climate elements, landscapes, etc.) are applied to the cartographic base with the help of certain conventional signs developed in advance. The cartographic method is usually used with other research methods: interpretation of aerial photographs, mathematical methods, etc.

d) retrospective (historical approach). The study of any geographical object, territory: its landscapes, its individual components, natural and social phenomena - is considered in time, which makes it possible to make a forecast for the future.

e) typological - According to the selected criteria, reference sites (key) are allocated in the study area in order to further disseminate the findings to other sites.

II. Modern methods of geographical research:

a) Geographic forecast– prediction of the future state of geosystems. b) Geoinformatics. We live in an era of "information explosion", when the amount of scientific knowledge and the number of sources of information are growing very rapidly. Informatics allows you to apply economic and mathematical modeling. The development of geoinformatics led to the creation GeoInformation Systems (GIS). GIS is an information system that provides the collection, storage, processing, analysis and display of spatial data and related non-spatial data, as well as obtaining information and knowledge about geographic space based on them.

It is believed that geographic or spatial data make up more than half of all circulating information used by organizations involved in different types activities in which it is necessary to take into account the spatial distribution of objects. GIS is focused on providing the possibility of making optimal management decisions based on the analysis of spatial data.

The introduction of GIS technologies in geography has affected many industries and, first of all, pictography. (Example: world electronic maps have already been created, differing in character and language. National electronic atlases: USA, Canada, Japan, Sweden, China, etc.)

c) Space research methods of our planet, these are climatic and space resources - the resources of the future.

Types of geographic information

Geographic information (GI) includes any information related to objects, phenomena and processes localized in geographic space. A significant proportion of geographic information is found in sources that are not maps. Examples of this are addresses in phone books, road mile markers in incident reports, place names in a gazetteer, Internet portals. The completeness of the information presented on cartographic works is determined by the set of map sheets with relatively simple themes - thematic cartographic layers linked to one base map. For picture various objects there is a special system of geographical symbols. Consider the most used:
Linear signs– borders, roads, rivers, etc. . Contours- connection of points with the same parameters (isobars - Atmosphere pressure, air isotherms t 0) Areals- areas of distribution of certain phenomena. traffic signs are traffic flows, sea currents, winds, etc. Quality background- used to display the national and religious composition (without quantitative indicators) Cartogram– different intensity of phenomena within territorial units. Cartogram- a map with a certain territorial division and diagrammatic figures corresponding to these divisions. Schematic map– a schematic map without a precise basis (map of travel routes, etc.) Mapping data is currently received via satellites. Thus, there is a real opportunity to present geographical information of any volume and complexity, and for people's lives the role of GI is enormous. This is the most accurate and prompt receipt of information about the weather forecast, the degree of development of various extreme events, as well as obtaining special information, for example, the thickness of the snow cover (this is important for agriculture), the degree of coverage of cereal crops by insect pests, the degree of aridity of the region, the degree of deforestation plantings, etc.

Sources of geographic information.

1. Maps, atlases, topographic plans.

2. Geographic descriptions different territories.

3. Encyclopedias, reference books, statistical materials, etc.

4. Space and aerial photographs.

5. Geographic information systems (GIS). Currently, all of the listed sources of information can be digitized and transferred from paper to electronic form, an example of a GIS.

A geographical map is a special source of information about reality.

general geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport networks, etc.

Thematic maps characterize geographic features and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry.

For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of ​​the location of countries, their borders, etc.

Homework:

1. Show parts of the world and continents on a contour map.

2. Indicate the role of economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

3. Determine the types of geographic information, its role and use in people's lives.

4. Geoinformation systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting spatially coordinated geographic data.

5. Study the geographical map as a special source of information about reality and statistical materials. Learn the features of the legend (symbols) on political map peace. Specify other methods and forms of obtaining geographic information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

Independent work

Lesson #2 A political map of the World

Questions to study

1.Countries on the modern political map of the world. Their grouping by area, by population, elements of the political map of the world.

2. Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

3. The main periods of formation of the political map of the world.

4. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

The political map of the world is a geographical map that reflects countries peace , as well as form of government and state structure . The political map of the world reflects the main political and geographical changes: the formation of new independent states, the change in their status, the merger and separation of states, the loss or acquisition of sovereignty, the change in the area of ​​states, the replacement of their capitals, the change in the names of states and capitals, the change in the forms of government and the form of government. devices. The political map of the world has characteristic elements, by which it can be determined, is

State borders

State territories

Territories with international regime

Mixed territories

Sovereign States

· Non-Self-Governing Territories

Forms of government

What is usually denoted in the economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory? The concept of the state refers primarily to the political system of power established in a certain territory, while the concept of the country rather refers to cultural, geographic (community of territory) and other factors. The concept of a country is less official than the concept of a state. Territory or trust territories- dependent territories included as a result of the Second World War in the UN International Trusteeship System. These are mainly colonies of Germany and its allies in Africa (Cameroon, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Tanzania, South-West Africa) and islands in pacific ocean(Western Samoa, Nauru, New Guinea, Mariana, Marshall and Caroline) with a population of about 20 million people. Their management, by agreement with the UN and under the control of its Council of Trustees, was given to the former colonial powers - Great Britain, Belgium, France. By 1997, almost all territories became independent states. Before modern states were formed on the planet, there was a long period of formation of the political map of the world.

The main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

1. Ancient period (before the 5th century AD)

2. Medieval period (V-XV centuries)

3. New period (the turn of the XV-XVI centuries - 1914)

4. The newest period (from 1914 to the present)

First stage (from 1914 to 1945)

Second stage (1945-1990)

Third stage (from 1990 to the present)

According to various sources (November 2015), there are 230 territories in the world, including:

193 independent states (recognized by the UN)

14 unrecognized states

3 Territories with undetermined status

1 quasi-state formation Order of Malta - has observer status at the UN.)

62 dependencies

The process of the birth and disappearance of states is endless, this process is called changes on the political map of the world. There are changes on the political map quantitative(accession to the state of newly discovered lands, territorial gains and losses after wars, unification or disintegration of states, exchange of territories by states, etc.) and quality(the acquisition of sovereignty, a change in the form of government and state structure, the formation of interstate unions, etc.). Currently, quantitative changes are declining and mainly qualitative changes are taking place on the political map of the world.

At present, taking into account the level and nature of socio-economic and political development, there are the following groups of countries in the world:
The countries of the world are grouped according to different criteria . For example, sovereign, independent countries and dependent countries and territories are distinguished. Dependent countries and territories may have different names: possessions - the term "colonies" has not been used since 1971 (there are very few of them left), overseas departments and territories, self-governing territories. So, Gibraltar is a possession of Great Britain; Guiana's country South America- Department of France; the island nation of Puerto Rico has been declared a "state freely affiliated with the United States."

Grouping countries by area:

VERY LARGE COUNTRIES: (area over 3 million sq. km): Russia (17.1 million sq. km), Canada (10 million sq. km), China (9.6 million sq. km), USA (9.4 million sq. km), Brazil (8.5 million sq. km), Australia (7.7 million sq. km), India (3.3 million sq. km)

MICRO STATES: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican. They also include Singapore and the island states of the Caribbean and Oceania.

COUNTRIES BY POPULATION:

In terms of population, 10 largest countries of the world are distinguished: China (1318 million people), India (1132 million people), USA (302 million people), Indonesia (232 million people), Brazil (189 million people). people), Pakistan (169 million people), Bangladesh (149 million people), Russia (146 million people from the Crimean River Nigeria (144 million people), Japan (128 million people) (data for 2014-2015)

THE SMALLEST POPULATION COUNTRIES - microstates. For example, 1,000 people live in the Vatican.

ECONOMICLY HIGHLY DEVELOPED STATES BUT characterized by a mature level of development of market relations. Their role in world politics and the economy is great, they have a powerful scientific and technical potential. They differ from each other in the scale and level of economic development, population. USA, UK, Japan, etc.

POOR COUNTRIES - Mostly former colonies, which, having gained political independence, became economically dependent on their former metropolises. These are most of the countries of Africa south of the Sahara, countries such as Angola, Ghana, Zambia, as well as the Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, etc. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators. (see list at the end of the topic)

state forms of government.

The form of state government characterizes the organization of state power, the system of higher state bodies. There are two forms of government: republican and monarchicalRepublic – a form of government in which the supreme legislative power belongs to the elected representative body of the parliament, and the executive - to the government. Republics are divided into parliamentary and presidential. AT presidential republics, the president is endowed with very large rights, he heads the government. (USA, Iran, Argentina, etc.) AT parliamentary the main figure is the head of government. (Germany, Italy, Israel, etc.) monarchical form of government A government in which the monarch is the head of state. This sovereignty is hereditary. Monarchies are divided into absolute, constitutional, theocratic .

Absolute monarchy - the power of the monarch is practically unlimited (Bhutan, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, etc.)

Theocratic monarchy - The monarch simultaneously represents secular and spiritual power. (Vatican, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain).

A constitutional monarchy The power of the monarch is limited by Parliament. On the modern political map, 30 countries of the world have a monarchical form of government.

Forms of administrative-territorial structure

Countries subdivided into unitary (in which the country has a single legislative and executive power ). Federated - under which, along with uniform laws, there are separate self-governing territorial units with their own legislative, executive and judicial authorities.

Homework:

1. Give a brief description of the state (of your own choice in any form).

2. Using reference materials, maps, fill in the table, marking the countries

world with a federal administrative-territorial structure. Explain what

is the difference between unitary and federal forms of administrative

territorial device.

Lesson #3

Topic: Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

Questions to study

1. Differences in the countries of the modern world in terms of territory, population, population characteristics, geographical location.

2. Types of countries. Economically developed and developing countries (main; highly developed countries of Western Europe; countries of the resettlement type; key countries; countries of outward-oriented development; new industrial countries and other groups).

3. The UN and its main structural units

The political map of the world is represented by individual countries and regions. For a complete study of the country, it is customary to consider it from different points of view: by the size of the territory, geographic location, the nature of the social system, the level of socio-economic development, historical and geographical areas, etc. GDP is used to rank countries by socio-economic development. Gross domestic product is one of the great inventions of the 20th century, almost equal in importance to the automobile. GDP - the sum of all goods produced in the territory of a given country for the year, and GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) - the volume of goods produced according to the national principle: GDP minus the profits of foreign companies transferred abroad and wages foreign workers, plus similar receipts from abroad. The countries of the world use different methods for calculating GDP and GNP, so the data provided by national statistics and international statistics are almost always different. In order to enable cross-country comparisons, in international statistics, data on GDP is given in a single monetary measurement - US dollars. They are calculated by UN experts using special methods - at official exchange rates or at purchasing power parities of currencies. Therefore, these data, depending on the calculation method, differ significantly from each other.

There is a classification adopted by the UN - the division of the countries of the world into "industrialized", "developing" and countries with a "centrally planned economy". But at the same time, this division unites extremely different countries into one group. Obviously, such countries as, for example, the United States and Switzerland, classified as "economically developed countries", or Kuwait and Papua New Guinea (which fell into the group of developing countries) certainly have common features, but there are even more differences between them. The group of industrialized countries includes about 30 states. They are distinguished by a high level of economic development, the predominance of manufacturing and service industries in GDP, high quality and standard of living of the population. These countries create the bulk of world industrial production. They account for more than 70% of the world foreign trade turnover, including about 90% of exports of machinery and equipment.

The economically developed countries are approximately 60 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and Oceania. All of them are characterized by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, GDP per capita. However, this group of countries is characterized by rather significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished in its composition.

G7 countries "Big Seven" (GDP per capita 20-30 thousand dollars) - Japan, USA, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada.

Privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe: Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Norway, etc.
Countries of "settlement" capitalism: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Israel.

Nafta countries USA, Canada, Mexico.

"IMF" in the number of developed countries includes Western Europe, including the EU. The unification of the EU causes a lot of controversy, the second and third wave of countries that joined the EU gives rise to many doubts. Simply put, all EU member states, although independent, are subject to the same rules: they have the same rules for education, health care, pensions, the judiciary, and so on. In a word, EU laws are valid in all EU countries.

For 2013: there are 28 countries in the European Union.

• Austria (1995)
• Belgium (1957)
• Bulgaria (2007)
• UK (1973)
• Hungary (2004)
• Germany (1957)
• Greece (1981)
• Denmark (1973)
• Ireland (1973)
• Spain (1986)
• Italy (1957)
• Cyprus (2004)
• Latvia (2004)
• Lithuania (2004)
• Luxembourg (1957)
• Malta (2004)
• Netherlands (1957)
• Poland (2004)
• Slovakia (2004)
• Slovenia (2004)
• Portugal (1986)
• Romania (2007)
• Finland (1995)
• France (1957)
• Croatia (2013)
• Czech Republic (2004)
• Sweden (1995)
• Estonia (2004)

Candidates Iceland

• Macedonia
• Serbia
• Turkey
• Montenegro

All of them are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

The group of developing countries includes the largest number of states in the world (about 150). These countries are extremely different - this group includes Brazil and Tuvalu, India and South Korea, Somalia and Burkina Faso, etc. However, all of them have such common features of socio-economic development as: raw material specialization of the economy.

Features of participation in the international division of labor; unequal position in the world economy, dependence on foreign capital; huge external debt; the presence of the most acute problems - demographic, environmental and food, as well as low level life of the majority of the population and others. Nevertheless, among the developing countries there are countries and territories that, in terms of socio-economic development, have already approached the level of industrialized ones. Consider in detail the major economic associations:

1. Countries with "transitional economies" (post-socialist) and socialist countries. This group includes the countries of the Center, and the East. Europe (including all republics former USSR) and Mongolia are "countries with economies in transition"; as well as the socialist countries - Cuba, China,

2. Key countries: Mexico, Argentina, India, China, Brazil
3. " Newly industrialized countries or "Yellow Tigers": Singapore, Taiwan and the Republic of Korea, as well as R/V "second wave" - ​​Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Their economic performance is largely in line with that of industrialized countries, but there are also features common to all developing countries.
four. " Oil exporting countries» or OPEC ( Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE Algeria, Venezuela, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Libya, Nigeria, Ecuador)

5. BRICS countries Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

6. SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization

SCO Member States

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Uzbekistan

Poor countries- Mostly former colonies, which, having gained political independence, became economically dependent on their former metropolises. This is most of the countries of Africa south of the Sahara, countries such as Angola, Ghana, Zambia. As well as the Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators.

Poor countries GDP per capita (2015 data)

1 Malawi $226.50

2 Burundi $267.10

3 Central African Republic $333.20

4 Niger $415.40

5 Liberia $454.30

6 Madagascar $463.00

7 Congo $484.20

8 Gambia $488.60

9 Ethiopia $505.00

10 Guinea $523.10

UN structure.

For independent study:

Typology of the countries of the world:

“Typology of countries - the allocation of groups of countries of the world similar in level, nature and type of socio-economic and historical development.

The first step in any typology is classification of countries according to a set of demographic, economic, social and other indicators of development.

Second phase identification of typological features of countries with a similar level of development and their grouping. The typologies of developing countries of B. M. Bolotin, V. L. Sheinis, V. V. Velsky, Ya. G. Mashbits and other geographers and economists are widely known.

Country, state - the main object of the political map of the world. The total number of countries on this map during the 20th century. increased noticeably. Firstly, as a result of changes associated with the results of the First World War. Secondly, as a result of the changes that followed the Second World War, expressed in the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, when during the years 1945-1993. 102 countries have achieved political independence. Third, in the early 1990s as a result of the collapse Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia. There are about 230 countries on the modern political map. This quantitative growth is followed by important qualitative changes. This is manifested in the fact that out of 230 states, 193 are sovereign states. The rest falls on the so-called non-self-governing territories.

With such large numbers countries, there is a need for their grouping, which is carried out primarily on the basis of different quantitative criteria. The most common grouping of countries according to the size of their territory and population. Often used grouping of countries according to the peculiarities of their geographical location.1. Grouping countries by size of territory - the most big countries(territory more than 3 million km 2) These include states different regions. Half of the dozens of participants were delegated by the New World, four countries are located in Eurasia, one - in Africa. At the same time, only Russia can be considered a European country. 2. Grouping by the prevalence of means of communication. The most widely spoken language in largest countries world - English. It is spoken in the USA, Canada, Australia and some in India. The Russian language is widely used in Russia and Kazakhstan. The top ten is dominated by multinational countries. The country with the most diverse ethnic composition is India. More than 500 peoples, nationalities and tribes live here. Many ethnic groups live on the territory of Sudan, Russia, Canada, Kazakhstan, China, and the USA. But the population of Argentina, Brazil and Australia mainly belongs to the same ethnic group.2. Grouping according to the state system, forms of government and the administrative-territorial structure of the countries of the world. The countries of the world also differ in the forms of government and in the forms of territorial and state structure. Allocate two main forms government: a republic where legislative power is usually vested in parliament and executive power is usually vested in the government. Another form is a monarchy, where power belongs to the monarch and is inherited. Most countries in the world have a republican form of government. In the republics, the highest state power belongs to an elected representative body; the head of state is elected by the people of the country. There are presidential republics, where the president heads the government and has great powers (USA, Guinea, Argentina, etc.) and parliamentary republics, where the role of the president is less, and the prime minister appointed by the president is the head of executive power. There are currently 30 monarchies. Among the monarchies are constitutional and absolute. Under a constitutional monarchy, the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution and the activities of the parliament: the real legislative power usually belongs to the parliament, and the executive power to the government. The monarch at the same time "reigns, but does not rule", although his political influence is quite large. Such monarchies include Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, etc. Under an absolute monarchy, the power of the ruler is not limited in any way. There are only six states in the world with this form of government: Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and the Vatican. The so-called theocratic monarchies, i.e., countries where the head of state is also its religious head (Vatican and Saudi Arabia), are especially singled out. There are countries that have a specific form of government. These include states that are members of the so-called Commonwealth (until 1947 it was called the "British Commonwealth of Nations"). The Commonwealth is an association of countries that includes Great Britain and many of its former colonies, dominions and dependent territories (a total of 50 states). It was originally created by Great Britain to preserve its economic and military-political positions in previously owned territories and countries. In 16 Commonwealth countries, the British Queen is formally considered the head of state. "The largest of them include Canada, Australia, New Zealand. In them, the head of state is the Queen of Great Britain, represented by the Governor General, and the legislature is Parliament. 3. According to the forms of government distinguish between unitary and federal countries.In a unitary state there is a single constitution, a single executive and legislative power, and administrative-territorial units are endowed with minor powers and report directly to the central government (France, Hungary). In a federal state, along with uniform laws and authorities, there are other state formations - republics, states, provinces, etc., in which their own laws are adopted, there are their own authorities, that is, members of the federation have a certain political and economic independence. But their activities should not contradict federal laws(India, Russia, USA). Most countries of the world are unitary, there are now a little more than 20 federal states in the world. The federal form of the state is typical both for multinational (Pakistan, Russia) countries and for countries with a relatively homogeneous national composition of the population (Germany). 4. By population of the world by population China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, and Pakistan Russia.

4. By geographical location.

Maritime countries;

Peninsular;

Island;

Archipelago countries;

Countries occupying an inland position. In other words, when grouping countries by geographic location, they usually distinguish countries that do not have access to the sea (Chad, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Slovakia, etc. - a total of 42 countries of the world) and coastal ones (India, Colombia). Among the seaside, there are island (Sri Lanka), peninsular (Spain) and archipelago countries (Japan, Indonesia) ”about the grouping of countries into subgroups and their role in the world economy.

Until the beginning of the 90s. all countries of the world were divided into three types: socialist, developed capitalist and developing. After the actual collapse of the world socialist system, this typology was replaced by others. One of them, also three-term, divides all countries of the world into economically developed, developing and countries with economies in transition, i.e. carrying out the transition from a planned-centralized to a market economy. A two-term typology is widely used with the subdivision of all countries into economically developed and developing ones. The main criterion for such a typology is the level of socio-economic development of the state, expressed through the indicator of gross domestic product per capita.

Lesson number 4

Test

Questions for preparation:

1. What is usually denoted in the economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory?

2.Countries on the modern political map of the world.

3. Orient yourself and know the main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

4. Know the number of countries on the political map of the world.

5. Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

6. Grouping of countries according to various characteristics and features.

7. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

8. Forms of administrative-territorial structure

9.Historical and geographical regions of the world

10. Understand the abbreviation of GDP and NVP

11. Be able to find economically developed countries on the map.

12. Know the member states of the European Union

13. Know the member states of the G7 Political Club, Privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe, Countries of “settlement” capitalism,