The science of eloquence appeared in ancient times. Today, the question of what rhetoric is is considered from three sides:

3. An academic discipline that studies the basics of public speaking.

The subject of rhetoric is the special rules for constructing and delivering a speech in order to convince the audience that the speaker is right.

Russia has always had a rich rhetorical tradition. Oratory practice already in Ancient Russia was very diverse and stood out for its high level of skill. The XII century is recognized as the golden age in Ancient Russia for eloquence. The first textbooks in Russia on what rhetoric is, appeared in the 17th century. These were The Legend of the Seven Wisdoms and Rhetoric. They set out the foundations of rhetorical teaching: what is rhetoric, who is a rhetorician and his duties; how to prepare speech as it happens. In the 18th century, a number of textbooks were already published, among them the fundamental scientific work "Rhetoric" by Lomonosov.

3. Speech law.

4. The law of communication.

The speech is realized in different forms such as monologue, dialogue and polylogue. Depending on what goal the speaker has set for himself, it is divided into types:

1. Informative - acquaintance of listeners with certain information, facts, which will make it possible to form an impression of its subject.

2. Persuasive - belief in the correctness of their position.

3. Arguing - proof of your point of view.

4. Emotional-evaluative - expresses its negative or positive assessment.

5. Incentive - through speech, listeners are encouraged to do something.

Is it possible to become a speaker

?

When the task of speaking to the audience arises, in which it is necessary to convince the audience of something, a person begins to think - what is rhetoric? Can you be a good speaker? Opinions differ on this point. Someone thinks that a talented speaker should have a natural gift. Others - that you can become a good speaker if you practice a lot and improve yourself. This dispute has been going on for many years, almost the entire history of oratory.

But in any case, the speaker must know the basics of rhetoric, its not only the most common techniques, but also individual findings, which will help to make the speech bright and at the same time accessible. How to prepare, how to present it, how to correctly conclude the speech - these are the questions that first of all arise before a novice master of the word.

The need to refer to rhetoric as a teaching about oratory, or the theory of eloquence, in modern conditions. The relationship between logic and rhetoric. The lack of all the power of logic, rigorous evidence to convince a person who does not want to change his position and accept a different point of view. The art of persuasion – not only the power of logical arguments. Rhetoric and the need to go beyond the realm of reliable knowledge. Persuasion and Understanding. Belief and faith, their fundamental difference. Rhetoric for the speaker and rhetoric for the listener. Oratory and the space of language. Speech ethics and speech law. Rhetoric and Morality. Rhetorical thinking.

Five parts of rhetoric:

- invention (lat.inventio - invention, discovery) - invention of thoughts; her focus on seeking argumentation;

- disposition (Latin dispositio - location, placement) - disposition of thoughts; her focus on how to arrange these arguments;

- elocution (from Latin elocution - way of presentation, syllable)- expression of thoughts; her focus on how to verbalize her thoughts in the most convincing way;

- memoria (from lat.memoria - memory, a way of memorizing)- memorization; her focus on how to memorize a written speech;

- action (from Latin actio - action, activity)- making a speech; her focus on how to deliver the prepared speech.

The inequality of these parts, the unevenness of their elaboration of classical and modern rhetoric.

Topic 2. Genera and types of public speaking

The gradual formation of genera and types of oratory: five types of eloquence in rhetoric of the 17th - 18th centuries. (court, which developed in the highest circles of the nobility; spiritual, or church-theological; military - the appeal of the commanders to the soldiers; diplomatic; popular, developing during periods of aggravation of the struggle, when the leaders of peasant uprisings addressed the people with speeches). Allocation of types of eloquence, depending on the field of communication, corresponding to one of the main functions of speech: communication, communication and influence. Spheres of communication (scientific, business, information and propaganda, social and domestic).

The genus of eloquence as a field of oratory, characterized by the presence of a specific object of speech, a specific system for its analysis and evaluation. The kinds of eloquence distinguished in modern practice of public communication:

- socio-political(speeches on socio-political, political-economic, socio-cultural, ethical and moral topics; speeches on scientific and technological progress; reports at congresses, meetings, conferences, rallies; diplomatic, political, military-patriotic, parliamentary, agitational and under. speech);

- academic - a kind of eloquence that helps to form a scientific worldview, distinguished by scientific presentation, deep reasoning, logical culture (university lecture, scientific report, presentation in a scientific discussion, scientific review, etc.);

- judicial- a kind of speech designed to have a purposeful and effective impact on the court, to contribute to the formation of the convictions of judges and citizens present in the courtroom (prosecutorial, or accusatory, and advocate, or defense, speeches);

- social(jubilee speech dedicated to a significant date or an individual, which is solemn in nature; table speech delivered at official (including diplomatic) receptions, as well as everyday speech);

- spiritual(church-theological) - an ancient form of eloquence with rich experience and traditions. Sermon(word), combined with church action, addressed to parishioners and pronounced in church. Official speech addressed to the ministers of the church themselves or others associated with the official action. Homiletics is the science of Christian church preaching.

Topic 3 . History of rhetoric

The emergence of rhetoric and its place in the history of ancient culture

Rhetoric as art and the theory of eloquence. The role of sophistry in the development of rhetoric. Speeches that changed the fate of civilization: the speech of Pericles in response to the demands of the Spartan ambassadors - one of the reasons for the Peloponnesian War; Demosthenes is the greatest orator of ancient Greece. Demosthenes' "Philippines", his speeches against the policy of Philip II of Macedon as the highest examples of oratory practice, as well as the reason for the defeat of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea, the loss of the independence of the Athenian state.

Development of the theory of eloquence. The significance of the Socratic method and Plato's dialogues. Aristotle's "Rhetoric" as an exposition of the scientific foundations of eloquence. "Rhetoric", according to Aristotle, as a necessary skill to protect oneself and help justice. "Poetics", "Topeka", "On sophistic refutations" by Aristotle - about the relationship between linguistics, logic, rhetoric, sophistry. The meaning of the treatise Dimetry "On style".

Roman eloquence. The speeches of Mark Thulius Cicero are the pinnacle of the rhetorical skill of Ancient Rome. The rhetorical style of Cicero: the allocation of large, linguistically distinct, rhythmically formed periods, the abundant (but not excessive) use of rhetorical decorations, the absence of foreign words, vulgarisms. Cicero's treatises "On the orator", "Brutus", "Orator" - the theoretical development of the foundations of rhetoric. The meaning of the "Speeches" of Cicero. "Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instruction" by Mark Fabius Quintilian. Apology, or about magic by Apuleius.

Rhetoric as the most important component of ancient culture. Rhetoric classes are the most honorable activity in antiquity. Rhetorical education was the main form of education in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome for a whole millennium.

Christian rhetoric is the continuation and development of ancient traditions. Basil the Great. Gregory the Theologian. John Chrysostom. John Chrysostom's sermons are examples of protecting human dignity.

Development of rhetorical traditions in Russia

Features of the emergence of Russian eloquence and Russian rhetoric, which determined the Russian rhetorical tradition. The emergence of Russian literature - the emergence of Russian homiletics ("The Word about Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, 1049, sermons of Cyril of Turovsky in the 12th century). The development of homiletics (solemn and instructive eloquence, preaching) in the absence of oratorio. The emergence of elements of oratory in the sixteenth century. (correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, "Book on the Novgorod Heretics" by Joseph Volotsky). The first textbook "Rhetoric" (1620): an exposition of the principles and techniques of oratory in four kinds of speech - educational, deliberative, laudatory, judicial. The role of MV Lomonosov in the development and formation of Russian rhetoric. The significance of the works of I. S. Rizhsky ("Rhetoric", 1796) and M. N. Speransky ("Rules of Higher Eloquence", 1844) in the development of rhetorical traditions in Russia. Development of rhetoric
in the twentieth century. and at present (works by V.V. Vinogradov, S.P. Obnorsky,
Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, G.G. Khazagerova and others).

It is important for every person to be able to communicate, since such a skill is a good helper in many life situations. Almost all success in school, work, and personal life is based on communication skills. If the information is presented by the speaker in a laconic and structured way, then it will reach the audience in the best possible way. The science that studies all the details of public speaking is rhetoric. It is thanks to her that you can make your speech clear and convincing. What is rhetoric? Science or academic discipline?

What does the word "rhetoric" mean? Translated from Greek, the word rhetoric looks like "rhetorike" and means "oratory." Initially, this definition implied the ability to speak beautifully and express one's thoughts in front of other people.

Over time, the concept of rhetoric changed several times, which was influenced by the change in the periods of cultural development of people. Therefore, this science, from antiquity to the present, was perceived in different ways.

It was founded by sophists who said that rhetoric is a discipline that can teach a speaker to prove his position, manipulate and dominate discussions. In modern times, the basis of such a science is harmonizing speech, the search for truth, the inducement to thought.

Now the word rhetoric is understood as a discipline that allows you to study the methods of forming speech, characterized by expediency, harmony, and the ability to influence. In this regard, the subject of rhetoric acts as a thought-speech action.
Rhetoric combines the teachings of philosophy, sociology, psychology, which helps to achieve effective speech interaction with any audience.

Thus, modern rhetoric is viewed from three sides:

• This is a science that considers the art of speech, which has specific norms of public speaking in front of people, allowing you to achieve a good result when influencing the audience.
• This is the highest level of mastery of pronunciation of speech in front of the public, proficiency in the word at a professional level and excellent oratory.
• An academic discipline that helps students to teach the rules of public speaking.

Thus, general rhetoric studies the rules for constructing a purposeful and persuasive speech, which helps to make a speech vivid and memorable.

What does science study?

The subject of rhetoric, as a science, includes methods for the formation of appropriate oral and written speech, as well as the process by which thoughts are transformed into speech.

In order to define the tasks of rhetoric, you need to know about its main directions. They are distinguished by two:

1. Logical, in which the main aspects are the ability to convince the listener, effectively present information.
2. Literary, in which the richness and attractiveness of words are considered the most important elements.

Taking into account the fact that in this science these directions are combined, this rhetoric sets itself the task of making speech correct, convincing and expedient.
Having defined what rhetoric is and why it is needed, there is no doubt about its necessity in the life of a person, especially those involved in public activities.

Ancient rhetoric

The origin of rhetoric dates back to ancient Greece. Due to the fact that democracy was formed in this state, the ability to persuade has gained considerable popularity in society.

Every resident of the city had the opportunity to undergo training in oratory, which was taught by the sophists. These sages considered rhetoric to be the science of persuasion, which studies ways of verbally defeating an opponent. Because of this, in the future, the word "sophism" caused a negative reaction. Indeed, under them, rhetoric was viewed as a trick, an invention, while earlier this science was considered the highest skill, skill.

In ancient Greece, many works were created that reveal rhetoric. Who is the author of the classic Greek treatise on this science? This is the well-known thinker Aristotle. This work, entitled "Rhetoric", singled out oratory from all other sciences. It defined the principles on which speech should be based, and indicated the methods used as evidence. Thanks to this treatise, Aristotle became the founder of rhetoric as a science.

In ancient Rome, Mark Tullius Cicero, who was engaged in politics, philosophy and oratory, contributed to the formation of rhetoric. He created a work called "Brutus or the famous orators", describing the development of science in the names of popular orators. He also wrote a work "About the speaker", in which he talked about what kind of speech behavior a worthy speaker should have. Then he created the book "Orator", revealing the basics of eloquence.

Cicero considered rhetoric to be the most difficult science, unlike others. He argued that in order to become a worthy speaker, a person must have deep knowledge in all areas of life. Otherwise, he simply will not be able to maintain a dialogue with another person.

Development of rhetoric in Russia

Rhetoric in Russia arose on the basis of Roman science. Unfortunately, it was not always so in demand. Over time, when political and social regimes changed, the need for it was perceived in different ways.

Development of Russian rhetoric in stages:

• Ancient Russia (XII-XVII centuries). During this period, the term "rhetoric" and educational books on it did not yet exist. But some of its rules have already been applied. People at that time called the ethics of speech eloquence, piety or rhetoric. The teaching of the art of words was carried out on the basis of liturgical texts created by preachers. For example, one of such collections is The Bee, written in the 13th century.
• First half of the 17th century. During this period, a characteristic event was the publication of the first Russian textbook, revealing the foundations of rhetoric.
• The end of the 17th century - the beginning and the middle of the 18th century. At this stage, the book "Rhetoric", written by Mikhail Usachev, was published. Also, many works were created, such as "Old Believer Rhetoric", works "Poetics", "Ethics", several lectures on the rhetorical art of Feofan Prokopovich.
• XVIII century. At this time, there has been a formation of rhetoric as Russian science, to which Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov made a huge contribution. He wrote several works dedicated to her, of which the book "Rhetoric" became the basis in the development of this science.
• The beginning and the middle of the 19th century. This period is characterized by the fact that there was a rhetorical boom in the country. Famous authors have published a large number of textbooks. These include the works of I.S. Rizhsky, N.F. Koshanskiy, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky, M.M. Speransky.

However, since the second half of the century, this science begins to actively supplant literature. Soviet people studied stylistics, linguistics, culture of speech, and criticized rhetoric.

Laws of word art

Rhetoric at any time had its ultimate goal - to influence the audience. Expressive speech, as well as pictorial and expressive means, play a special role in achieving it.

Scientists divide this science into two types - general and specific. The subject of general rhetoric includes general methods of behavior in the pronunciation of speech and the practical possibilities of their application in order to make speech effective.

This type includes the following sections:

• rhetorical canon;
• public speaking;
• rules on how to dispute;
• the norms of the conversation;
• teachings about everyday communication;
• communication between different nations.

By studying these sections, the speaker gains knowledge about the basic features of speech use, which are the basis for every master of the word.

General rhetoric examines ways to achieve mutual understanding between the speaker and the audience. For this, the following laws have been developed:

• The law of harmonizing dialogue. The speaker should awaken the feelings and thoughts of the audience, turning the monologue into a dialogue. It is possible to build harmonious communication only with the help of a dialogue of all the people participating in the discussion. The essence of this rule is more accurately revealed by the following laws.
• The Law of Orientation and Advancement of the Listener. The person to whom the oratorical influence is directed should have the feeling that he, together with the speaker, is moving towards the intended goal. To achieve this effect, the speaker needs to use words in speech that determine the order of events, connect sentences and summarizing expressions.
• The law of emotionality of speech. A person speaking to an audience should himself experience the feelings that he is trying to evoke in the audience, and also be able to convey them through speech.
• The law of pleasure. It implies the ability to present speech in such a way that it pleases the audience. This effect is easy to achieve if the speech is expressive and rich.

A particular type of rhetoric is based on a general type and involves the specific use of general provisions in certain spheres of life. Thus, science studies what rules of pronunciation of speech and behavior must be applied by the speaker, depending on the situation.

There are a lot of private rhetoric, but they all come together in two main groups:

1. Homiletics.
2. Oratory.

The first group implies the ability of the speaker to repeatedly influence the public. This includes the church and academic type of eloquence. In modern rhetoric, this group includes propaganda that is carried out in the media.

Thus, with academic eloquence, an orator, conducting several lectures, does not have to speak again about the goals of their conduct, about their necessity, and so on every time. It is enough for him to tell about this at the first lecture, and for all the rest the general task will expand by studying a new topic.

Oratory is not capable of influencing people many times. In this regard, the speaker needs to be able to correctly conclude each speech. This group includes judicial, everyday, socio-political and other types of eloquence.

At present, oratorical has grown quite widely, so a specific type of rhetoric has already begun to be divided into its subspecies. For example, administrative, diplomatic, parliamentary and other rhetoric was singled out from socio-political eloquence.

Speech variations of the speaker

There are several types of oratorical speech, depending on who needs to be convinced, where the speech is taking place, what purpose it pursues. These include the following eloquence:

• Social and political. This is when they read reports on social, political and economic topics, speak at rallies, conduct campaigning.
• Academic. This includes giving lectures, scientific papers, or messages.
• Judicial. This type of eloquence is used by the prosecutor and the defense attorney when speaking in court. By their speech, they must convince the accused person of the guilt or innocence of the accused.
• Social and household. It is used by all people, giving speeches at anniversaries, feasts or at commemorations. This also includes secular chatter, which does not require disputes, discussions, but is characterized by ease and simplicity of perception.
• Theological. This eloquence is used in churches, for example, when believers read a sermon or other speech in a cathedral.
• Diplomatic. This type assumes compliance with ethical standards in business speech. This is necessary in business negotiations, correspondence, in the preparation of official documents, as well as in translation.
• Military. This kind of eloquence is used when calling for battle, issuing orders, regulations, transmitting information by radio communication.
• Pedagogical. It includes speeches by teachers and students, both oral and written. This also includes lecturing, which is considered a difficult act of pedagogical communication.
• Internal, or imaginary. This is the name of the dialogue that each person conducts with himself. This type implies mental preparation for oral presentation to the public, as well as for the written transmission of information, when a person reads what has been written to himself, remembers something, thinks about something, and so on.

Based on the above, we can draw a conclusion about what rhetoric is and why society needs it. Rhetoric as the science of oratory involves the study of the correct pronunciation of a speech in front of the public in order to somehow influence the people listening to it. With its help, speakers acquire the skills to make their speech correct, appropriate, and most importantly, convincing.

At the time of its origin in antiquity, rhetoric was understood only in the direct meaning of the term - as the art of an orator, the art of oral public speaking. A broad understanding of the subject of rhetoric is the property of a later time. Now, if it is necessary to distinguish the technique of oral public speaking from rhetoric in a broad sense, the term is used to refer to the former oratorio.

Traditional rhetoric (bene dicendi scientia "the science of good speech" as defined by Quintilian) was opposed to grammar (recte dicendi scientia - "the science of correct speech"), poetics and hermeneutics. The subject of traditional rhetoric, in contrast to poetics, was only prose speech and prose texts. Rhetoric was distinguished from hermeneutics by a predominant interest in the persuasive power of the text and only a weakly expressed interest in other components of its content that did not affect the persuasive power.

The methodological difference between rhetoric and disciplines of the rhetorical cycle from other philological sciences lies in the orientation towards the value aspect in the description of the subject and the subordination of this description to applied problems. In Ancient Russia, there was a number of synonyms with a value meaning, denoting the mastery of the art of good speech: benevolence, kindness, eloquence, cunning, chrysostom and finally eloquence... In ancient times, the value element also included a moral and ethical component. Rhetoric was considered not only the science and art of good oratory, but also the science and art of bringing to good, convincing of good through speech. The moral and ethical component in modern rhetoric has survived only in a reduced form, although some researchers are making attempts to restore its meaning. Other attempts are being made - to define rhetoric, completely removing the value aspect from the definitions. There are, for example, definitions of rhetoric as a science of generating utterances (such a definition is given by A.K. Avelichev with reference to U. Eco - Dubois). The elimination of the value aspect of the study of speech and text leads to the loss of the specificity of rhetoric against the background of descriptive philological disciplines. If the task of the latter is to create a complete and consistent description of the subject, which allows further applied use (for example, in teaching a foreign language, creating automatic translation systems), but in itself is neutral in relation to applied problems, then in rhetoric the description itself is built with an orientation on the needs of speech practice. In this regard, the same important role, like scientific rhetoric, educational (didactic) rhetoric plays in the system of rhetorical disciplines, i.e. training in the technique of generating good speech and high-quality text.

The subject and objectives of rhetoric.

Differences in the definition of the subject and tasks of rhetoric throughout its history boiled down, in fact, to differences in the understanding of what kind of speech should be considered good and quality... There are two main directions.

The first direction, coming from Aristotle, connected rhetoric with logic and suggested that it be considered good speech convincing, effective speech. At the same time, effectiveness also boiled down to persuasiveness, to the ability of speech to win recognition (agreement, sympathy, sympathy) of the audience, to make them act in a certain way. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject."

The second direction also originated in Ancient Greece. Among its founders are Isocrates and some other rhetoricians. Representatives of this trend were inclined to consider it good richly decorated, lush, built according to the canons aesthetics speech. Persuasiveness continued to matter, but it was not the only and not the main criterion for assessing speech. Following F. van Eemeren, the direction in rhetoric originating from Aristotle can be called "logical", and from Isocrates - "literary."

In the era of Hellenism, the "literary" direction was strengthened and ousted the "logical" to the periphery of didactic and scientific rhetoric. This happened, in particular, in connection with a decrease in the role of political eloquence and an increase in the role of ceremonial, solemn eloquence after the fall of democratic forms of government in Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages, this ratio continued to persist. Rhetoric began to become isolated in the sphere of school and university education, turning into literary rhetoric. She was in a difficult relationship with homiletics, the teaching of Christian church preaching. Representatives of homiletics either turned to rhetoric in order to mobilize its tools for compiling church sermons, then again fenced off from it as from "pagan" science. The predominance of the "decorative-aesthetic" concept of one's own subject deepened the separation of rhetoric from speech practice. At a certain stage, supporters of "literary" rhetoric generally stopped caring about whether their speeches were suitable for effectively convincing someone. The development of the rhetorical paradigm in this direction ended with the crisis of rhetoric in the middle of the 18th century.

The balance of forces changed in favor of the "logical" direction in the second half of the 20th century, when the old rhetoric was replaced by neorhetoric, or new rhetoric. Its creators were primarily logicians. They created a new discipline as a theory of practical discourse. The most significant part of the latter was the theory of argumentation. The sphere of interest of neorhetoric was again declared the effectiveness of the impact and persuasiveness of speech and text. In this regard, neorhetoric is sometimes called the neo-Aristotelian direction, especially if it comes about the neorhetoric of H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteka.

Neorhetoric did not reject the results obtained in the mainstream of the "literary" direction. Moreover, some researchers of rhetoric to this day pay primary attention to the aesthetic qualities of speech (supporters of rhetoric as a science of artistic and expressive speech: to some extent, the authors Common rhetoric, V.N. Toporov, etc.). Today we can talk about the peaceful coexistence and mutual enrichment of the "logical" and "literary" directions with the dominance of the former.

Most of the definitions given to rhetoric by its various researchers over the centuries place the discipline in one of the two directions described. New concepts of discipline are reflected in a number of contemporary definitions of rhetoric.

Definitions in line with the "logical" direction: the art of correct speech for the purpose of persuasion; the science of persuasion methods, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience, given the characteristics of the latter and in order to obtain the desired effect (A.K. Avelichev); the science of the conditions and forms of effective communication (S.I. Gindin); persuasive communication (J. Kopperschmidt); the science of speech actions.

Definition in line with the "literary" direction: Philological discipline, which studies ways of constructing artistic and expressive speech, first of all, prosaic and oral; closely related to poetics and stylistics (V.N. Toporov).

Rhetoric divisions.

General and private rhetoric is traditionally distinguished. General rhetoric is the science of universal principles and rules for constructing good speech that do not depend on the specific area of ​​speech communication. Private rhetoric examines the features of certain types of speech communication in connection with the conditions of communication, the functions of speech and the spheres of human activity. In modern rhetoric, the term "general rhetoric" also has a second meaning - one of the directions of the new rhetoric. The beginning of the use of this term was laid by the publication of the book by J. Dubois et al. General rhetoric... Sometimes "general rhetoric" is used synonymously with "non-rhetoric".

In ancient textbooks of rhetoric, three functional types of speech were distinguished: deliberative (declining or rejecting), judicial (accusatory or defensive) and solemn, ceremonial or demonstrative (laudatory or condemning) speech. Advisory speech was used in political eloquence. It had to proceed from the value categories of useful and harmful. Judicial speech was based on the categories of just and unjust, and ceremonial - on the categories of good and bad. In the Middle Ages, the predominant type of eloquence was ecclesiastical eloquence, which proceeded from the categories pleasing and displeasing to God.

In modern times, the status of various spheres of social communication has relatively leveled off. To the traditional types of eloquence - political, judicial, solemn and theological, new ones were added - academic, business and journalistic eloquence.

Nowadays, one can distinguish as many private rhetoric as there are spheres of communication, functional varieties of language, and in some cases - even smaller functional units (for example, the rhetoric of a television speech is a subsection of publicistic rhetoric).

The dominant types of speech communication have the greatest impact on public consciousness in each era. Therefore, the rhetorical disciplines that study them attract the greatest interest. Currently, this is media rhetoric, political and business (commercial) rhetoric.

Other divisions of rhetoric include theoretical, applied and thematic rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric is engaged in the scientific study of the rules for constructing high-quality speech, and applied rhetoric uses the found rules and patterns, as well as the best examples of the most successful speeches, in the practice of teaching literature. Theoretical and applied rhetoric are identical with scientific and educational rhetoric. Thematic rhetoric examines the amalgamation of different types of literature around one important topic, for example, presidential elections. It spread to the United States.

Parts (canons) of rhetorical speech development. Parts, or canons, of rhetorical development of speech were defined in antiquity. Their composition has not undergone significant changes over the centuries. In the neorhetoric of the 20th century. only the amount of research attention paid to individual canons has changed. Almost all non-rhetorical studies concern argumentation (one of the subsections of the dispositio canon) and types of transformations of the plan of expression and the plan of content (one of the subsections of the elocutio canon). There are five canons in total.

Finding or inventing speech or text material

(inventio). Finding covers the entire set of mental operations associated with planning the content of speech or text. The author needs to define and clarify the topic (if it is not set in advance), choose the methods of its disclosure, arguments in favor of the thesis being defended and other elements of the content.

The main criteria for the selection of material are the author's communicative intention (intention) and the nature of the audience to which the author is going to address.

In the types of eloquence that serve an open competition of different points of view (primarily judicial and political), it is recommended to highlight the main controversial point and build speech around it. This main point should be verified using a number of so-called statuses: the status of establishment (the plaintiff claims that the defendant has offended him, and the defendant denies the fact of insult - it is the task of the judges to establish whether there has been an insult); the status of determination (in one definition of insult, the statement of the defendant to the plaintiff may be considered an insult, but in the other - it cannot), the status of qualification (for example, judges must determine whether the limits of necessary defense have been exceeded) and some others.

In the old rhetoric, material was subdivided into specific cases (causa) and general issues (quaestio). The deduction of the latter from the first was carried out by abstraction from the specific circumstances of the case. For example, from the specific case “candidate N during the last election campaign was twice caught in a lie”, one can deduce the general question “is it permissible to lie in the name of gaining power?” General questions, in turn, are divided into practical (as in the above example) and theoretical, for example, "what is the purpose of a person?" In modern works on rhetoric, attempts are made to clarify this subdivision of the material. It is proposed, in particular, to distinguish between encyclopedic material, empirical, "based on the data obtained by the author himself", and comparative, "bringing the empirical and encyclopedic into correspondence."

Depending on the role of the material in the development of the topic and on the attitude of the listeners to it, the old and new rhetoric determine the degrees of credibility that the material should answer. Material that is important for the development and explanation of the topic should be distinguished by a high degree of likelihood. This degree is achieved by selecting familiar material that meets the expectations of listeners or readers. The thesis itself and the strongest arguments in its favor should have the highest degree of credibility. Highest degree Plausibility is achieved through a paradox or unexpected question, presenting the thesis as truth and its opposite as falsehood. A low degree of likelihood may have a material that is not of interest to listeners or readers, but which the author nevertheless includes in the text to achieve meaningful completeness. An indefinite degree of likelihood can distinguish material that is dangerous, inconvenient, indecent, etc. to present to a given audience. The author must say that he is not sure of the truth of this material. Finally, the latent degree of credibility is characteristic of the material, the assessment of which goes beyond the intellectual capabilities of the given audience.

The methods of disclosing a topic include, in particular, whether the topic will be presented in a problematic form or descriptively, in the form of dispassionate logical reasoning or emotionally. Old and new rhetoric traces these different ways to sources or modes of persuasion. There are three such modes: logos, ethos and pathos.

Logos is a belief through an appeal to reason, a sequence of arguments built according to the laws of logic.

Ethos is persuasion through an appeal to the moral principles recognized by the audience. Since the general moral principles and values ​​are known (justice, honesty, respect for shrines, devotion to the homeland, etc.), the author, who wants to build a belief in ethos, can only choose the principles that are suitable for the case and that are closest to the audience.

Paphos means the excitement of emotion or passion, on the basis of which persuasion occurs. The doctrine of the excitement of passions was developed already in the old rhetoric. Emotions were described, success in the excitation of which meant success in persuasion: joy, anger, hope, fear, sadness, enthusiasm, courage, pride, etc.

Rhetoric recommends, in general, to select the material so as to activate all three modes of persuasiveness. The text should present a logical sequence of reasoning, arguments should be based on moral principles and appeal to the emotions of the audience. In this case, the modes of persuasion must be brought into harmony with each other and with the theme. Emotions aroused should be appropriate to the theme. Sharp leaps from rational persuasion to emotional speech are unacceptable - smooth transitions are needed.

The first canon of rhetorical development of speech also includes a subsection on the substantive sources of the invention of the material, in particular, on the sources of the invention of arguments and arguments. These sources are arranged in a hierarchy - from the most abstract to the most concrete. At the highest level of abstraction are the so-called general terms and Conditions cases described by a sequence of questions: Who? What? Where? How? With the help of whom? By what means? When? What for? Why? Each of the questions poses an area for further substantive clarifications. These refinements are called rhetorical places or topoi (Greek topoi, Latin loci). In modern university rhetoric, they are also called "semantic models" or "schemes", and the subsection itself is called a topic. Topos are private, standardized aspects of any topic. During the period of its existence, rhetoric has accumulated a fairly large number of places, which, nevertheless, are reducible to the foreseeable number of groups. One of the possible groupings looks like this:

1) Conditions: Who? What?

Topos: definition of a subject; genus and species; part and whole; identity, similarity and comparison - similarities and differences, etc.

An example of the development of a topic: subject (what?) - a computer; audience (for whom?) - for philologists; definition of a computer, internal architecture (central processing unit, read-only memory, etc.); peripherals, multi-computer networks, wide area networks, etc. Comparison: computer and abacus, computer and TV, computer and mobile phone ( general functions) etc.

2) Conditions: How? With the help of whom? By what means?

Topos: methods, mode and mode of action, interrelated subjects and objects, tools, etc.

Example: principles of a computer (transmission of electrical signals, semiconductor matrices, optical signal, digital signal coding), the role of a human operator, software.

3) Conditions: Where? When?

Topos: place - geographically, socially (in what strata of society); distance (close-far); time (morning-day-night), era (modern, classical), etc.

Example: the history of the emergence of a computer, the country where computers first appeared, social structures (at first, only production and office use). Time of occurrence: 20 c. Counting machines of past centuries, etc.

4) Conditions: Why? Why?

Topos: causes, goals, intentions, consequences, etc.

Example: why computers appeared, what they are used for today, what global computerization can lead to, consequences in the form of information wars, etc.

The compiler of speech or text can fill each group of places depending on his own needs, excluding some toposes or adding new ones. It must also be borne in mind that the structure of places is in no way identical to the structure of the speech or text itself. This is just an auxiliary structure that helps to select content-rich content.

In modern didactic rhetoric, one can find the identification of the concepts of “place” (loci) and “common places” (loci communes). Meanwhile, in theoretical rhetoric, starting from Aristotle, these concepts are not identical. Common places do not mean standardized aspects of considering any topic, but meaningfully certain places that served “to emotionally reinforce existing arguments ... threatens these strongholds of human society if the accused is not convicted (in the opinion of the prosecutor) or acquitted (in the opinion of the defense lawyer). Due to the abstractness of their content, these motives could develop in the same way in speeches on any occasion: hence their name ”(ML Gasparov).

The method of spreading and enriching the rhetorical places of detention found with the help of the technique was called rhetorical amplification.

Arrangement or composition of material

(dispositio). This part includes the teaching about the order of arrangement and about the main blocks of the structure of a text or speech. The basis of the canon "disposition" was the doctrine of chriya, or the composition of speech. On the basis of the doctrine of chriya, such modern disciplines have arisen as the doctrine of literary composition and the theory of composition as part of the theory of text.

The main blocks of the structure of a text or speech are from three (introduction - main part - conclusion) to seven (introduction - definition of a topic with its subdivisions - presentation - digression - argumentation or proof of one's own thesis - refutation - conclusion). One more block can be added to these blocks - the title of the text.

Detailed division is used for texts related to functional varieties of language (scientific and business speech, journalism). It is not always applicable to the analysis of works of art. To designate the structurally compositional parts of the latter in literary criticism, another set of terms is often used: beginning - outset - culmination - denouement - ending.

1. Title. It did not stand out as a separate block in traditional rhetoric. The importance of titles has increased with the development of mass communication rhetoric. Here the title (or the name of the TV program) came to be seen as a means of drawing the addressee's attention to the text of a newspaper publication or to a TV show in the context of an alternative choice associated with a constant increase in the number of messages received by the addressee.

2. Introduction. Its function is to psychologically prepare the audience for the perception of the topic. It is recommended to build the introduction in such a way as to immediately interest the audience in the topic and create favorable psychological conditions for its presentation. To do this, you can justify the choice of the topic, express respect for the audience and opponents, show the general content background on which the topic will unfold. Depending on the type of audience, the nature of the topic and the situation of communication, the author must choose one of the types of introduction: usual (for some types of texts there is standard form introductions), short, restrained, non-standard (paradoxical), solemn, etc.

Here it should be noted that the introduction, like some other structural blocks (for example, argumentation), can be present in the text either only once, or accompany the introduction of each new subtopic.

3. Definition of the topic and its subdivision. Here the author directly defines what he is going to talk or write about further, and lists critical issues that he wants to cover (aspects of the topic). In a number of genres of special communication (educational lecture, scientific article), a plan for further communication can be proposed here. Subdivision of the topic should meet a number of criteria: be logically expedient; contain only essential, approximately equivalent aspects of the topic. If the main task is to convince the audience, the rhetoric recommends building the unit incrementally: from the least convincing to the most convincing aspects of the topic. The definition of the topic and thesis can follow both before the presentation and after it, preceding the argumentation.

Direct naming of the topic is not necessary for philosophical and artistic works. Moreover, the indication of the topic, especially at the very beginning, can negatively affect the effectiveness of the impact of such works on the audience.

4. Presentation. A consistent story about the various aspects of the subject in accordance with the presented plan. There are two methods of presentation: (1) natural, plot, historical or chronological method, when the selected facts are presented by the author in their chronological or other natural sequence (first the cause, then the effect, etc.); (2) an artificial, plot-based or philosophical method, when the author deviates from the natural sequence and follows the logic of unfolding the topic created by him, wishing to increase the entertaining, conflicting nature of the message, to keep the audience's attention using the effect of broken expectations. In this case, after the message about a later event in time, a message about an earlier event may follow, after a story about the consequences - a story about the reasons, etc.

5. Retreat or digression, excursion. It briefly characterizes a subject that is only indirectly related to the main topic, but which the author considers it necessary to tell the audience about. It is not an obligatory compositional part. The place of retreat in the composition is also not fixed. Usually the digression is located either in the course of the presentation, or after the presentation and before the argumentation. A digression can be used to relieve mental stress if the topic requires serious intellectual efforts from the audience and the author, or emotional release if the author accidentally or deliberately touched on an emotionally unsafe topic in this audience.

6. Argumentation and refutation. Argumentation is understood as a collection of arguments in favor of the thesis in its compositional unity and the process of presenting these arguments. Refutation - the same argumentation, but with the "opposite sign", ie a collection of arguments against the antithesis defended by the opponent, or, if the main antithesis is not formulated, against possible doubts and objections to the thesis, as well as the process of presenting these arguments.

Both Aristotle and neoritists consider argumentation (including refutation) to be the most important compositional block, since it belongs to her. the main role in convincing the audience, and, consequently, in achieving rhetorical goals as such. The doctrine of argumentation was actively developed already in the old rhetoric. In the new rhetoric, the theory of argumentation is its main part.

The most important distinction in the theory of argumentation is the distinction between proof, demonstration, or logical argumentation on the one hand, and rhetorical, dialectical argumentation, or simply argumentation, on the other. The proof is carried out according to the formal rules of logic: the laws of logical inference, the rules for constructing a syllogism and general logical laws. The case when the author manages to deduce the truth of the thesis by formal proof is considered as almost ideal. "Almost", since rhetoricians and especially neo-rhetoricians recognize that logically strict proof is a necessary, but not always sufficient condition for the success of persuasion (if the audience, for example, is hostile and fundamentally does not want to agree, or if due to a low intellectual level it is not able to understand that the thesis has already been proven). However, more often a formal proof of the thesis is impossible. In this case, the author has to resort to rhetorical argumentation. Thus, convincing the audience of heads of chemical enterprises of the need for them to implement measures to protect the environment, it is not enough just to prove (based on the data of chemical and biological sciences) that the substances emitted by their enterprises are harmful to living organisms. This proof needs to be supported by an illustration, for example, how contact with such a substance can end for the children of one or another leader, as well as a mention of the sanctions that threaten those who do not take the necessary measures to neutralize emissions.

Rhetorical arguments differ primarily in the topoi (places) with which they can be invented or chosen. On this basis, one can first of all distinguish two large groups: arguments originating from "external" places (observation, illustration, example and evidence) and arguments originating from "internal" places (deductive, in particular, causal, generic and other argumentation, assimilation and opposition). IN modern theory argumentation, the first group is otherwise called empirical, and the second - theoretical argumentation (A.A. Ivin). Other general classes of rhetorical arguments are also distinguished: analogy, dilemma, induction, as well as contextual arguments: tradition and authority, intuition and faith, common sense and taste (A.A. Ivin).

From the point of view of the modern theory of argumentation (H. Perelman), the choice of one or another formal type of rhetorical argument directly depends on the content that the author wants to put into it.

As for the research interest of the modern theory of argumentation, it is aimed primarily at studying the most difficult cases, for example, the impossibility of formal proof of the truth of moral judgments or judgments about values. The study of this class of judgments is especially important for legal argumentation dealing with normative statements.

In a refutation, the same types of arguments can be used, but with the opposite sign (for example, the head of a chemical company claims that the benefits of his company's products for the country's economy are immeasurably higher than the harm caused by pollution of a local water body). The best is a refutation, when the inconsistency of the thesis is deduced formally and logically. Along with logical proof and the standard methods of rhetorical argumentation listed above, there is an extensive set of techniques used mainly to refute the antithesis ("argument to personality", "argument to ignorance", "argument to force", deceiving wordy empty reasoning, manipulation of ambiguity words, substitution of homonymous concepts, etc.). Their rhetoric does not recommend using them for ethical reasons, but you should know them in order to recognize them from your opponent. Sophists used similar techniques in ancient Greece. For their study, a special applied rhetorical discipline has developed - eristics. The material accumulated by eristics has become the object of interest of the modern theory of argumentation. Since the sophists did not compile detailed lists of their tricks and tricks (otherwise the demand for their teaching services would have decreased), the detailed description and systematization of tricks belongs to later times. Among the famous works in this area is A. Schopenhauer's brochure Eristic.

Along with the doctrine of methods, the theory of argumentation also studies logical errors of argumentation. The latter include, for example, a contradiction in the definition by the type of oxymoron ( living Dead), the definition of the unknown in terms of the unknown ( Zhrugr is a Russian witsraor), negation instead of definition ( a cat is not a dog), tautology, etc.

7. Conclusion. In the conclusion, the main content of the text is briefly repeated, the most powerful arguments are reproduced, the desired emotional state of the listeners and their positive attitude towards the thesis are reinforced. Depending on which of these tasks the author considers the most important, he can choose the appropriate type of conclusion: summarizing, typologizing or appealing.

Verbal expression or diction

(elocutio). The part of rhetoric that is most closely related to linguistic problems is the canon "verbal expression", since it is here that the organization of specific linguistic material is considered, up to the selection of words and the structure of individual sentences.

The verbal expression must meet four criteria: correctness (meet the rules of grammar, spelling and pronunciation norms), clarity (consist of generally understandable words in generally accepted combinations, if possible, do not include abstract, borrowed and other words that may not be clear to the audience), grace or ornamentation (being more aesthetic than everyday speech) and appropriateness. Relevance in traditional rhetoric came down to the harmony of the topic and the choice of linguistic means, primarily vocabulary. From the requirement of relevance arose the theory of three styles, according to which low-style objects should be spoken about in low-style words, tall objects - high, and neutral objects - in medium-style words.

These components of the canon "verbal expression" formed the basis of modern science of the culture of speech.

The most voluminous part of the old, especially medieval rhetoric was one subsection of the canon "verbal expression" - the doctrine of figures. The opinion was expressed that all "verbal expression" and in general all rhetoric without a trace is reduced to the doctrine of figures.

There are about a hundred figures themselves, however, the simultaneous use of Latin and Greek names, to which names from new languages ​​were added, led to the fact that for the designation of these figures it began to be used significantly over the centuries. more doublet or synonymous terms.

Even in antiquity, attempts were made to classify figures.

First of all, the figures of thought were separated, which were later isolated under the name of tropes (metaphor, metonymy, etc.), and figures of speech. The latter were subdivided, according to Quintilian, into figures based on the form of speech (grammatical figures) and figures based on the principles of word placement. Other common classifications included the division into word figures (alliteration, assonance) and sentence figures (parcellation, ellipsis, multi-union, non-union, etc.). Some of the figures of the sentence later began to be considered in two ways, depending on the characteristics of a particular language, the nature and purpose of use: on the one hand, as rhetorical figures, and on the other, as means of line syntax. Of the modern classifications, the most promising are the classifications of figures according to the corresponding procedures for transforming the plan of expression and the plan of content. Authors Common rhetoric propose to distinguish figures based on reduction, addition, reduction with addition and permutations (J. Dubois). V.N. Toporov gives the following classification of transformation methods: repetition aaa ... (for example, multi-union), alternation abab ... (parallel syntactic constructions), addition of abc for ab (exploitation), abbreviation for abc (ellipsis), symmetry ab / ba (chiasm), expansion a> a 1 a 2 a 3, collapse a 1 a 2 a 3> a, etc.

The canon “verbal expression” ended with the doctrine of the amplification of linguistic expression (the amplification of the content plan referred to the topic), in particular, through the sharing of figures, and the doctrine of the rhetorical period.

Memory, memorization

(memoria This canon was intended for orators who needed to memorize speeches prepared by them for subsequent public reproduction, and had a more psychological than philological character. It contained a list of techniques that made it possible to memorize relatively large volumes of textual information, mainly based on complex visual images.

Execution, utterance

(actio). Speaker's appearance... The section on performance included information and skills that today relate to the theory of acting: mastering the voice - its accent-intonational wealth, facial expressions, the art of posture and gesture. Complex requirements for the speaker's behavior were formulated: to demonstrate charm, artistry, self-confidence, friendliness, sincerity, objectivity, interest, enthusiasm, etc.

Rhetoric and related disciplines.

Rhetoric, like linguistics, belongs to the range of semiotic sciences (see the works of V.N. Toprov, Yu.M. Lotman). The stylistics and culture of speech are separate and independently developing subsections of the old rhetoric. The problems of a number of other disciplines, philological and non-philological, intersect with the problems of rhetoric. These are: the syntax of superphrasal unity and the linguistics of the text, the linguistic theory of expressiveness, the linguistic theory of prose, but also logical sciences, especially modern non-classical logics, psycholinguistics, the psychology of memory and emotions, etc.

The circle of traditional rhetorical disciplines includes eristics, dialectics and sophistry. The disciplines of the non-rhetorical cycle include linguistic theory argumentation, communication research, general semantics, structural poetics, literary analysis of the text within the framework of new criticism, etc.

A brief historical sketch and personalities.

Rhetoric as a systematic discipline developed in ancient Greece during the era of Athenian democracy. During this period, the ability to speak in public was considered necessary quality every full citizen. Therefore, Athenian democracy can be called the first rhetorical republic. Separate elements of rhetoric (for example, fragments of the doctrine of figures, forms of argumentation) arose even earlier in Ancient India and Ancient China, but they were not consolidated into a single system and did not play such an important role in society.

It is customary to trace the beginning of rhetoric back to 460 BC. and associate with the activities of the senior sophists Coraxus, Tisias, Protagoras and Gorgias. Corax allegedly wrote a textbook that has not come down to us The art of persuasion, and Tisias opened one of the first schools for teaching eloquence.

Protagoras

(c. 481-411 BC) is considered one of the first to study the derivation of conclusions from premises. He was also one of the first to use a form of dialogue in which the interlocutors defend opposing points of view. compositions that have not come down to us belong The art of arguing, About sciences and others. It was he who introduced the formula "The measure of all things is a person" (the beginning of his composition True).

Gorgias

(c. 480-380 BC) was a disciple of Corax and Tisius. He is considered the founder, or at least the discoverer of figures as one of the main objects of rhetoric. He himself actively used figures of speech (parallelism, homeoteleuton, i.e. uniform endings, etc.), tropes (metaphors and comparisons), as well as rhythmically constructed phrases. Gorgias narrowed the subject of rhetoric that was too vague to him: unlike other sophists, he argued that he taught not virtue and wisdom, but only oratory. first began to teach rhetoric in Athens. His work has survived About non-existence or about nature and speech Praise to Elena and Justifying Palamed.

Fox

(c. 415-380 BC) is considered the creator of judicial speech as a special type of eloquence. His presentation was distinguished by brevity, simplicity, consistency and expressiveness, symmetrical structure of phrases. Of the approximately 400 of his speeches, 34 have survived, but the authorship for some of them is considered controversial.

Isocrates

(c. 436–388 BC) is considered the founder of "literary" rhetoric - the first rhetorician to focus primarily on writing. He was one of the first to introduce the concept of composition of an oratorical work. At his school, the allocation of four compositional blocks was adopted. The peculiarities of his style are complex periods, which, however, have a clear and precise structure and therefore are easily understandable, rhythmic articulation of speech and an abundance of decorative elements. The rich ornamentation made Isocrates' speeches somewhat cumbersome to listen to. However, as a literary reading, they were popular, as evidenced by the large number of copies on papyri.

Plato

(427–347 BC) rejected the value relativism of the sophists and noted that the main thing for a rhetorician is not copying other people's thoughts, but his own comprehension of the truth, finding his own path in oratory. His main dialogues on rhetoric issues are Phaedrus and Gorgias... In them he noted that the main task of oratory is persuasion, meaning conviction, first of all, emotional. He emphasized the importance of a harmonious composition of speech, the speaker's ability to separate the paramount from the unimportant and take this into account in speech. Moving on to the analysis of the practice of judicial rhetoric, Plato noted that here the orator should not seek the truth (which is of no interest to anyone in the courts), but strive for the maximum plausibility of his arguments.

Aristotle

(384–322 BC) completed the transformation of rhetoric into a scientific discipline. He established an inextricable link between rhetoric, logic and dialectics and, among the most important features of rhetoric, singled out its “special dynamic expressiveness and approach to the reality of the possible and probabilistic” (AF Losev). In the main works on rhetoric ( Rhetoric, Topeka and On sophistic refutations), pointed out the place of rhetoric in the system of sciences of antiquity and described in detail everything that constituted the core of rhetorical teaching over the next centuries (types of arguments, categories of listeners, kinds of rhetorical speeches and their communicative goals, ethos, logos and pathos, style requirements, tropes , synonyms and homonyms, compositional blocks of speech, methods of proof and refutation, rules of dispute, etc.). Some of the listed questions after Aristotle were either perceived dogmatically, or were completely removed from the rhetorical teaching. Their development was continued only by representatives of the new rhetoric starting from the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to theorists in antiquity, practical orators played an important role, who did not write theoretical works on rhetoric, but whose exemplary speeches were actively used in teaching. The most famous speaker was Demosthenes (c. 384–322 BC).

In Greece, two styles of oratory have developed - the richly decorated and flowery Asianism and the simple and restrained Atticism that arose as a reaction to the abuse of ornamentation.

In the pre-Christian Latin oratory tradition, the most famous theorists of oratory are Cicero and Quintilian.

Cicero

(106–43 BC). The theory of rhetoric is presented mainly in five of his writings: About finding, Topeka- an application of the eponymous work of Aristotle to Roman oratory practice, Speaker, Brutus and About the speaker... In them, Cicero discusses the structure and content of speech, the choice of one of the styles in accordance with the content of speech, the period and the sources of belief.

Quintilian

(c. 35-100 AD) owns the most complete ancient textbook on eloquence Institutio oratoria or Rhetorical instructions in 12 books. In it he systematizes all the knowledge accumulated by his time on the art of an orator. He defines rhetoric, characterizes its goals and objectives, writes about the communicative tasks of message and persuasion, on the basis of which he considers three types of rhetorical organization of the message. Then he examines the main compositional blocks of the message, paying special attention to the analysis of argumentation and refutation, writes about ways of arousing emotions and creating the right moods, concerns issues of style and stylistic processing of the message. He devotes one of the books to the technique of pronunciation and memorization.

Aurelius Augustine

(354-430), one of the church fathers, before his conversion to Christianity, among other things, taught rhetoric. Having become a Christian, he substantiated the importance of eloquence for the interpretation of biblical provisions and for Christian preaching. His reflections on the role of rhetoric for the interpretation and explanation of Christian doctrine are contained, in particular, in the treatise De doctrina christiana (About Christian teaching). In many ways, it is his merit that the rhetoric was not rejected by Christians and continued to be developed in the Christian era.

In the Middle Ages, rhetoric became one of the "seven liberal sciences" in the Varro system of sciences taught in schools and universities. These seven sciences were divided into two groups: trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectics) and quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy). The teaching of the sciences of the trivium continued in theological and secular schools until the 19th century.

Pierre Ramus

(1515-1572) tried to revise the ancient doctrine of the three styles. He argued that any subject can be written in each of the three styles (which was rejected by the ancient tradition). He used the term "rhetoric" for the three components of communication (diction, memory and action), the purpose of which is persuasion. His followers defined rhetoric as ars ornandi, i.e. the art of embellished speech. As a consequence, after Ramu, rhetoric began to be reduced to the study of literary form and expression. Ramus, being himself a logician, believed, nevertheless, that the figures of speech are only an ornament and they cannot be characterized as models of reasoning. The spread of his point of view led to the final separation of rhetoric from logic and philosophy at that time.

From the beginning of the 17th century. the first written Russian rhetorical manuals appear. The first Russian rhetoric (1620) is a translation from the Latin rhetoric of one of the leaders of the Reformation F. Melanchthon (1497-1560). Another important textbook on eloquence was Rhetoric, attributed to Metropolitan Macarius.

The original concept of Russian rhetoric was proposed by M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) in A quick guide to rhetoric(1743) and A quick guide to eloquence(1747). In these books, the Russian scientific terminology of rhetoric was finally fixed. From the second half of the 18th to the middle of the 19th centuries. many textbooks, manuals and theoretical works on rhetoric were published (according to the bibliography of V.I. Annushkin - over a hundred titles, not counting reprints). The largest number The following works have withstood reprints: An experience of rhetoric, composed and taught at the St. Petersburg Mining School(1st ed. - 1796) I.S. Rizhsky (1759-1811); General rhetoric(1829) and Private rhetoric(1832) N.F.Koshansky (1784 or 1785-1831), later reprinted with the participation of K.P. Zelenetsky, known for his own rhetorical works, and Brief rhetoric(1809) A.F. Merzlyakov (1778-1830). Other theoretically important works of Russian rhetoricians were also known: Eloquence Theory for All Kinds of Prose Writings(1830) A.I. Galich, who included "psychological, aesthetic and ethical principles in the consideration of rhetoric", The rules of supreme eloquence(manuscript 1792, published in 1844) M.M. Speransky, Foundations of Russian literature(1792) A.S. Nikolsky (1755-1834) and Readings about literature(1837) I.I.Davydov (1794-1863).

In the West, the Age of Enlightenment became an era of decline in rhetoric. Rhetoric has acquired a reputation as a dogmatic discipline that has no practical value, and if applied, it was only to mislead the audience. Interest in rhetoric was lost. The situation changed only in the first half of the 20th century, under the influence of radical economic and political transformations in the life of society, which put forward new requirements for speech practice.

Revival of rhetoric in the 20th century started in the USA. It is associated, first of all, with the activities of I.A. Richards and K. Burke. I.A. Richards' work Philosophy of rhetoric(1936) showed the relevance and social significance of "persuasive" rhetoric, and the works of K. Berk (in particular, Rhetoric of motives) emphasized the importance of literary rhetoric.

The problems of the new rhetoric were developed in the works of American propaganda theorists H. Laswell, W. Lippman, P. Lazarsfeld, K. Howland and the founders of the management discipline "public relations" A. Lee, E. Bernays, S. Black and F. Jeffkins. From the very beginning of the rhetorical revival in the United States, emphasis was placed on the rhetoric of the mass media (since rhetoric was seen as an effective tool for manipulating public opinion, i.e., an instrument of social power) and business rhetoric (negotiating, persuading a partner, etc.). In terms of the level of penetration of practical rhetoric into public life, the United States can be called a rhetorical superpower.

Nevertheless, the emergence of new rhetoric is associated with Europe - with the publication in France of the treatise by H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteki New rhetoric. A treatise on argumentation(1958). In it, at the modern level of scientific knowledge, primarily logical, the rhetorical system of Aristotle received further critical development. H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteka examined the connection between logic and argumentation, the concept of audience, dialogue, ambiguity, presumptions, toposes, normativity, argumentation errors, categorized arguments and analyzed their individual categories in detail.

An important role in the modern theory of argumentation (also broadly referred to as the theory of practical discourse) is occupied by the analysis of judgments about values. In addition to H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteki, R. L. Stevenson, R. Hare, S. Tulmin, K. Bayer devoted their works to this. These and other aspects of the theory of argumentation are also developed by A. Ness, F. van Eemeren, V. Brokridi and others.

Researchers are respected by A guide to literary rhetoric(1960) H. Lausberg and Methodologically Important Work General rhetoric(1970) Liege group "mu" (J. Dubois with colleagues). After the publication of the work of the Liege, the new rhetoric is often called "general rhetoric."

In Russia, the crisis of rhetoric has shifted in time. Beginning approximately in the middle of the 19th century, it ended in the late 70s - early 80s of the 20th century. Despite this, in the 20s of the 20th century. in Russia, attempts were made to revive the theory of oratory. The world's first Institute of the Living Word was created with the participation of S.M. Bondi, V.E. Meyerhold, A.V. Lunacharsky, N.A. Engelgardt, L.V. Shcherba, L.P. Yakubinsky, etc. laboratory of public speech by K.A. Syunneberg. The rhetorical initiative did not receive official support. A strange opposition has formed in the official theory of oratory. Rhetoric as a bearer of bad qualities began to be opposed to Soviet oratory as a bearer good qualities: "In our time, rhetoric is a condemning definition of a pompous, outwardly beautiful, but insignificant work, speech, etc." ( Dictionary of literary terms... M., 1974, p. 324). At the same time, an objective and detailed analysis of even Soviet oratory was not encouraged.

Some important theoretical works on rhetoric in the 1960s – 1970s (SSAverintsev, GZApresyan, VPVompersky, etc.) became the harbingers of an exit from the "rhetorical crisis". In modern Russia, a significant number of works on didactic and theoretical rhetoric appear, which allows us to speak of a rhetorical renaissance. The authors of these works can be divided into five groups. The division is distinguished by a certain amount of convention, in particular because different works of one researcher sometimes make it possible to assign him to different groups at the same time.

1. Supporters of the revival of traditional rhetoric as "the art of speaking red" taking into account new scientific achievements. This is a significant part of the scientists involved in teaching rhetoric (V.I.Annushkin, S.F. Ivanova, T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, A.K. Mikhalskaya and many others). 2. Developers of the modern theory of argumentation, cognitive linguistics and the theory of speech influence (A.N.Baranov, P.B.Parshin, N.A.Bezmenova, G.G.Pocheptsov, V.Z. Dem'yankov, E.F. Tarasov and etc.). 3. Developers of individual rhetorical directions - the theory of figures, tropes, the theory of expressiveness (N.A. Kupina, T.V. Matveeva, A.P. Skovorodnikov, T.G. Khazagerov, etc.). 4. Methodologists of rhetoric (SI Gindin, YV Rozhdestvensky, EA Yunina and others). 5. Researchers of "literary rhetoric" - poetic language (ML Gasparov, VP Grigoriev, SS Averintsev, VN Toporov, etc.).

Prospects for rhetoric.

In the future, apparently, one should expect the transformation of rhetoric as a modern semiotic discipline into a more "exact" science, to the extent that the criterion of accuracy is applicable to the humanities. This should be accomplished through a detailed quantitative and qualitative description of the patterns of structure of all existing types of text and speech genres. It is possible to create detailed catalogs of types of transformations of the expression plan and content plan, a description of all possible structural types of natural language arguments. It is also interesting to study the predictive potential of rhetoric - to what extent, based on the capabilities of the discipline, it is possible to predict the qualities of new speech genres and types of texts appearing in connection with the emergence of new spheres of social practice.

Ethical aspect: rhetoric, when used correctly, is an effective tool in the fight against linguistic aggression, demagogy, and manipulation. Here didactic rhetoric plays an important role. Knowledge of the foundations of the disciplines of the rhetorical cycle will make it possible to recognize demagogic and manipulative propaganda techniques in the media and in private communication, and, therefore, to effectively defend against them.

Leon Ivanov

Literature:

Antique rhetoric... M., 1978
Dubois J. and others. General rhetoric... M., 1986
Perelman H., Olbrecht-Tyteka. L. From book « New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation". - In the book: Language and modeling of social interaction. M., 1987
Graudina L.K., Miskevich G.I. Theory and practice of Russian eloquence... M., 1989
Toporov V.N. Rhetoric. Trails. Figures of speech... - In the book: Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990
Gasparov M.L. Cicero and ancient rhetoric... - In the book: Cicero Mark Tullius. Three treatises on the art of oratory. M., 1994
Zaretskaya E.N. Rhetoric. Theory and practice of language communication. M., 1998
Ivin A.A. Foundations of the theory of argumentation... M., 1997
Annushkin V.I. History of Russian Rhetoric: Reader... M., 1998
Klyuev E.V. Rhetoric (Invention. Disposition. Elocution). M., 1999
Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky Rhetoric theory... M., 1999
Lotman Yu.M. Rhetoric is a mechanism for generating meaning(section of the book "Inside Thinking Worlds"). - In the book: Lotman Yu.M. Semiosphere. SPb, 2000



Elena Alexandrovna Kostromina

Elena Kostromina
Rhetoric

Introduction

Knowledge of the basics of rhetoric has become the most important aspect in training in such specialties that require the use of oral public speech in professional activities. IN last years special importance is attached to the communicative education of students, since it is seen as a guarantee of the development of a socially active personality. New economic and social conditions have prompted the broad masses of the population to commercial and organizational activities. This circumstance highlighted the need for training linguistic forms business communication, increasing the linguistic competence of persons entering into social and legal relations, leading the actions of people. In market conditions, linguistic competence is becoming an indispensable component of the general professional training of managers, municipal employees, assistants, social workers, and leaders of all levels.
The practice of professional speech skills is an integral element of the training of specialists in linguistic-intensive professions, i.e. those whose activities use the word as their main tool.
The aim of the course is to give knowledge in the field of rhetoric as an applied linguistic science that studies the patterns of building speech, which sets itself the goal of teaching people to speak the language easily and beautifully. Particular attention is paid to business rhetoric, that is, the ability to negotiate, incl. telephone, maintain a business conversation, make a presentation, etc.
The study of the discipline involves the formation of the following students skills and abilities:
the ability to analyze the speech situation and choose the most effective strategy of speech behavior;
the ability to analyze, control and improve their speech behavior and speech in each specific speech situation;
the skill of using the system of stages of speech-thought about an object, presented in the rhetorical canon;
basic public speaking skills: audience assessment skills, self-control throughout the speech, fluency in oneself and one's own word, etc .;
basic conversation skills: skills in assessing the situation of speech and interlocutor (interlocutors), finding speech contact and maintaining it during communication, quick response to the interlocutor's remark, etc .;
basic active listening skills.
The purpose and place of the discipline. Rhetoric is an author's course, built on the basis of the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech." The program can be intended for students of all specialties. The course is designed to help students improve their culture of speech and public speaking skills.

Topic 1.
Rhetoric as science and art

Eloquence is the art of speaking eloquently about any given matter and thus incline others to your opinion about it.

M.V. Lomonosov

The concept of rhetoric as a science. The subject and objectives of rhetoric

The terms "rhetoric" (Greek rhetorike), "oratory" (Latin oratorare - "to speak"), "floridism" (obsolete, Old Slavonic), "eloquence" (Russian) are synonymous.
In the ancient understanding, rhetoric is eloquence, the theory of eloquence, the science of oratory. Rhetoric originated in Greece in the 5th century BC, formed into a system in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC. and received its development in Rome in the 1st century. BC. The basis of rhetoric is considered to be the foundations of such sciences as philosophy, logic, pedagogy, linguistics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics. With the development of these sciences, the idea of ​​rhetoric also changed. In ancient Greece, rhetoric was defined as the art of persuading listeners. In Rome - how art it is to speak well and beautifully (ars bene dicendi). In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was seen as the art of decorating speech and writing (ars ornandi). Russian rhetorical science traces the ancient Greek tradition of defining rhetoric as the art of persuasion.
The goals of rhetoric also changed. Ancient rhetoric was born from the practice of social, political and judicial speeches. In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was focused on writing letters and religious sermons. During the Renaissance, it spread to the entire field of fiction, became part of the liberal arts education, and mastering the basics of eloquence was considered a sign of high education and culture.
Currently, the term "rhetoric" is used in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, rhetoric is an applied linguistic science that studies the patterns of speech, with the goal of teaching people to speak a language easily and beautifully. The linguistic dictionary defines rhetoric as a philological discipline that studies ways of constructing artistic expressive speech.
Rhetoric in a broad sense is called neorhetoric (the term was introduced by a professor at the University of Brussels H. Perelman in 1958) or general rhetoric. Its development was caused by the emergence of new linguistic sciences - text linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, the theory of speech activity, psycholinguistics. Neorhetoric is looking for ways to apply these disciplines in practice; it is developed at the intersection of linguistics, literary theory, logic, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, and psychology.
In the theory of modern eloquence, the ancient initial core is revived - the concept of persuasion, forms and methods of influence by means of oral and written speech are considered. The purpose of the updated rhetoric is to define best options, optimal communication algorithms. For example, the roles of the participants in the dialogue, the mechanisms of speech generation, the language preferences of the speakers, etc. are investigated. Thus, neorhetoric is the science of persuasive communication.
So, the term "rhetoric" includes the concepts of "eloquence", "skill in public speaking" and "oratory." If eloquence means the ability to speak fascinatingly, beautifully, convincingly, then the skill of public speaking is a higher level, which presupposes, along with the ability to speak beautifully and convincingly, the ability to master the situation of communication, knowledge of the psychology and sociology of the audience, etc.
Rhetoric taught and teaches how to communicate, logically and expressively express and develop thoughts, use words, how to use speech activity in personal life and social activities, how to speak in front of an audience. The theory of eloquence has always given primary attention to oral, "live" contact.
Rhetoric as a science performs the following tasks:
1) search for optimal communication algorithms, mutual understanding in the conditions of modern society;
2) study of the forms and mechanisms of speech;
3) the formation of a linguistic personality;
4) improving the culture of speech;
5) improving speech self-expression;
6) modeling of communication processes.

Public speaking concept

Traditionally, rhetoric was also considered art, compared with poetry, acting on the basis of the importance of creativity, improvisation in speech, aesthetic pleasure, which brings public "thinking out loud." Such views are characteristic, for example, of Aristotle, Cicero, A.F. Horses.
Few are naturally gifted with oratory, which is the key to successful practice. However, according to researchers E.A. Nozhina, N.N. Kokhteva, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky and others, every person has a “gene” of rhetorical abilities that can and should be developed.
Oratory in its modern sense is a set of knowledge and skills necessary for preparing and delivering a public speech in order to fully express the communicative intention of the speaker and produce the desired impression on the audience.
In rhetoric, science and art form a complex fusion, a unity. That is why, following the orators - people who are able to speak beautifully and meaningfully on any proposed topic for as long as they want - rhetoricians began to appear in Ancient Greece - teachers of eloquence who developed the theory of rhetoric as a science, and logographers - composers of speeches for those who did not possess such for nothing.

Childbirth and types of eloquence

In terms of the scope of the problems under consideration, rhetoric can be divided into general rhetoric, which sets out rhetorical rules for working on the plan, content and composition of speech, on the linguistic expression of thought and methods of public speaking; and private rhetoric, which consider the rules of speech in relation to a specific area of ​​human activity: political, scientific, legal, diplomatic, etc.
Modern oratory distinguishes five kinds of eloquence: socio-political, academic, judicial (legal), social and everyday, theological and church. Some scholars distinguish military eloquence as a separate genus.
Within each genre, genres of oratory are distinguished, which are determined by the target setting of the presentation and the composition of the audience (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1. Childbirth and types of eloquence

Rhetoric operates with concepts: language, speech, word. In the system of language education, rhetoric follows grammar. First, they study grammar, then move on to rhetoric. There is a significant methodological difference between grammar and rhetoric. Grammar, or linguistics, assumes that all people, using this or that language, must know its unity. Rhetoric assumes the opposite thesis: each creator of speech should be individual, not like others, communicate something new, hence the main requirement of rhetoric: mandatory novelty in the message.
Grammar and rhetoric are linked through stylistics. Stylistics assumes both the correctness of speech and its attractiveness.

Rhetorical Canon

The system of classical rhetoric covered the process from the initial preparation of a public speech to its execution and consisted of five parts. This structure, which is called the rhetorical canon, can be traced in modern general rhetoric:
1. Invention (lat. finding, invention) includes the choice of a topic, its name, collection and systematization of empirical material. It involves understanding the speech, dividing it into a number of subtopics. That is, at the first stage (the invention), all the wealth, the presence of ideas is recorded. For this, there are so-called "common places" (tops - semantic models of speech development). Top is a system of concepts that suggest ways of thinking about any speech.
2. Disposition (lat. location) provides for the choice of the genre of public speaking, drawing up a plan, composition of the text. Composition is the logic of the theme's development. It involves the regrouping of ideas and their construction in the order in which they would have completed the main task of speech.
Of course, there are no universal rules for constructing public speaking. The composition will change depending on the topic, goals and objectives of the speaker, on the composition of the audience.
The main rule of composition is the logical sequence and harmony of the presentation of the material.
3. Elocution (lat. verbal expression) Is the stage of verbal formulation of speech. The third part of rhetoric examines the doctrine of the selection of words and their combination, of tropes and rhetorical figures, of speech styles, of the use of visual media language. The semantic, semantic, stylistic, sound selection of words is important.
4. Memorio (lat. memorization) - teaching about the memory of the speaker, methods of memorizing the text and its reproduction.
5. Actio (lat. pronunciation, performance) - making a speech in public, mastering the means of expressiveness of oral speech, recommendations for establishing contact with the audience, the manner of the speaker in the audience. Assumes mastery of speech technique.

Ethos, pathos and logos as the main categories of classical rhetoric

The above scheme is a technique for preparing oral speech and its pronunciation. There is another scheme in which reality is affected, speech turns into a process of social life.
The terms "ethos", "pathos", "logos" are the main ones for general rhetoric. Ethos it is customary to call those conditions that the recipient of the speech offers its creator. These conditions relate to the time, place, timing of the speech, and this determines a part of the content of the speech, at least its topic, which the recipient of the speech may consider appropriate or inappropriate. The recipient of the speech has the right to reject inappropriate speech. The main sign of relevance is the topic of the speech, provided that the time, place and timing of the speech are agreed between the participants in speech communication.
Paphos it is customary to call the intention, the plan of the creator of the speech, who has the goal of developing a specific topic of interest to the recipient. Paphos encourages the audience to experience the subject of speech. Scientists distinguish three main types of rhetorical pathos: sentimental, heroic-romantic and realistic. Paphos is limited to the category of ethos on the one hand, i.e. can be realized only within the limits of its place and time. Another limitation of pathos is the verbal means available to the creator to establish contact with the recipient of the speech.
Logos it is customary to name the verbal means used by the creator of the speech in a given speech in the implementation of the speech concept. The Logos requires, in addition to the embodiment of the plan, the use of such verbal means, the understanding of which would be available to the recipient of the speech.
Thus, ethos creates conditions for speech, pathos is the source of creating the meaning of speech, and logos is the verbal embodiment of pathos on the basis of ethos.
Let us illustrate this with examples: Francis of Assisi preached to the birds. His pathos was not constrained by anything, but the birds did not offer the preacher any conditions of ethos, and therefore the very embodiment of pathos in logos in the sermon did not affect anyone. Here's an example of pure pathos.
Gulliver ended up in the country of the Guingms. The Guingmas are polite creatures, they allowed Gulliver to speak, but he did not know the Guingma language, so he could not explain his thoughts to them. Here is an example of the need for a logo.
The fool from the fairy tale greeted the funeral procession with the words: "To drag you - not to drag" and was beaten. These words he learned from the people involved in the harvest, and applied them inappropriately. Here's an example of ethos.
These are literary examples. Now a life example. The meeting is scheduled at a specific place, at a specific time and on a specific topic. This is ethos. The idea of ​​the speech for the meeting participant should be thought out by him in connection with the time, place and topic of the meeting. This is pathos. Meeting attendees should only use language that is understood by everyone. Thus, at the Academic Council of Kiev University, one can speak in both Ukrainian and Russian, and at the Academic Council of Columbia University, one can speak only in English. This is the logos.
Three main categories of rhetoric - ethos, pathos, logos - are in connection with each other and seem to merge into one another.

Topic 2.
A brief history of rhetoric

Rhetoric in Ancient Greece

The history of rhetoric is associated with the names of the greatest thinkers of mankind. The formation of rhetoric as a science took place in Ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. and was associated with the needs of a democratic society of the highest culture. The republican form of government made eloquence the most important and necessary art. In the Athenian state, almost all political decisions were made by the national assembly, and the speakers needed to be able to convince the people of the correctness of one or another choice. Prominent political speakers were Pericles, Themistocles, Demosthenes. Judicial decisions in Greece also depended on how eloquently the parties could prove their position and win the court in their favor.
The development of judicial eloquence in ancient Greece was facilitated by the laws of the Athenian ruler Solon, published in 594 BC, according to which an adversarial trial was introduced. Since the institution of prosecutors did not exist, anyone could act as a prosecutor, and the accused had to defend himself. Speaking before the judges, who numbered more than 500 people, the accused sought not so much to convince them of his innocence as to pity them, to win them over to his side. In order to create the impression of objectivity and somehow neutralize the psychological impact, the court session in Athens was scheduled for the evening, when the speakers' faces were not visible.
Court conditions in ancient Athens were difficult, and not everyone had the gift of speech, and this prompted citizens to learn to speak in front of an audience. The greatest judicial orators were Protagoras (c. 481-411 BC), Lysias (c. 435-380 BC), Gorgias (c. 480 - c. 380 BC). BC), Demosthenes (384-322 BC), who, speaking at first only with judicial speeches, then became involved in the political life of Athens. Demosthenes was not only a recognized speaker, but also a leading political figure.
The greatest Greek philosophers were also teachers of eloquence: Socrates (469- 399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC).
Later, a theoretical generalization of oratorical practice, a collection of rules and methodological methods of teaching, began to gradually take shape. A large amount of empirical material was analyzed by Aristotle (384–322 BC), who in 335 BC. wrote "Rhetoric". Aristotle's work consists of 3 parts: 1) analysis of the principles on the basis of which speech is built; 2) personal properties and abilities required by the speaker; 3) speech technique, methods and techniques used in oratory. Aristotle is considered the founder of the dispute theory. In rhetoric, he distinguished dialectic - the art of arguing in order to find out the truth, eristics - the art of staying right in an argument at all costs and sophistry - the desire to achieve victory in a dispute through the deliberate use of false arguments.

The development of rhetoric in ancient Rome

Oratory received its further development in Ancient Rome in the 1st century. BC. In the galaxy of the most famous ancient Roman orators, the star of the first magnitude was Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - the head of the Roman Senate, the author of three treatises: "The Orator", "On the Orator", "Brutus". From the works of Cicero, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy and more than 800 letters have been preserved.
Another Roman orator and theorist of eloquence is Marcus Fabius Quintilian (AD 35–95), who wrote Rhetorical Instruction, 12 books spanning several centuries of experience. The books reflected the problems that were not considered by his predecessors: about the education of the future orator, about the honor of the speaker-citizen, about "decency" in the word.

Rhetoric in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

The Middle Ages is considered the next period in the history of eloquence, reflecting the movement of social thought in its contradictions and diverse attempts to implement it. The traditions of ancient rhetoric have been largely forgotten or even lost. However, oratory is not dead. Rhetoric developed in France, Germany, Italy. Spiritual eloquence was especially developed. In the V-VI centuries. AD Christianity has become a tremendous spiritual force that has influenced millions of people. In the 7th-8th centuries, another religion, Islam, spread with incredible speed. Christian and Islamic preaching has become the primary factor in the development of the spoken word. In the field of church preaching, prominent theological orators grew up - Tertullian, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Boethius. Their speeches formed the basis homiletics - the theory of church eloquence. The main object of rhetoric was the creation of liturgical texts, the interpretation of various issues of doctrine, the technique of conducting theological disputes.
The most significant figure is the famous John Chrysostom (d. 407), who was considered the ideal Byzantine preacher. The very nickname "Chrysostom" testifies to the highly respectful attitude to the publicly spoken word and the reverence of the people who owned it and were able to influence the audience through living speech.
A new serious contribution to the theory of rhetoric was made in the 13th century by Thomas Aquinas, who pointed out the importance of common sense and logic as the foundation on which the edifice of Christian dogma should be built.
During the Middle Ages, works on epistolary art and poetics were regularly published.
The next stage in the development of rhetoric is the Renaissance, which is characterized by the appearance of works in national European languages, in contrast to medieval Latin. The dominant feature of the development of rhetoric during this period is its “literary development”. Parts of the rhetorical canon: invention, arrangement, verbal expression, memorization, pronunciation - began to be considered as separate independent areas of rhetorical science. In the works of the French philosopher and logician Pierre de la Rame, such sections as elocution and share were actively developed.

Formation of Russian rhetoric

In the Middle Ages, European rhetorical ideas penetrated into Russia through Poland and Ukraine. The development of Russian rhetoric has acquired special significance in the history of the normalization of the Russian literary language, in the formation of real social and communicative forms of communication between Russians.
In Russia, eloquence was called broadcasting, which developed mainly at popular meetings - veche.
In addition to broadcasting, such types of eloquence as solemn (or praiseworthy), military and diplomatic speech developed.
The basis of Old Russian eloquence was folk traditions, and with the adoption of Christianity in 988 - Byzantine and South Slavic samples. Some texts have come down to us that testify to the high culture of oral speech. Ancient Russian eloquence was characterized by such traditions as high respect for verbal skill, moral and instructive pathos, belief that the gift of speech is a great virtue, God's gift; meekness, humility in public speech and conversation, high emotional intensity of appeals and appeals, complete absence of servility and flattery.
The first Russian manuals on rhetoric were written by Bishop Macarius (1617–1619), M.I. Usachev (1699), Feofan Prokopovich (two works - "De arte poetica" (1705), "De arte rhetorica" ​​(1706). Their textbooks of rhetoric were used in schools opened at churches, and to teach future clergy, in particular in the Kiev Theological Seminary. In the XVII-XVIII centuries, with the general development of culture and science, wide use got the rhetoric too. One of the brightest representatives of the rhetorical tradition of that time was the Prototope Habakkuk (1612-1682). Avvakum was the ideologist and leader of the Old Believers' movement in Russia. We learn about the "word" of Avvakum from his work "Life" and from his correspondence with boyaryna Morozova.
Formation of rhetoric as scientific discipline not separable from the name of M.V. Lomonosov - the author of the "Concise Guide to Eloquence" (1748), which was reprinted twice during his lifetime (1759, 1765). This work presents a set of rules that were suggested to be followed in oral and written works on state, social and religious-philosophical topics. Lomonosov's rhetoric played a positive role in the further development of Russian oratory. Lomonosov combined rhetoric with the Russian language, with the Russian tradition, made it a Russian science. In the subsequent period, no work appeared equal in scientific merits to Lomonosovsky.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a rhetorical school of Russian academicians emerged, and then a university school of eloquence. The most significant rhetoric of this time is associated with the names of academicians M.M. Speransky, A.S. Nikolsky, I.S. Rizhsky.
Speransky's rhetoric was written in 1792 and published in 1844 under the title The Rules of Higher Eloquence. The book is dedicated to the art of church preaching. Academician Rizhsky's rhetoric should be recognized as outstanding for its time. His "Experience of Rhetoric" was published in 1796 and was reprinted several times. A special place in this book was occupied by questions of the purity and correctness of Russian speech.
In the history of the development of Russian rhetoric, the period of the first half of the 19th century. turned out to be the most productive. Under the influence of N.M. Karamzin, focused on rapprochement with the European tradition, the formation of a new stylistic concept of the literary language took place. This was reflected in the views on rhetoric in the works of N.F. Koshanskiy, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K. Zelenetsky and others. It was during this period that there were at least 16 manuals on rhetoric, and this period is called the "golden age of Russian rhetoric."
Special impulses for the development of rhetorical ideas in Russia were given in the 60s. XIX century, when the formation and formation of judicial eloquence took place, which was facilitated by the judicial reform of 1864. K. Arseniev, A.F. Koni, B. Glinsky, P. Sergeich, F.N. Plevako.
In the first years of Soviet power, there was an upsurge and interest in the spoken word. In 1918, the Institute of the Living Word was even created, but it did not last long. The content and form required by rhetoric were replaced by the speaker's revolutionary passion and conviction.
In general, the art of public speech in the XX century. in Russia is associated with the development of academic eloquence.
Intensive development of the problems of Russian eloquence in recent years is associated with the fact that the order of society for a thinking and speaking person appears again. Particular attention is paid to persuasive speech and dialogical forms of communication.

Topic 3.
Language, speech, speech activity

Language and speech concept

The words "language" and "speech" are ambiguous, sometimes they are related as synonyms. According to the views of modern linguistics, speech is associated with language, but not identified with it.
Language - it is a system of signs that serves to communicate between people; this is an objective, historically established phenomenon of the spiritual life of society... It is customary to call a sign "substitutes" of other objects. In addition to language, a natural sign system, there are artificial ones, for example, traffic signals, musical notation, symbolic notations used in mathematics (numbers and symbols; +, -, =) and other sciences. Unlike these artificial systems, the language is capable of transmitting messages of any content that is not limited by anything, that is, it is universal. Gestures and facial expressions - systems of non-verbal communication - give sounding speech only additional emotional and semantic shades.
Any system consists of many elements that are in communication with each other, form one whole. Linguistic units (signs) are combined into subsystems and form levels (tiers) of the language. Thus, language is a model of a hierarchy: more includes less as an integral part, less manifests its functions in more. So, the lowest units of the language (phonemes) realize themselves in units of the next, more complex level, i.e. in morphemes, etc.
Language serves as a means of communication, knowledge, storage and transmission of information, national identity, cultural traditions and history of the people. Language reveals itself only in speech and only through it fulfills its main, communicative, purpose.
Speech is a form of language existence, its embodiment, realization. Speech is understood as human use of linguistic wealth in life situations, the result of the process of formulating and transmitting thoughts by means of language... The speech of an individual speaker has features of pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence structure. Thus, speech is specific and individual.

Types of speech

The following types of speech are distinguished: internal and external, which in turn is divisible by written and oral, monologue and dialogical.
Thought begins to form in inner speech. Its mechanism was investigated at the beginning of the 20th century by the psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. This speech is silent, unpronounceable, includes images, differs from the external degree of linguistic formation: most of the secondary members of the sentence are omitted, vowels that do not carry a semantic load are dropped in the words of the Russian language. The entire spiritual life of a person - his thoughts, plans, arguments with himself, the processing of what he saw and heard - takes place in a latent form, at the mental level. Inner speech always "works", except for deep sleep. Translation of internal speech into external speech is often associated with difficulties. It is about this stage of the generation of the statements that they say: "It spins on the tongue, but I cannot say."
External speech exists in oral and written forms. Oral speech can be recorded and written speech can be spoken. For example, a written text when "dubbed" will acquire some features of oral speech (intonation coloring, rhythm), but it will be characterized as written speech in oral form.
During the preparation and in the process of public speaking, a contradiction arises between written speech and oral performance. A.M. Peshkovsky, a well-known linguist, called the oratorical monologue "a fake of written speech for oral speech." A speaker in front of an audience should appropriately combine two kinds, two "elements." If one of them wins, the performance will sound either too strict, dry, or too loose, uninhibited.
In life, oral speech usually predominates, therefore it is considered the primary, leading. According to V.G. Kostomarova, in our time, oral speech “has acquired an important advantage over writing - instantaneousness, which is extremely important for the rapid pace and rhythms of the 20th century. And also ... another quality: the ability to be fixed, preserved, preserved and reproduced. "
Oral speech has two forms - monologue and dialogical. Monologue is a detailed statement of one person, complete in a semantic sense. The psychological and pedagogical feature of monologue speech is that the reaction of listeners is guessed, gestures and facial expressions play a lesser role than in dialogue. A monologue is most often a public speech addressed to a large number of people. Oratorical monologue is dialogical.
The speaker, as it were, is talking with the audience, that is, there is hidden dialog. But it is also possible open dialogue, for example, answers to questions from those present.
Dialog - it is a direct exchange of statements between two or more interlocutors. Structurally, the dialogue consists of a stimulus-response and a response-response, closely related in content to each other. Dialogue speech is the primary, natural form of communication. In everyday dialogue, partners most often do not care about the form and style of the statement. The participants in the public dialogue take into account the presence of the audience, build their speech literary.

Speech activity and speech act

Types of speech activity

There are four types of speech activity: two of them produce text - speaking, writing and others - hearing(listening) and reading - carry out perception.
These are the components of the system of our "linguistic existence", while their distribution in the flow of life is uneven: we write least of all (9%) and read (16%) (if it is not related to professional activity), most of all we listen (40%) or we speak (35%) (this may depend on the personal characteristics of a person).
The processes of speaking and listening are extremely complex. The speaker pursues a variety of communicative goals: agree or refuse, advise, warn, demand, ask, allow, doubt, thank, etc. Depending on this, statements of three types arise: messages, motives, questions. These are the so-called speech acts.
The speaker's consciousness is focused on the content, logical-compositional structuring of the text, memory gives the most suitable lexical options, intuition (repeated repetition of experience in similar conditions) helps to construct a sentence grammatically correctly and sound it in accordance with pronunciation norms, linguistic flair allows you to determine the style, psychological orientation makes you take into account the reaction of the listeners. Difficulties in speaking are explained by the fact that all of the above operations must be performed simultaneously.
In the absence of linguistic automatism, a dismembered mechanism for generating an utterance is observed. Speech sounds intermittently: involuntary, longer (compared to the rest) stops occur, individual words, syllables are repeated, a sound like [e] is "stretched", expressions are pronounced "how to say this?", "Well," and the like. These manifestations of intermittent speech reveal the difficulties of the speaker, are characterized as external regulatory actions. Pauses, self-interruptions, disruptions of the structures begun, as well as slips of the tongue, often reflect the psychological state of a person, his excitement, lack of composure when the speech situation becomes more complicated. In the course of a public speech, in conversations with management at the service, mental regulation is hidden, its external manifestations are suppressed by the speaker. But the discontinuity of oral speech is an ambiguous property. If there are few such cases, then this does not interfere with the perception of information, and sometimes activates the attention of the audience, as evidenced, in particular, by the "hints" of those expressions that the speaker is "looking for".

Listening listening as a type of speech activity

Listening is the process of understanding, comprehending speech. This communication skill is just as important as speaking; is a condition for effective business communication.
Another philosopher Zeno argued: "Two ears and one language are given to us in order to listen more and speak less." And the historian Plutarch advised: "Learn to listen, and you can benefit even from those who speak badly." Good listening facilitates the assimilation of information, promotes the establishment of contacts between people. The ability to listen is a manifestation of good breeding, respect for another person, i.e. culture.
Surveys of many people indicate that only 10% of them have sufficient listening skills. After listening to a ten-minute message, the "average" listener understands and remembers only half of what has been said.
The style of listening depends on the character, interests of the individual, gender, age, physiological state, and official position. Subordinates are more attentive and focused in a conversation with their "superiors", they do not always dare to interrupt their opponent. Men, unlike women, tend to listen to themselves, quickly give ready-made answers, interrupt, and focus on the content of the conversation. A woman is more interested in the communication process itself, they interrupt a partner 2 times less often. The effectiveness of auditory perception is affected by fatigue, which impairs concentration. Full listening can take 20 minutes for contact and 5-7 minutes for distant communication.
The following “roles” of listeners can be distinguished: 1) “simulator” - pretending to listen; 2) "addicted listener" - easily influenced by the opinions and desires of others; 3) “interrupted” - the one who unjustifiably interferes with the interlocutor's speech; 4) “immersed in oneself”; 5) "intellectual" - perceiving information more with the mind, neglecting the emotional and non-verbal aspects of the speaker's behavior.
There are also 2 ways of listening:
1. Non-reflective (passive) consists in the ability not to interfere with the speaker's speech with his remarks, in the ability to be attentively silent. This method requires significant physical and psychological stress, a certain discipline. Non-reflective listening is usually used in situations where one of the interlocutors is deeply excited, wants to express his attitude to a particular event.
2. Reflexive (active) consists in active feedback, assisting in the expression of thoughts.
This method is especially appropriate if the communication partner is waiting for support, approval, if you need to deeply and accurately understand the information.
The main techniques for reflective listening are:
1) clarification, i.e. an appeal to the interlocutor for clarifications in order to obtain additional facts, judgments ("I did not understand you. Can you repeat it again?", "What do you mean?");
2) paraphrasing - "transfer" of someone else's, just uttered utterance in a different form ("As I understand you ...", "In your opinion ...", "In other words, you think ...");
3) summarizing - summing up what you heard ("If we summarize what you said, then ...", "Your main ideas, as I understand it, are ...";
4) confirmation of contact - an invitation to speak freely and naturally. At the same time, the speech is accompanied by remarks like "this is interesting", "yes", "I understand you", "it's nice to hear it."
The key to success in interpersonal and professional relationships is compliance rules for effective hearing:
1. Strive to understand, deeply understand the position of the speaker, make an analysis, conclusions. Learn to find the most valuable information in the information received.
2. Try to "catch" behind the phrases of the interlocutor his true motives, emotional state, inner world.
3. Maintain a steady attention to speech, do not allow side thoughts. The latter arise due to the fact that the speed of thinking is 4 times higher than the speed of speaking, and the listener has "free time".
4. Disconnect from external “interference” that distract you, do not try to listen and do 2-3 more things at the same time.
5. Do not pretend to understand, if in fact it is not so. Perhaps the communicator did not leave the necessary pauses between phrases. The optimal pace for listeners is their own speaking pace. The techniques of reflective listening will help to change a difficult situation.
6. Plan your hearing process logically. "Mental anticipation" of the interlocutor's or speaker's speech is one of the means of tuning in with him and a good method of memorizing speech.
7. Make eye contact with the speaker. Your gestures, facial expressions should reflect the state of the interested listener, who delves into speech.
8. Try to empathize with the speaker, look at things through his eyes, try to stand in his place.
9. Be patient. Always listen to the interlocutor to the end.
10. Do not give in to feelings of annoyance or anger if you have a negative attitude towards your communication partner or if you have heard words that are “critical” for you and upset your balance.
11. Do not be distracted by the specifics of the speaker (accent and more).
12. Be sure to repeat orders and instructions to yourself.
13. Make notes on paper at the hearing.

Topic 4.
Text as a result of speech activity

Concept and main features of the text

Text (from Lat. Textus - "fabric, plexus, connection") appears and exists only in the process of communication; it is a speech unit, the embodiment of a communicative act; it is a sequence of verbal signs, the main properties of which are coherence and integrity.
B.N. Golovin defines a text as a verbal oral or written work, which is a unity of some more or less complete content (meaning) and form (speech) that forms and expresses this content.
Thus, the main features of the text are as follows:
1. Articulation. The text consists of several sentences, it is a communicative unit of the highest rank, compared to a sentence. However, this provision is controversial: one widespread complete statement, a replica in a dialogue, some researchers consider a text.
2. Semantic integrity is achieved when the selection of material is subordinated to the task of conveying the main idea, i.e. text sentences should be united by theme and idea.
3. Connectivity lies in the fact that the text consists of sentences that are interconnected in meaning and formally - using linguistic means: repeating words, personal and demonstrative pronouns, synonyms, antonyms, creative unions etc.

Types of text

Centuries of language development have developed the most expressive, economical and accurate methods, schemes, verbal structures for solving the problems that the speaker sets himself. Therefore, for a long time, such components of monologue speech have been distinguished as description, narration, reasoning, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of text, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose and content of the statement. This division, dating back to the rhetoric of the 19th century, is conditional. In practice, in the speech, the types of text alternate, giving the speech variety.
Description reveals the signs of an object, its temporal characteristics or permanent properties, qualities, states. Narration reveals closely related events, phenomena, actions as objectively occurring in the past. Reasoning aims to investigate objects or phenomena, to reveal their internal signs through argumentation, establishing cause-and-effect relationships. From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of reasoning on some topic, set out in a consistent form. A variant of reasoning is considered the definition of a concept and an explanation that exist in scientific texts, in the language of mass communication.
Each of the three functional types of speech can be characterized in terms of communicative orientation, typical meaning, compositional features and specific language means, among which the main and defining ones can be distinguished.

Narration

1. Communication goal - to tell about something, to convey an incident, an episode from life, i.e. at the center of the narrative is an event that happened to the narrator or other actors. The narrative has a plot, it is dynamic, events are presented as complete and characterized in terms of temporal correlation and sequence. For the text as a whole, you can ask the question: what happened? what's happened?
2. Composition, as a rule, it is three-term: a) the beginning of the event (outset); b) development of action; c) the end of the event (denouement).
3. The main language tool is conjugated forms of the perfect past tense. The forms of the present are used much less often and only in the meaning of the present historical.
4.
- nouns with a specific lexical meaning;
- animate nouns that call people, animals, including proper names;
- verbs with the meaning of movement, movement, specific physical action;
- words indicating a change in the situation, mood, signs;
- adverbs of time, place, as well as other word forms and phrases with a similar meaning;
- the predominance of the verbal predicate over the nominal one;
- two-part simple sentences, and from one-part - definitely personal;
- contextually incomplete sentences;
- complex sentences with subordinate clauses, places, goals and reasons, as well as non-union complex sentences with similar semantic relations between parts;
- the use of dialogue and varieties of someone else's speech: direct, indirect and improperly direct;

Description

1. Communication goal - draw, reproduce some kind of picture. The object of description can be a person (his appearance, character, condition, etc.), an animal, an object, a production process, i.e. any phenomenon of reality. The description may be comparative. Descriptions can be static and dynamic. For this type of text, you can ask a question: which? what? what is it?
2. Compositions:
a) an introduction that conveys the general impression of the object of the description;
b) the main part that reveals the properties of the object;
c) the ending (often containing an evaluative moment).
Parts a) and c) are sometimes missing.
3. The main language tool is conjugated forms of the imperfect verb of the present (usually), past or future tense, denoting an ordinary, regularly reproduced, repetitive (usual) event, action or state.
4. Defining language means:
- nouns with a specific lexical meaning, as well as with an abstract meaning, denoting a property, state;
- the so-called "color" vocabulary;
- high-quality adjectives;
- participles of different grammatical categories;
- adverbs of the mode of action, measure and degree, as well as prepositional-case word forms with similar semantics;
- nominal predicates;
- passive (passive) syntactic constructions;
- simple sentences, complicated by homogeneous, isolated and qualifying terms;
- one-part nominative and impersonal sentences;
- complex sentences;
- complex sentences with relative clauses, place and time;
- multilevel means of expression of comparison;
- parallel connection between sentences in a complex syntactic whole.

Reasoning

1. Communication goal - prove your opinion on any topic, any issue, comment on some phenomenon of reality; convince the interlocutor or reader of something.
2. Composition, usually three-term:
a) thesis - an opinion, a thought that requires proof;
b) the arguing part, containing the development of the thesis, proof of its truth or fallacy;
c) conclusion, that is, confirmation of the correctness of the thesis or an indication of disagreement with it, its refutation.
However, some texts based on the type of reasoning have a two-term structure:
a) a message about any event, phenomenon of reality, fact, problem;
b) reflection on this matter, clarification, comment on this topic.
3. The main language tool is syntax, since the syntactic structure of the sentence and the text as a whole is focused on showing logical connections (more often cause-and-effect) between phenomena, objects, their properties, etc. This function is performed by:
- simple sentences, complicated by introductory words, introductory sentences, plug-in constructions;
- one-piece indefinite-personal and generalized-personal sentences, as well as impersonal ones with modal semantics;
- complex sentences with subordinate clauses, conditions, causes, effects, concessions, as well as non-union complex sentences with similar semantic relations between parts;
- polynomial complex sentences with different kinds communications (compositional and subordinate, subordinate and non-union, etc.);
- rhetorical interrogative sentences;
- chain link between sentences in a complex syntactic whole.
4. Defining language means:
- vocabulary with an abstract (abstract) meaning;
- words with evaluative semantics;
- words with modal semantics;
- nouns and pronouns with a generalized meaning in language and / or speech;
- verb forms of the conditional and imperative mood;
- the conjugated forms of the present tense verbs in the extended meaning.

Speech styles

The modern Russian literary language (as, incidentally, the literary languages ​​of other peoples) is what it is customary to call in science a system of its varieties, or, in other words, styles. Why do these varieties (styles) of the literary language arise and develop, and how do they differ from each other? They arise because various types of social activities of people make not all the same requirements and requests to the language. For example, science is in dire need of words and sentences that can accurately convey strictly defined concepts and judgments necessary in different areas of knowledge about the world and man. Fiction requires a large number of words and sayings from the language, allowing the writer or poet to vividly, figuratively present pictures of nature, labor and everyday life of people, human passions, experiences and thoughts; the writer and the poet “paint with words,” and in order to paint, you need not only skill - you also need paints; fiction needs such "colorful" words and statements immeasurably more than, say, science or politics. The state-administrative activity of society makes its requests to the language, and, responding to them, the language creates the words and expressions necessary for the needs of state administration.
Usually, five main functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official-business, journalistic (newspaper-journalistic), artistic and colloquial-everyday, which in turn fall into private varieties depending on the manifestation of specific tasks and communication situations, genre, etc. etc.
How does one style of language differ from others? First of all, by the presence of words, expressions, and sometimes even grammatical phrases characteristic of it, mainly used in it, associated with it. For example, the style of business speech is characterized by such words and their combinations as application, prescription, statement, notify, inform, raise a question, forward to the destination, summarize etc., called clericalisms.
Scientific speech characterized by an abundance of word-terms that accurately express and denote scientific concepts: electron, proton, gravity, attraction, repulsion, mass, transformer, nitrogen, helium.
This means that in the language there are such groups of words of a larger or smaller volume, each of which is associated mainly with some one style of the literary language; the words of any such group are more often, more commonly, more habitually used in only one of the styles, although they can be applied in other styles, but they are perceived in them as alien or unusual, or inappropriate, or uncharacteristic.
However, it would be wrong to think that the styles of the language exist only thanks to the stylistic groups of vocabulary just mentioned. First, the differences between the styles of the language are by no means reduced to the predominant use of the words of "their" stylistic group. And secondly, the very existence of styles (varieties) of the same language would be impossible if the styles were not based on the use of the same words and expressions, the same rules of grammar and phonetics. Such words and rules are usually called stylistically neutral. They combine styles into one literary language. Therefore, the term "style system" is used by linguistics. This term denotes a very definite fact of the life of a language - precisely that styles are necessarily related to each other, develop together and mutually influence each other. Being inextricably linked, styles, as already mentioned, differ from each other. First, the use of vocabulary, typical for each style. In addition, the share of this (own) vocabulary in the total stock of "neutral" words is not the same in different styles. Not the same in terms of volume in different styles and those vocabulary admixtures that consist of "foreign" words, ie. words drawn into one language style from another. Thus, words typical of a business style - clericalism - are also used in other styles, but their share turns out to be very small here. In a similar way, for example, scientific terms are used in fiction or journalistic speech, but their share here is immeasurably less than in the scientific style.
Language styles differ from each other and the use of grammatical means - parts of speech, sentences different types etc. For example, in works of fiction, verbs are used much more often than in scientific, and nouns are much less common than in newspapers. Incomplete sentences are very common in conversations on the topics of everyday work and life, but very rare in scientific descriptions and reasoning. And vice versa, complex sentences of various kinds are characteristic of scientific compositions, but alien to colloquial everyday communication.
Styles are closely related to the functioning of the language in the conditions of social activity of people, therefore they are called functional styles.
Thus, language styles are historically established varieties of a literary language that are capable of the best way to serve a certain area of ​​human activity.
The basis for the formation of styles is extralinguistic (non-linguistic) and linguistic factors proper. Extra-linguistic factors include the topic of speech (its informative content), the type of work of consciousness and the purpose of communication. The type of work of consciousness correlates with a certain sphere of social activity (science, art, law, politics, etc.). The linguistic factors themselves include linguistic means of all levels. The selection and organization of linguistic means are conditioned by extralinguistic factors. The topic of speech, depending on who and for what purpose it is presented, determines the type of work of consciousness, which, in turn, determines the choice of linguistic material. Functional styles are implemented in the corresponding speech genres. So, an article, an abstract, a monograph belongs to a scientific one, a conversation, a conversation, a dispute, etc., to a colloquial everyday life.
The basis of the style is made up of neutral, general language means, and the originality of each functional style is given by the specific (lexical, word-formation, morphological and syntactic) linguistic features inherent in it.
We examine in detail the stylistic system of the Russian literary language within the framework of the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech".

Topic 5.
Speech logic

Logical laws

When constructing a speech, it is important to follow the logic of reasoning. The consistency of reasoning is the clarity of the basic concepts and statements, the absence of contradictions and inconsistencies, the sequence of transitions from one thought to another, a reasoned presentation of the material. It is these qualities of logical reasoning that are regulated by the laws of identity, contradiction, excluded third and sufficient reason, well-known in logic.
Identity law reads: "Every thought in the process of reasoning must have the same definition, stable content." Compliance with this law requires certainty, accuracy of formulations. The value of the law of identity for oral speech is that it formulates the requirements for its correct construction: before starting a discussion of any issue, it is necessary to clearly establish the exact, definite, stable, specific, relatively identical content of it, and during the discussion to adhere to the basic definitions of this content.
The law of contradiction : "Two opposite thoughts about the same object, taken at the same time, in the same respect, cannot be simultaneously true." This means that the law of contradiction does not allow answering the question posed at the same time in the same sense at the same time "yes" and "no". Thus, this law requires that there be no conflicting judgments in speech and writing.
The excluded third law prescribes: "Of two conflicting judgments, one must be true, the other false, and the third is not given." The reasoning here is based on the “either-or” formula, there are no other options. Fulfillment of the requirements of the law of the excluded third teaches the speaker to the consistency and principle of thinking, i.e. the ability to clearly formulate the thesis and select arguments that do not cause double interpretation.
The law of sufficient reason refers to the validity of speech and is formulated as follows: "Any thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven earlier." This means that any thought expressed in a speech must be justified by facts, scientific positions, personal experience.
Based on logical laws, we can conclude that logically correct speech must be definite, consistent and reasonable.

Composition of the text

Composition(lat. compositio - "composing, composition") is a logical, motivated by content and concept, the arrangement of all parts of the text.
The most common classical structure of the text is considered to be three-part, which includes: introduction, main (main) part, conclusion.
During the experiments, it was found that what is best remembered and assimilated is what is given at the beginning or at the end of the message, which is explained by the action of the so-called psychological law of the "edge". Therefore, it is important to consider the content of the introduction and conclusion.
A task introduction - prepare the audience for the perception of the topic. According to experienced speakers, you should immediately grab the attention of your audience. There are many “catching hooks” (AF Koni): an interesting or even unexpected example; proverb, saying, catch phrase, quote; a story about any events related to the topic of the speech; questions to draw the audience into active mental activity.
The introduction is often improvised, but poor improvisation can ruin the entire speech. Here you need to learn a few rules for constructing an introduction:
1) the introduction should be short;
2) the introduction should be moderately energetic, i.e. not too emotional, otherwise you will have to continue the speech at the same emotional level and the audience will quickly get tired, and the speaker himself is unlikely to have enough strength to be emotional until the end of the speech;
3) stylistically, the introduction should not sharply contrast with the main part of speech, because it may seem that the speaker is trying to draw attention to himself, and not to the topic of speech;
4) in the introduction, one should avoid formulations and data that are significant for argumentation, since the audience enters speech gradually and the introduction is perceived against the background of internal or external interference;
5) the speaker composes the introduction last, after the main part and the conclusion have been thought out.
The composition of the main part of the speech will vary depending on the topic, goals and objectives of the speaker, and the composition of the audience. However, there is general principles of constructing a speech that the speaker needs to know and take into account in the process of creating your speech. Let's name the main ones:
Consistency principle - each thought expressed must flow from the previous one or be correlated with it.
Amplification principle - the significance, weight, persuasiveness of arguments and evidence should gradually increase, the strongest arguments, as a rule, are reserved for the end of the reasoning.
The principle of organic unity - the distribution of material and its organization in speech should flow from the material itself and the intentions of the speaker.
The principle of economy - the ability to achieve the set goal in the simplest, most rational way, with minimal cost effort, time, speech means.
The tasks of the main part are: communication of information, justification of a certain point of view, persuading the audience, encouraging the audience to take specific actions.
Modern speakers use the following methods of presenting the material of the main part formed on the basis of centuries-old practice:
Inductive method - presentation of material from particular to general. The speaker begins his speech with a specific case, and then leads the audience to generalizations and conclusions.
Deductive method - presentation of material from general to specific. At the beginning of his speech, the speaker puts forward some provisions, and then explains their meaning with specific examples and facts.
Analogy method - comparison of various phenomena, events, facts. Usually a parallel is drawn with what the audience knows well. This contributes to a better understanding of the material presented, helps the perception of the main ideas, and enhances the emotional impact on the audience.
Contrast method built on the basis of a comparison of polar, shading each other objects, problems, phenomena, their opposition.
Concentric method - arrangement of material around the main issue raised by the speaker. The speaker moves from a general consideration of the central issue to a more specific and in-depth analysis of it.
Step method - sequential presentation of one issue after another. Having considered a problem, the speaker no longer returns to it.
Historical method - presentation of material in chronological order, description and analysis of changes that have occurred in a particular person, subject over time.
Usage different methods presentation of material in the same speech allows you to make the structure of the main part of speech more original, non-standard.
Conclusion should be short and concise. As a rule, it summarizes what has been said, makes generalizations; the main theses are briefly repeated, the main idea and importance for the audience of the analyzed topic are emphasized; the ways of development of expressed thoughts are outlined; new tasks are set, prospects are outlined, an invitation sounds to express one's opinion, to argue.

Argumentation methods

The truth of any thesis is proved or refuted with the help of arguments. Argumentation is understood as a kind of reasoning, the purpose of which is to form the beliefs of listeners, readers, researchers. Argumentation - it is the process of bringing certain arguments, grounds for confirming the put forward thesis, statement. Persuasion is achieved by the logical culture of speech, and the basis for the convincingness of the speech is evidence.
Proof in rhetoric and logic, it is a means of controlling the thinking of the audience, the interlocutor under the influence of arguments.
Arguments or arguments can be:
laws, statutes, governing documents,
known theoretical positions,
established facts,
expert opinions,
statistical information,
quotes from well-known books by recognized authorities in a particular field,
everyday axioms,
norms of law.
Additional sources argumentation, known from antiquity, are: "argument to meaning" - the inclusion of an object in a wider area of ​​content, for example, as a part - in the whole; compare, juxtapose it with other objects, determine the spatial and temporal framework; "Argument to personality" - an appeal to the individual, moral qualities of a person; "Argument to authority" - referring to a statement famous person, authority in the field. It is not possible to prove the point by reference, but to support the rest of the arguments, a quote may be appropriate;
"Argument to the public" - means an appeal to public opinion, to the experience of the audience itself, confirming the truth of this or that position.
There are several rules for selecting arguments and their location:
1) the strength of an argument is determined not by what the speaker considers correct, but by what is convincing and acceptable to the audience;
2) the fewer the arguments, the more convincing the position, because any argument is controversial in itself;
3) the more succinctly and clearly the argument is formulated, the more impressive it makes;
4) in speech, what is said at the beginning and at the end of the speech is most remembered.

Topic 6.
Sounding speech technique

The structure of the human pronunciation apparatus

The sound side of oral speech plays no less important role than its content. It is known that speech, brilliant in content, loses in many respects if it is pronounced sluggishly and inexpressively, with stutters and speech errors.

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Footnotes

1

Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1990 .-- P. 46.

2

Volkov, A.A. Fundamentals of rhetoric: textbook for universities / A.A. Volkov. - 2nd ed. - M .: Academic Project, 2005 .-- P. 19.

3

Kostomarov, V.G. On the differentiation of the terms "oral" and "spoken", "written" and "book" // Problems of modern philology. - M., 1965 .-- S. 176.