When studying Russian at school, linguistic terms are often encountered that are not always clear to schoolchildren. We have tried to compile a short list of the most used concepts with an explanation. In the future, schoolchildren can use it when studying the Russian language.

Phonetics

Linguistic terms used in the study of phonetics:

• Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of sound structure.
• Sound is the smallest particle of speech. Allocate sounds.
• A syllable is one or often several sounds pronounced on one exhalation.
• Stress - emphasizing a vowel in speech.

• Orthoepy is a section of phonetics that studies the pronunciation norms of the Russian language.

Spelling

When studying spelling, it is necessary to operate with the following terms:

• Spelling is a section that studies spelling norms.
• Spelling - spelling a word according to the application of spelling rules.

Lexicology and phraseology

• Lexeme is a dictionary unit, a word.
• Lexicology is a section of the Russian language that studies lexemes, their origin and functioning.
• Synonyms are words that have similar meanings when written differently.
• Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning.
• Paronyms are words that have a similar spelling, but different meanings.
• Homonyms are words that have the same spelling, but at the same time they have different meanings.

• Phraseology is a section of linguistics that studies phraseological units, their features and principles of functioning in a language.
• Etymology is the science of the origin of words.
• Lexicography is a section of linguistics that studies the rules for compiling dictionaries and studying them.

Morphology

A few words about what Russian linguistic terms are used in the study of the morphology section.

• Morphology is the science of language that studies the parts of speech.
• The noun is a nominal independent It designates the subject being discussed and answers the questions: "who?", "What?".
• Adjective - denotes a sign or state of an object and answers the questions: "what?", "What?", "What?". Refers to independent nominal parts.

• A verb is a part of speech that denotes an action and answers the questions: "what is he doing?", "What is he going to do?"
• Numeral - denotes the number or order of objects and at the same time answering the questions: "how much?", "Which?". Refers to independent parts of speech.
• Pronoun - indicates an object or person, its sign, without naming it.
• An adverb is a part of speech that denotes a sign of action. Answers the questions: "how?", "When?", "Why?", "Where?".
• A preposition is a service part of speech that connects words.
• Union is a part of speech that connects syntactic units.
• Particles are words that give emotional or semantic coloring to words and sentences.

Additional terms

In addition to the terms we indicated earlier, there are a number of concepts that it is desirable for a student to know. Let's highlight the main linguistic terms that are also worth remembering.

• Syntax is a section of linguistics that studies sentences: features of their structure and functioning.
• Language is a sign system that is constantly evolving. Serves for communication between people.
• Idiolect - features of the speech of a particular person.
• Dialects are varieties of one language that are opposed to its literary version. Depending on the territory, each dialect has its own characteristics. For example, a gag or a gag.

• Abbreviation - the formation of nouns by abbreviating words or phrases.
• Latinism is a word that has come to our use from the Latin language.
• Inversion is a deviation from the generally accepted word order, which makes the rearranged element of the sentence stylistically marked.

Stylistics

The following linguistic terms, examples and definitions of which you will see, are often encountered when considering

• Antithesis is a stylistic device based on opposition.
• Gradation is a technique based on the forcing or weakening of homogeneous means of expression.
• Diminutive is a word formed with the help of a diminutive-affectionate suffix.
• Oxymoron - a technique in which combinations of words are formed with seemingly incompatible lexical meanings... For example, a "living corpse".
• Euphemism is the replacement of a word related to obscene language with a neutral one.
• The epithet is a stylistic trope, often an adjective with an expressive coloring.

This is not a complete list of required words. We have given only the most essential linguistic terms.

conclusions

Studying Russian, schoolchildren now and then come across words whose meanings they do not know. To avoid learning problems, it is advisable to create your own personal dictionary of school terms in the Russian language and literature. Above, we have given the main linguistic word-terms that will have to be encountered more than once when studying at school and university.

Linguistics, T. l. presents a particular difficulty for study due to the consubstancy of the object language and the metalanguage, that is, due to the fact that the object language and the metalanguage completely coincide in terms of expression, they are outwardly one and the same language. T. l. includes: 1) the actual terms, that is, those words that are either not used at all in the object language, or acquire, being borrowed from the object language, a special meaning; 2) peculiar combinations of words and their equivalents, leading to the formation of compound terms included in T. l. on the same rights with integral units.

It is necessary to delimit the concept of T. l. as a system of general linguistic concepts and categories from another component of the metalanguage of linguistics - nomenclature- systems of specific names that are used to designate specific linguistic objects. So, for example, "agglutination", "inflection", "phoneme", "grammar" are terms that serve to express and consolidate general linguistic concepts, and "Saxon genitive in s", "Arabic" Ain ", etc. are nomenclature marks, names of private objects, the number of which is immeasurably large. However, the border between nomenclature units and terms is fluid. Any nomenclature mark, no matter how limited in its use, can acquire a more general character if similar phenomena are found in other languages ​​or if a more general universal content is found in the initially narrow names, then the nomenclature mark becomes a term expressing the corresponding scientific concept ... Thus, the term is the final stage in the study of a real linguistic object.

T. l., Like the terminology of any scientific field, is not just a list of terms, but a semiological system, that is, an expression of a certain system of concepts, which in turn reflects a certain scientific worldview. The emergence of terminology is generally possible only when science achieves enough high degree development, that is, a term arises when a given concept has developed and formed so much that a completely definite scientific expression can be assigned to it. It is no coincidence that the most important means of differentiating a term from a non-term is a test for definitiveness, i.e., a solution to the question of whether a term lends itself to a rigorous scientific definition. A term is part of the terminological system only if the classifying definition is applicable to it. per genus proximum et differentiam specificam(through the closest genus and species difference).

T. l. as a semiological system has evolved throughout the history of linguistics and reflects not only the change in views on language, not only the difference in linguistic word usage in different schools and directions of linguistics, but also different national linguistic traditions. The metalanguage is always assigned to a given national language system. Strictly speaking, there is not one system of T. l., But a large number of terminological systems for linguistics, which in different languages ​​have their own plan of expression, inseparable from the plan of expression of a given language. Therefore, the laws that exist in human language in general are also represented in any historically established system of T. l. The absence of a one-to-one correspondence between the plane of expression and the plane of content, which is the reason for the existence of both synonymy and polysemy in natural language, in terminological systems gives rise to the existence, on the one hand, of doublets, triplets, etc., that is, two, three and more terms, in essence correlated with the same referent, on the other - the polysemy of terms, when one and the same term has not one scientific definition, but several. This expresses the inconsistency of not only the term, but also the word. "Dictionary linguistic terms"OS Akhmanova gives 23" synonyms "to the term" phraseological unit "registered in scientific use by Soviet linguists by the 60s. 20th century, 6 "synonyms" to the term "sentence", etc. The ambiguity of terms, for example, "speech" (3 meanings), "form" (5 meanings), "phrase" (4 meanings), reflected in the same dictionary , clearly shows not so much the presence of different concepts called one term, but different approaches, different aspects of studying the same linguistic object.

Since T. l. is not a rationally organized, semiotically flawless system, in linguistics there is always a problem of ordering terminology. Some researchers believe that T. l. it is necessary to overcome the violation of the laws of the sign inherent in natural languages ​​and build it on a purely rational basis, having found access to "pure, ideal objects", others rightly believe that, since it is impossible to suspend the development of science while creating a new terminology, the task of ordering T. l. should be reduced to 1) the study of real linguistic word usage, 2) to the selection of terminology and its description in dictionaries of linguistic terms, 3) to the comparison of national terminological systems in bilingual and multilingual terminological dictionaries. When comparing the identified doublets, triplets, etc., it is necessary to strive for a clear selection descriptors, i.e., such words or phrases that would most adequately represent a given concept, would most accurately reveal the nature of precisely this phenomenon indicated by this term. Identification of descriptors (for example, "phraseological unit" in relation to the parallel functioning doublets, triplets and other correspondences of this term) in itself plays a normalizing role in this terminological series. In the presence of doublets and "synonyms", there may be a tendency to differentiate them, which makes it possible to terminologically reflect the various aspects of the object (compare the differentiation of the concepts "subject - subject").

Since the T. l. is an open system, which is constantly replenishing due to the need to reflect the new observed properties and aspects of the object with new mono-lexeme and poly-lexeme terms, when modeling this system, it is desirable to give preference to motivated terms with a transparent semantic structure.

The viability of a particular terminological system is determined primarily by its orderliness and the sequence of the relationship between content and expression. A terminological system that meets these requirements, for example, the so-called alloemic terminology, can survive the scientific direction that gave rise to it (in this case, descriptive linguistics), and enter the modern metalanguage of this science.

• Akhmanova OS, Dictionary of linguistic terms. Foreword, M., 1966;
• Ganieva TA, On the system of phonetic terminology, in the book: Modern Russian lexicology, M., 1966;
• White V.V., The main groups of linguistic terms and peculiarities of their production, in the book: Continuity in teaching Russian to foreigners, M., 1981;
• his, Structural and semantic characteristics of terms in modern Russian (based on linguistic terminology). Abstract of Cand. dis., M .; 1982 (lit.);
• Akhmanova O., Linguistic terminology,, 1977(lit.);
• her, The methodology of metalinguistic lexicography, in the book: Sprachwissenschaftliche Forschungen. Festschrift für Johann Knobloch, Innsbruck, 1985;
• see also literature under the article Metalanguage.

Among the majority of the humanities, special attention should be paid to linguistics. This science has a great influence on the life of each of us, and its individual sections are studied not only in universities, but also in schools.

Let's talk about what linguistics is and what are its main sections.

Definition of linguistics

Linguistics is a science that studies language, its development, phenomena that make up a particular language, elements and units. The term comes from the Latin lingua - "language". The native Russian term linguistics is considered synonymous with linguistics.

Most of the linguistic disciplines are studied at universities at the philological faculties, and we get acquainted with the basics of linguistics in elementary school in the lessons of Russian and foreign languages.

Classical sections of linguistics

So, we have figured out what linguistics is, and now we can talk about its main sections. The main or classical sections of linguistics, with which each of us gets acquainted throughout the entire study at school, are phonetics, graphics, morphology, syntax, lexicology and phraseology, as well as stylistics.

Learning any language starts with phonetics and graphics.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language, sounds and syllables. Graphics, on the other hand, deals with the study of letters and their relationship with sounds.

The next section of linguistics, which is introduced in school, is grammar. This is the science that studies the structure of the language. Consists of two sections: morphology and syntax. Morphology studies the parts of speech of a language and their word formation and inflection. Syntax studies phrases and sentences. Note that punctuation is closely related to syntax, which studies the rules for using punctuation marks.

Periodically, in the course of studying the language, schoolchildren study other sections of linguistics: lexicology and phraseology, stylistics.

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, establishing the meaning of words, the norms of their use. In lexicology, synonyms and antonyms, paronyms, the lexical composition of the language by origin, social use are considered.

Phraseology is a section that studies phraseological units, that is, stable expressions of a particular language.

Stylistics is the science of speech styles and means of linguistic expressiveness. At school, students constantly get acquainted with the artistic and journalistic, scientific, epistolary styles of the language. They learn not only to recognize them, but also independently create texts in one style or another.

Special sections

Upon entering the university at the Faculty of Philology, students continue their acquaintance with linguistics, learn what linguistics is and how many sections and sciences it actually contains.

So, linguistics is divided into theoretical, which deals with the problems of linguistic models, and applied, aimed at finding solutions to practical problems related to the study of the language and its use in other areas of knowledge. In addition, they highlight practical linguistics, which deals with the problems of transmission and knowledge of the language.

Theoretical linguistics includes the previously mentioned sections of linguistics, such as morphology and syntax, lexicology, stylistics and others.

Applied sections of linguistics

Applied sections of linguistics include cognitive linguistics, dialectology and history of language, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, lexicography, linguodidactics, terminology, translation, computational linguistics.

Each of these sections deals with the study of a particular area of ​​the language, its application.

So, ethnolinguistics deals with the study of language in its connection with the culture of the people.

Psycholinguistics is a science at the intersection of psychology and linguistics. She studies the relationship between language, thinking and consciousness.

Cognitive linguistics deals with the establishment of connections between language and human mental activity, his attention and memory, language perception.

Computational linguistics deals with the problems of machine translation, automatic text recognition, information retrieval, and even linguistic expertise.

Lexicography is also quite interesting - the science involved in compiling dictionaries.

The history of language deals with the study of the development of language, and in this it is significantly helped by another linguistic discipline - dialectology.

As you can see, this is not a complete list of sections and disciplines that modern linguistics studies. Every year more and more linguistic disciplines appear, more and more new language problems associated with the development and improvement of the language are being studied.

conclusions

Linguistics is a science that deals with the study of languages ​​and their structure. It has many language sections, and every year there are more and more of them. We get acquainted with some linguistic disciplines while still at school, but most of them are studied at philological faculties.

Now you know what linguistics is and what main sections it consists of.

This dictionary of terms used in standard school courses of the Russian language is a thesaurus-type dictionary, or ideographic. Originally by the term thesaurus as a rule, dictionaries were designated that gave an idea of ​​the lexical system of any language with maximum completeness. Maximum - both in the sense that they included all the words of a given language, and in the sense that these words were accompanied by examples of their use in the texts. By definition, a thesaurus is a dictionary with an unlimited selection, which is why the following naming was used for it: thesaurus translated from ancient Greek means 'treasure, treasury' , that is, a complete collection of information about all words of a particular language.

Currently thesaurus is called a vocabulary in which it does not have to be represented all vocabulary of the given language, but in it all words are grouped by subject headings... The position of the lexical unit of the language (word or phrase) in the thesaurus is determined by its meaning in this language. And, accordingly, knowledge of the types and system of semantic relations, into which a given word enters, allows us to judge its meaning.

V individual works(moreover, not only philological) thesaurus is understood quite broadly: it is interpreted as a certain representation and description of a system of knowledge about reality, which either an individual carrier of information or some group of such carriers has.

In linguistic literature, the term is also used ideographic dictionary(from the Greek idéa ‘concept, idea, image’ and gráphō ‘I write’). This is a dictionary in which words are arranged not in alphabetical order, but on the basis of their semantic proximity. In such a dictionary, each word occupies a certain cell of some pre-built classification of concepts, although within the framework of a particular semantic group, words can go one after another and alphabetically. The main purpose of the ideographic dictionary is to give a semantic picture of the environment of a specific concept and a picture of the entire vocabulary of a given language as a whole. Such dictionaries do not come from the word as a unit of language, but from the concept expressed by this word.

Within ideographic dictionaries, one can distinguish:

. ideological dictionaries based on the logical classification of the conceptual space of the language;

. similar, or associative dictionaries based on psychological associations of those objects and phenomena of non-linguistic reality, which are named by the central word;

. thematic dictionaries where words are grouped according to specific topics;

. picture dictionaries, in which the meanings of thematically grouped words are revealed due to the provided pictures and other kind of visual illustrations.

We offer an option ideological ideographic dictionary, or dictionary-thesaurus in the modern sense of the word. This thesaurus dictionary contains linguistic terminology used in the school course of the Russian language.

Today in the secondary school there are several lines of textbooks and educational kits "Russian language" recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for secondary schools.

In all kits educational material structured in levels from phonetics to syntax, including sections on spelling, punctuation, and speech development. At the same time, there are certain discrepancies in the presentation of the theory (in particular, there is no single approach to transcribing, highlighting parts of speech, describing phrases and types of subordinate clauses, etc.), there is no uniform order of sections and topics, there is an obvious discrepancy in the terminology used. All this creates tangible difficulties both for a student (especially when moving from one school to another), and in the formation of requirements for those entering a humanitarian university.

It is known that in a number of schools the Russian language is studied according to alternative and experimental curricula, which offer a significantly modified course. In addition, the introduction of the Unified State Exam in secondary school has contributed to the fact that most of the time in Russian language lessons is now devoted to training and consolidating the spelling and punctuation skills necessary to complete the test tasks. The teacher of Russian studies practically has no opportunity within school curriculum fully and deeply represent the Russian language as a complex, hierarchically organized system with its own internal logic.

The main tasks of this dictionary are systematization, unification, description and interpretation of modern school linguistic terminology, which is common to all(or for the overwhelming majority) school textbooks and manuals on the Russian language. But in some cases, we give preference to a more in-depth look at a particular section of the course, when this contributes to the creation of a coherent and logically consistent picture and a more detailed development of individual groups of concepts.

Thesaurus dictionaries help to structure, classify and model concepts and relationships related to a particular scientific field. A slender terminological system is a kind of knowledge model in a particular field of science, reflecting its internal logic. It, as a rule, has a complex organization and is a multi-level system, and individual terms are not only included in the system of concepts of the corresponding branch of knowledge, but also structure it in a certain way. This is what we see relevance and practical value the proposed school vocabulary.

This work is the first experience of integrating and systematizing the main composition of linguistic concepts and terms used in secondary schools, but we would like to note that when working on this dictionary, we tried to follow the tradition established in the 1980s-1990s. Head of the Department of General and Comparative Historical Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, Academician Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, who rightly considered teaching the native language the most important part of applied linguistics.

In the 1990s, under the leadership of Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky, was conceptually developed and compiled preliminary version dictionary-thesaurus of terms school education"Circle of Knowledge", which he was engaged in until his death. He saw such a system of concepts, built on the principle “from general to particular,” as a systematized set of information of the most diverse kinds necessary for a student and a school teacher - from mathematical and biological concepts to physical education exercises. This kind of a thesaurus dictionary was presented to Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky as the main book of both the student and the school teacher.

Unfortunately, during the life of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, no parts of the thesaurus conceived by him were published, and after his death, only two small editions of this dictionary were published: Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General educational thesaurus): Morality. Moral. Ethics. M .: Flinta, Nauka, 2002; Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky Glossary of terms (General educational thesaurus): Society. Semiotics. Economy. Culture. Education. M .: Flinta, Nauka, 2002. Our project, of course, arose as a tribute to the memory of Yuri Vladimirovich.

Separately, we consider it necessary to stipulate the following. It is impossible to reduce to a common denominator linguistic terminology in general and school terminology in particular. In linguistics and in school practice of teaching linguistic disciplines (Russian, foreign languages ​​and in some schools - classical ancient languages ​​and the foundations of linguistics) there is a variety of approaches and concepts, and therefore a variety of terms and concepts behind them. Special attention pay attention to the fact that:

the proposed definitions of terms are not considered by the authors as an alternative to those definitions that are already presented in existing dictionaries, encyclopedias and teaching aids;

since this dictionary is not encyclopedic The examples given in a number of dictionary entries (in particular, for different uses of certain forms of the verb or for different types of dictionaries in the section "Lexicography") do not claim to be complete and are not considered by the authors as all-encompassing and exhaustive.

Formally, the work on the text of the dictionary was distributed as follows. I.I.Bogatyreva wrote the following parts: "The main sections of the science of language", "Morphemics", "Word formation" and "Lexicology" (completely), as well as parts of the section "Morphology" (starting with the article "Declination" to the end of the first subsection and within subsection "Parts of speech" - from its beginning to the article "Complex numbers" inclusive) and the first part of the section "Syntax" (from its beginning to the article "Inappropriate direct speech" inclusive). OA Voloshina wrote the following parts: “ General issues"," Phonetics "," Letter "and" Lexicography "(in full), as well as parts of the section" Morphology "(from the beginning of the section to the article" Case "inclusively and within the subsection" Parts of Speech "- from the article" Pronouns "to its end) and the second part of the "Syntax" section (starting from the article "Suggestion" to the end of the section).

In conclusion, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our reviewers A.A. Volkov, O.V. Nikitin, N.A. Borisenko for their attentive and benevolent reading of this dictionary and for their valuable constructive comments. We are grateful to M.Yu. Sidorova, whose critical remarks helped us to eliminate individual shortcomings in the handwritten version of the text. Separate words of gratitude and gratitude - to the editorial board of the newspaper "Russian language" of the Publishing House "September 1" in the person of L.A. Gonchar and E.A. Ivanova, without whose participation and support it would be difficult for us to imagine the writing of this text.

All terms in the dictionary are divided into groups depending on the thematic sections of the school course of the Russian language in which this concept is used. The dictionary has the following structure:

The main sections of the science of language

General issues

Phonetics

Morphemics

Word formation

Morphology

Syntax

Lexicology

Lexicography.

These sections mainly correspond to the levels of the language structure. Terms are collected in nests by meaning and grouped around a basic concept with which they are most often associated by genus-specific or cause-and-effect relationships. The nests, in turn, are combined into subsections, etc.

At the beginning of each part, there is a list of terms included in it, without interpretation: so that you can see the logic of their following one after another and the relationships in which they enter. After that, interpretations of the same terms are proposed, given in the same order. Combining an ideographic dictionary with an explanatory one helps to develop optimal interpretations of the meanings of words. After all, the semantic content of a term is better and more fully revealed by determining its place in the structure of concepts of the corresponding field of knowledge.

To find the required term in the dictionary, you need to refer to the Alphabetical Index, which is a list of terms in alphabetical order, indicating the page on which the interpretation of the term you are looking for is given.

The headword of a dictionary entry is given in bold, while for borrowed terms their etymology is given in brackets. The dictionary entry contains the definition of the term and detailed explanation the corresponding linguistic concept.

Many vocabulary entries are provided with examples. As examples, individual words, phrases and whole sentences (often quotations from works of fiction) are given, clearly illustrating various aspects of the characterized linguistic phenomenon. All illustrations are in italics. If it is necessary to highlight a separate word, morpheme or sound in the quoted text, then bold italics are used.

In a dictionary entry devoted to the interpretation of a term, references to other dictionary entries are often found, since each term does not appear in isolation, but is closely related to other terms of the same conceptual area. Such references are given in bold and enclosed in brackets.

Readers should be drawn to the fact that almost all the terms from the first section are presented in the subsequent sections of the dictionary, but in their other meanings, since they are used in scientific and educational literature to designate both a certain section of linguistics and one or another subsystem of the language itself , for example:

Morphemics 1- a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics 2- a part of the language system, which is a set of morphemes isolated in words, their types and the technique of connecting with each other within the word.

Tables, diagrams and figures used in the text of the dictionary help to compactly and clearly illustrate the explained phenomena.

For the convenience of readers, the minimum number of generally accepted abbreviations is used, which are easily deciphered and widely used in any scientific and educational literature.

The main sections of the science of language

Phonetics(from the Greek phōnētikós - sound, vocal) - a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of the language. The subject of phonetics is made up of such material linguistic units as speech sounds, syllables, word stress, phrasal intonation.

Since the sound matter of a language can be studied from different angles, it is customary to distinguish between acoustic, articulatory, perceptual and functional phonetics.

Acoustic phonetics examines the sounds of human speech as physical phenomena and describes their characteristics such as pitch (depends on the vibration frequency), loudness, or strength (depends on the amplitude), duration and timbre of the sound. Articulating phonetics examines anatomy and physiology speech apparatus person, describes which organs of speech are involved in the pronunciation of certain types of sounds. Perceptual phonetics studies the features of perception and analysis of speech sounds by the human organ of hearing - the ear. Functional phonetics (phonology) considers sound phenomena as elements of the language system that serve to form morphemes, words and sentences.

Descriptive, historical and comparative phonetics can also be distinguished. Item descriptive phonetics - features and general terms and Conditions the formation of sounds characteristic of a given language in a certain period of its existence (most often the phonetic system is taken modern language), patterns of changes in sounds in the stream of speech, general principles dividing the sound stream into sounds, syllables and larger pronunciation units. Historical phonetics traces the development of the sound structure of a language over a long period of time (sometimes from the moment a given language appeared). Comparative phonetics compares the sound system of the native language with other languages, which allows not only to better see and learn the features of a foreign language, but also to understand the laws of the native language.

Orthoepy(Greek orthoépeia, from orthós - correct and épos - speech) is a section of phonetics dealing with the norms of pronunciation, their justification and establishment.

The concept of orthoepy includes both the pronunciation of individual sounds, including taking into account the specific conditions of their implementation, and the sound design of whole words or utterances. For example, for the Russian language, the place of stress associated with the formation of grammatical forms is of great importance.

Orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features in the first half of the 17th century. as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which over time began to acquire the character of national norms. They were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, although in some cases there were fluctuations. Modern pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language include both Moscow and Leningrad (Petersburg) pronunciation.

The orthoepic norm, in contrast to the spelling, does not always assert only one of the pronunciation options as the only correct one, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, the coexistence of several equal options is allowed, where, as a rule, one is the leading or more desirable. So, it is considered correct as pronunciation e[f'zh '] y, in and[f'zh '] at, by [g'zh'] e with a soft long sound [f '], and e[lzh] u, in and[lzh] at, by [lzh] e- with a solid long; right before[f'zh '] and and before[railway ’] and, ba[s ’] ein and ba[s] ein, [a door and [a door, NS[o] eziya and NS[a] eziya.

Orthoepic norms are established by linguists - specialists in the field of phonetics, who take into account a variety of factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation variant, its compliance with the objective laws of language development, connection with tradition, etc.

Graphics(Greek graphikḗ, from gráphō - write, draw) - a section of the science of writing, which determines the inventory of signs used in a given writing system (these signs are usually called graphemes), and the rules and methods of designating sound units in writing.

The graphic system of Russian writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet and is arranged quite rationally: the number of Russian phonemes is insignificant more numbers letters of the Russian alphabet. In 1928, N.F. Yakovlev derived and substantiated a mathematical formula for constructing the most convenient and economical alphabet, and Russian graphics almost correspond to this formula.

The rationality of Russian graphics is primarily due to its syllabic principle, which manifests itself in the transfer of soft consonants and the phoneme j "iot" in writing.

It should be understood that both graphics and spelling are related to the rules for the use of graphemes, but in different ways. Graphics studies and formulates the rules for matching letters to phonemes only in cases where the choice of a letter is determined only by the sound environment (or sound context) and prescribes the use of certain letters, regardless of which words they are part of. Spelling is a system of rules for writing significant units of a given language.

Spelling(Greek orthographía, from orthós - correct and gráphō - I write) - a section of the science of language dealing with spelling norms and prescribing the choice of one of the spelling options allowed by graphics.

The central section of spelling establishes a set of rules and principles for denoting speech sounds with letters in writing. In modern Russian spelling, several principles are used: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

Other sections of spelling establish rules for the continuous, separate, or hyphenated spelling of words and their parts; determine the rules for transferring parts of words from one line to another (taking into account both syllable division and the morphemic structure of a word); formulate the rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters, as well as the design of graphic abbreviations. The principles of transmission of borrowed words (mainly proper names) are determined separately. Usually, either a transcriptional spelling method is used, or a transliterated one, i.e. foreign words are written taking into account their pronunciation or letter by letter, taking into account their spelling, by means of a different alphabet.

The theory of Russian spelling and the definition of the principles of its construction originates from the works of V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov (mid-18th century). There were two reforms in the history of Russian writing (1708-1710 and 1917-1918), which contributed to both the ordering of the alphabet and the improvement of spelling rules. But the historical changes constantly occurring in the language, the enrichment of its vocabulary require regular work to improve the spelling rules. For this, the Spelling Commission was created at the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1904. Nowadays, the Spelling Commission works at the Institute of the Russian Language. VV Vinogradov Russian Academy of Sciences, both linguists-theoreticians and teachers-practitioners take part in it.

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikós - relating to the word and lógos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary.

The main tasks of lexicology are:

Definition of a word as a unit of vocabulary;

Study of words in their relation to non-linguistic reality;

Analysis of the semantic structure of a word;

Definition and description of the main types of lexical units;

Characterization of the lexical-semantic system of the language, that is, the identification of the internal organization of lexical units and the analysis of their connections and relationships;

The history of the formation of vocabulary, the patterns of its functioning and analysis of the development trends of the modern lexical system of the language;

Principles of functional and stylistic classification of words.

Lexicology also explores ways to replenish and develop the vocabulary, based both on the use of the internal resources of a given language, and on the attraction of resources from the outside (borrowing from other languages).

Historical, comparative and applied lexicology can be distinguished. Historical lexicology studies the history of words, including in connection with the history of the concepts referred to by these words, changes in various groups of words - both in the literary language and in dialects, processes in the semantic structure of words, etc. Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary of different languages, and both individual words and groups of words, or semantic fields (for example, kinship terms, color designations) can be compared. To the sphere applied lexicology includes lexicography, culture of speech, linguistic education, theory and practice of translation.

Phraseology(from the Greek phrásis - expression and lógos - word, teaching) - a section of linguistics that studies the semantic, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units in their current state and historical development.

The main tasks of phraseology are:

Exploration of the iconic nature phraseological units language;

Establishing the specifics of words and their meanings, implemented as part of phraseological units;

Determination of the syntactic roles of phraseological units and the peculiarities of their functioning in speech;

Study of the formation of new meanings of words based on phraseological context;

Determination of the consistency of phraseological composition and, in this regard, the description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variability of phraseological units.

The most important problem of phraseology is the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words formed, and not reproduced in speech, and the determination on this basis of the features of phraseological units. The question of including in the volume of phraseology communicative units such as proverbs, sayings and combinations formed according to the standard model with the associated meaning of words (such as fall into a rage evil takes).

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline emerged in Russian linguistics in the 40-50s. XX century

Etymology(Greek etymología from étymon - truth and lógos - word, teaching) - a branch of linguistics dealing with the study of the origin of words and the reconstruction of the lexical system of the language of the most ancient (including the preliterate) period.

Etymology as a scientific discipline originated in ancient Greece, and in antiquity, the purpose of etymological analysis was to search for and determine the original, original, or "true" meanings of words. At the present stage of the development of linguistics, the subject of etymology is to find out at what time, in what language, according to what derivational model and with what meaning a particular word appeared, and then - to determine the phonetic and semantic changes that occurred with this word in the history of the language and thus predetermining its present appearance.

To clarify the origin of words and restore their history, etymology must take into account data from a number of scientific disciplines - both philological proper (comparative historical linguistics, dialectology, semasiology, onomastics) and other humanitarian and social (logic, history, archeology, ethnography).

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and gráphō - I write) -the section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries and their study.

It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and practical lexicography. Item theoretical lexicography - the whole range of problems associated with the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the vocabulary, the principles of the arrangement of material in the dictionary) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of a dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions and interpretations, the availability of different types of information about a word, types of language and others illustrations, etc.). Practical lexicography performs extremely important social functions, since it ensures the normalization of the language, teaching the language (both native and foreign), and makes interlingual communication possible.

Lexicography represents a word in the aggregate of all its properties, gives us an idea of ​​its semantic structure, grammatical and stylistic features of individual lexical units, and therefore the dictionary turns out to be not only an indispensable tool for language, but also the most important tool for scientific research. Moreover, modern linguistics seeks to embody in a dictionary form different aspects of existing knowledge about the language, therefore, the object of description of lexicography is not only words, but also other linguistic units - morphemes, phraseological units, phrases, quotations.

Morphemics(from the Greek morphḗ - form) - a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Subject descriptive morphemics is the consideration of the following issues:

Phonological structure of different types of morphemes;

Various morphonological processes occurring at the junctions of morphemes, or morpheme sutures;

The rules for combining morphemes with each other and the restrictions imposed on these combinations in the language;

Conditions for varying morphemes in speech;

Semantic properties of morphemes;

Numerous types of relations between roots and affixes - synonymous, homonymous, antonymic, etc .;

Determination of the criteria for the classification of morphemes and the establishment of different types of morphemes;

Systematization of words by their morphemic composition, as well as the development of principles and procedures for morphemic analysis;

Study of the morpheme composition different parts speech, as well as different categories of words within a particular part of speech.

Descriptive morphemics is contrasted with historical, which studies the features of the formation and development of the system of morphemes of the native language, the sources of the emergence of new morphemes in the language, the ways of mastering borrowed morphemes and their interaction with the primordially Russian morphemes.

Morphemics is equally closely related to both word formation and morphology. Previously, it was included in word-formation disciplines. But recently it has been distinguished as an independent section of the science of language with a special object of study - morpheme.

Word formation- a section of linguistics that studies the methods and means of creating words, the rules and techniques for their production, the structure of derivatives and complex words - both formal and substantial.

Word formation solves the following tasks:

Establishes and describes the basic patterns of derived (or motivated) words;

Suggests their classification;

Studies word-formation series and nests, word-formation (or derivational) processes, meanings and categories;

Determines the principles of the structure of the word-formation system as a whole.

The derivational structure of derived words and the entire system of derivational means of a particular language change over time. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between synchronous and diachronic word formation. Synchronous, or descriptive, word formation studies the motivational relationship between words that coexist in one historical period of a given language, without taking into account the etymological situation. Diachronic, or historical, word formation studies the history of the emergence of individual words, the development and historical changes in their structure, changes in formal and semantic relations between related words.

The specificity of the subject of word formation in the structure of the language is due to the peculiarities of the derivational meanings themselves and the external means of their expression. This section of linguistics describes all the affixes presented in the words of the language, linking them with certain derivational types - productive and unproductive. So, according to L.V. Shcherba, it considers both “how words are made” (that is, the structure of words already in the language), and “how words are made” (that is, the potential for creating new words). The word-formation types themselves are studied from different angles: derivational affixes, grammatical and semantic characteristics of derivative and productive words, morphonological phenomena at the junctions of morphemes in a motivated word are taken into account (alternation of sounds, truncation of stems, superposition of morphs on each other, change in the place of stress, etc.). etc.), stylistic characteristics and sphere of functioning of new words.

Morphology(from the Greek morphḗ - form and lógos - teaching) is a section of grammar, the main object of which is the grammatical properties of words and their significant parts (morphemes). Morphology, understood as "the grammatical doctrine of the word" (VV Vinogradov), together with the syntax, which is the "grammatical doctrine of the sentence", constitutes the grammar.

Borders descriptive morphologies are understood differently in different concepts. It can include:

The doctrine of the structure of the word (i.e. morphemics);

Information on word formation;

The doctrine of inflection, various paradigms and inflectional types that exist in the language;

Teaching about grammatical meanings and about the use of different grammatical forms and categories in texts (or grammatical semantics);

Learning about parts of speech;

Morphological typology.

Historical morphology deals

A description of the changes occurring in the structure of the word

The study of changes in both the formal and the content side of individual morphemes,

The study of the composition of grammatical categories and grammatical meanings in the history of the language.

Syntax(from the Greek sýntaxis - construction, order) - a branch of linguistics that studies the processes of generation and the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of phrases and the doctrine of a sentence. In a number of works, syntax, which studies the semantic side of speech, is contrasted with phonetics and morphology, which are mainly concerned with the expression plan of the linguistic system.

Item descriptive syntax problems are:

Functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words;

The consistency and order of words when they are included in the composition of larger syntactic units;

Definition and consideration of different types of syntactic communication;

General properties and grammatical features of phrases and sentences;

Internal structure of syntactic units;

Classification of syntactic units of the language;

Changes to which a sentence undergoes when it is included in a larger unit of speech - into the text, i.e. rules for adapting a sentence to the context and to the speech situation;

Syntactic typology.

Historical syntax is studying the general patterns of development of individual syntactic units and changes concerning the entire syntactic structure of the language.

Punctuation(Wed-Latin punctuatio from Latin punctum - point) - a section of linguistics dealing with the study and description of the system of punctuation marks and the rules for their setting in written speech.

In the history of Russian punctuation, there are three main approaches to understanding its foundations and purpose - logical (or semantic), syntactic and intonation. Theorists logical directions were F.I.Buslaev, A.B. Shapiro and others, proceeding from the position that for greater clarity in the presentation of thoughts in writing, it is customary to separate words and whole sentences with punctuation marks, that is, stop signs. Syntactic the direction of the theory of Russian punctuation, which goes back primarily to the works of J.C. Grot, has become widespread in teaching practice. Its representatives proceed from the fact that punctuation marks are primarily designed to make the syntactic structure of speech clear, to highlight individual sentences and their parts. Representatives of intonation theories (L.V. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky and others) believe that punctuation marks are intended to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase, the tempo of speech, pauses, etc. what intonation does in oral speech, punctuation does in written speech.

Language- a naturally developing sign system that serves as the main means of communication between people.

Each linguistic sign (like any other sign of the semiotic system) has a conceptual content (meaning) and a formal expression (sound). Thus, on the one hand, language reflects a set of concepts, representations of the world inherent in the linguistic community, divides the surrounding reality and presents it by means of language. In the system of meanings it expresses, the language captures the experience of the entire team, the "picture of the world" of the people speaking it. On the other hand, language is realized, materially embodied in sounding speech. With the advent of writing, the language receives a new means of material expression - written texts. Only thanks to the presence of sounding speech and written texts, we can get an idea of ​​the internal organization of the language, of the language system, which is not given to us in direct observation.

Language is an organized, strictly ordered, multi-level system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent. Each level of the linguistic structure is characterized by an independent linguistic unit that performs a special function in the language. Traditionally, linguistic units include a phoneme, morpheme, word and sentence.

Language is a fairly stable system in which a change in an individual linguistic unit inevitably entails a change in the entire language system as a whole. A rapid change in language would prevent it from performing a communicative function, serving as a means of communication between people. Nevertheless, the language is constantly changing its sound structure, lexical composition, even grammatical categories and syntactic constructions. Sounds and words are the most sensitive to various changes, the grammar of the language is more stable, a significant change in it leads to a change in the language type. The sound and meaning of a word can change significantly over a short period of time. For example, the word a fish, in addition to the main meaning, it can acquire new meanings, various shades, being used in a new, unusual context: naming a person fish, we point to his emotional coldness, restraint, lethargy.

Possessing internal integrity and unity, language is at the same time a polyfunctional system. The main function of language is to serve as a means of human communication, in addition, language is a socially significant form of reflection of the surrounding reality, as well as a means of obtaining new information about the world.

Language is a social phenomenon, it belongs to the whole society as a whole, and not to an individual person. It is customary to distinguish between several forms of the existence of language in society:

... idiolect- the individual language of a particular person;

... dialect- a lot of close idiolects, which are characterized by internal unity and are united on the basis of a territorial characteristic;

... language- this is, as a rule, many dialects, which may differ to one degree or another from each other. The principle of combining different dialects into a single language depends not only on linguistic (structural) proper, but also on social parameters (linguistic self-awareness of speakers, the presence of a single written language, the social prestige of dialects, etc.).

The highest form of language existence is a literary language, which is characterized by the creation of a norm and the presence of a fairly wide range functional styles.

Literary language- one of the main forms of the existence of a language, which is characterized by consistent codification (establishment of the norm), the conscious cultivation of the norm, the obligation of norms for all speakers and high social prestige.

The literary language serves various communicative spheres, serves to express a wide variety of content and to solve a variety of communication problems. The literary language is used in the field of public administration, journalism, science, literature, as well as in oral presentations and in some forms of colloquial speech. In a situation of easy communication, there are elements of a colloquial style that do not violate the norms of the literary language.

Literary language is a book language associated with literacy, with a special book standard. It is based on an artificial norm and is opposed to a living spoken language. Any norm is associated with learning, it is taught, imposed on the individual by society. The assimilation of the norm demonstrates belonging to a certain society, it is a sign of society.

The structure of a literary language depends on the composition of its functional styles (official business, church, scientific, newspaper and journalistic, etc.). During the period of the formation and strengthening of statehood, it becomes necessary to form an official business style, and as scientific knowledge accumulates and develops, a scientific style, etc. Special language means that serve different communication areas. In order for all members of society to equally understand the language (for example, of official documents), there is a consolidation, standardization of language means. A strict, official version of the literary language arises, serving the official business and scientific sphere.

The formation of a literary language is a national and historical phenomenon. The main processes of the formation of the literary language are associated with the development of culture, with the history of society. The peculiarities of the formation of the national literary language depend on the sample texts, which the literary language is guided by in its development.

For example, the functions of the Russian literary language until the 18th century were performed by the Church Slavonic language. After Peter's reforms, the Russian literary language began to converge with the popular spoken language. However, the centuries-old orientation towards the Church Slavonic literary and literary culture determined many of the characteristic features of the Russian literary language.

Thus, the literary language is a normalized, bookish language, directly related to cultural tradition, designed to write language activities into the general plan of cultural, that is, socially valuable behavior.

Dialects(from the Greek. diálektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) - varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech communities, distinguished by geographic (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication between the population of a historically developed region, characterized by specific ethnographic characteristics.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, there is a fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects. Sometimes, on the border of two related languages, it is extremely difficult to determine the belonging of local dialects to one or another language. The decisive factor here is ethnic: when assigning a dialect to a particular language, the self-consciousness of the speakers of the dialect is taken into account.

Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, syntactic features, revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with literary language... For example, a bright dialectal feature - clatter (the two affricates [c] and [ch '] of the literary language do not differ, pronounced as [c]) - characterizes the Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions are characterized by pronunciation [s] instead of the affricate [c]: Kuris on the street yayso demolished... Another teaser notes the clinking (the affricates [c] and [h ’] are pronounced as [h’]): A sheep ran past our wing.

Dialectal differences may be small, so speakers of different dialects easily understand each other, but can be quite significant.

Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, unify, lose independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their features.

Speech- the process of speaking, taking place in time, carried out in sound or written form.

Speech is usually characterized by opposing it to language (as a particular to a general one). Speech is understood as a material embodiment, the use of the language system in the process of communication. Speech is concrete and unique as opposed to abstract and reproducible language. Speech is subjective, since it is a type of free creative activity of the individual. Speech always has an author who expresses his thoughts and emotions. Individual character is the most important feature of speech. Speech behavior is an essential characteristic of a person.

Speech is material, it consists of articulated signs perceived by the senses (hearing, vision). Oral speech is characterized by tempo, duration, timbre features, volume level, articulatory clarity, accent, etc.

Speech is variable, allows for elements of the disordered and random. Speech can be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his attitude to the interlocutor, to the subject of the message.

Speech is linear: it unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is contextually and situationally conditioned.

The result of speech is text. It is one or more sentences related to each other, lined up in a certain sequence and united into a single whole by a common theme. Different semantic relationships are established between sentences in the text: opposition, explanation, purpose, condition. To link sentences in the text, special syntactic means: parallelism (several sentences have the same structure in terms of the order of sentence members), ellipsis (skipping a text element that can be restored in a given context), etc.

Speech as one of the forms of human activity is of interest not only to philologists, but also to philosophers, psychologists, speech therapists, sociologists, specialists in the theory of communication and information. The role of speech in the formation of consciousness and manifestations of the subconscious is investigated, the processes of the development of children's speech, the mechanisms of speech formation, the occurrence of speech errors and various speech disorders are studied.

Thus, speech is the implementation of language, which only through it can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication between people.

Speech styles(from Latin stilus, stylus - a pointed stick for writing, writing style) - systems of linguistic means within the literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication.

Usually, five styles of speech are distinguished: four book styles - scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic - and colloquial style. Sometimes different styles the literary language can differ significantly from each other, but in some languages ​​they turn out to be quite homogeneous: stylistic differences have not yet been developed and consolidated. The depth and definiteness of stylistic differentiation depending on the "age" of the language.

Each style is characterized by certain linguistic means: special words, special combinations of words (formulas, cliches), word forms, features of syntactic structures, etc. Styles of speech are realized in certain forms, or types of texts, called genres of speech.

Scientific style- one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks, oral presentations on scientific topics (lectures, reports at conferences, etc.). In addition, the scientific style can be used in popular science works, the purpose of which is to familiarize a wide audience with curious scientific facts and theories.

The scientific style is applied in a formal setting, characterized by consistency, consistency, objectivity. The task of the scientific style is to communicate information, to explain scientific theory by providing a system of evidence.

The scientific style is characterized by the indispensable use of appropriate scientific terminology. The term, in contrast to the word of the common language, accurately and fairly fully reflects scientific concept... In scientific texts, there are usually no means of figurative and emotional presentation, exclamation and interrogative sentences, hints, calls, etc. If a scientific speech uses a rhetorical question, then an immediate audience response is unlikely to be expected. As a rule, the author himself is going to answer this question in the course of further presentation of the material.

The scientific style is characterized by the use of complex syntactic constructions, participles and adverbs. Frequent citations and references to other scientific works are also a prominent feature of the scientific style.

In scientific works, it is very important to structure the text, consistently present the theory, presenting all the necessary evidence, make a well-founded conclusion, therefore, the texts use various pointers to the sequence of presentation, cause-and-effect relationships: firstly, therefore, so, let us now turn to ... etc.

In addition, special linguistic means used in scientific texts help to perceive the author's scientific research as fairly objective, removing a pronounced author's beginning. For example, in scientific speech, personal pronouns of the first and second person are almost never used, however, constructions without a subject (such as It is known that…). Impersonal constructions also create the effect of the author's detachment, the ability to refer to previous research. The scientific style is characterized by the use of cliches, standard turns, organizing the course of scientific reasoning.

Formal and business style is one of the book styles that caters to the business relationship. This style is typical for business papers: laws, documents, regulations, orders, protocols, etc.

The task of the official business style is to regulate business relations: to convey information, orders, issue instructions, conclusions, etc. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, standardization and the obligatory structure of the text according to the model. Often, when drawing up a document, such a sample is attached, sometimes special forms are prepared for writing official papers. Thus, the main feature of an official document is a standard form, thanks to which you can easily find the necessary information in the document: to whom the paper is addressed, from whom it is, from what date, what exactly is stated in the document.

In order for what has been written to be accepted as an official document, it is necessary to observe strict rules for the formatting of the text, including the standard set of language tools. When drawing up a document, it is necessary to put down the exact date, indicate in full the last name, first name and patronymic (often passport data) of the persons who appear in the official document.

For an official business style, the use of standard phrases is typical - a cliché: I ask you to provide, after the expiration of the period, in the prescribed manner etc. Elements of the colloquial style, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, familiar appeal are inappropriate in the document.

In the language of the document, the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person are almost never used, which also makes the language of the document official, bureaucratic. Business style does not allow the author to express his emotions, personal point of view on the question. The syntax of the document is different big amount subordinate clauses, heavy and confusing constructions, unnatural in colloquial speech.

Journalistic style- one of the book styles that is used in public and journalistic activities, in the media, in newspapers, in a situation of public speaking.

The task of this style is to influence the mass consciousness, the desire to impose on the audience its own vision of the situation. Specific traits journalistic style - imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal. Various means are often used in public speaking artistic expression: epithets, hyperboles, comparisons, metaphors, "catch phrases". The elements are also used language game, puns, appeals to the audience, appeals, interrogative and exclamation sentences, rhetorical questions. In the speech of the orator, always emotionally colored, tense, a personal assessment of the situation sounds, therefore, the first person pronouns of both numbers are often used as linguistic means.

Thus, in the journalistic style, language means are used that allow you to influence emotional condition audience, to form the listeners' attitude to individual events and to the world as a whole.

Art style - a functional style of speech that is used in works of fiction and refers to book styles.

The task of this style is to draw an artistic image, to express the author's attitude to what is depicted, to influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. Language here performs not so much a communicative function as an aesthetic function, forms a special figurative world, using special expressive means... These include trails(metaphors, metonyms, epithets, hyperboles, lithotes, comparisons, etc.) and figures of speech(anaphora, gradation, inversion, rhetorical question, parallelism, etc.).

For example, a metaphor is a means of artistic expression, when using which the name of one object is used to name another based on similarity. : Burning in the garden campfire of red mountain ash (S.A. Yesenin). Or litota - a figurative expression consisting in understating the size of an object or the significance of the depicted phenomenon: Your spitz, adorable spitz, no more thimble (A.S. Griboyedov) and others.

V poetic work the means of rhythmic organization of the text are used - rhythm and rhyme.

The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds,

How a beast she will howl

It will cry like a child.

Then on the dilapidated roof

Suddenly it will rustle with straw,

How a belated traveler

Will knock at our window(A.S. Pushkin).

In the language of fiction, besides artistic style elements of other styles, mainly colloquial, can be used. The use of colloquial speech does not violate the norms of the literary language (in contrast to the vernacular, which is outside the literary norm). In a work of fiction, colloquial speech is "literated", elements of the colloquial style - expressive, expressive - against the background of neutral and bookish means of the literary language are marked as elements of reduced stylistic coloring. In the speech of the characters, clericalisms, occasionalisms, dialect words and even profanity are possible. The purpose of this deliberate violation of the norms of the literary language is mainly the speech characteristics of the characters.

Conversational style-functional style of speech, which is opposed to book styles and is used in a situation of casual conversation, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but the conversational style can also be implemented in writing (notes, private letters, fixing the speech of characters, etc.).

The conversational style characterizes the ordinary, easy oral speech of people who know the literary language. The task of colloquial speech is communication, exchange of news, opinions and impressions of loved ones in an informal setting.

The general properties of the conversational style are manifested in the specific characteristics of colloquial speech: informality, unpreparedness, spontaneity, linear character, leading to both economy and redundancy of speech means. With an accelerated speech rate, there are phenomena of enhanced reduction of unstressed vowels, simplification of consonant groups.

The speech uses colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, first person pronouns, particles, interjections and references. The speaker seeks to express his personal opinion, to make speech figurative, lively.

In colloquial speech, participle and adverbial expressions, complex syntactic constructions are rarely found. The technique of dismembering the syntactic whole is often observed, interrupted structures, repetitions, contractions, and non-union composition are used. The spoken style is characterized by free word order, which is associated with the possibility of logical selection of words by intonation.

The spoken style differs sharply from the book style by the rules for the arrangement of words and parts of a sentence. Words of one phrase in colloquial speech can be separated in other words: Need today of bread buy fresh ... It happens that the members of the main and subordinate clauses are intertwined with each other: You doctor saw, when did you arrive? etc.

Genres of speech- a set of texts united by the same usage stylistic means language. A group of speech genres is combined into a specific functional style.

The scientific style has the following speech genres: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, review, lecture, scientific report, etc.

Speech genres of the official business style include: law, decree, interrogation protocol, certificate, statement, order, etc.

In the journalistic style, speech genres are distinguished such as article, interview, essay, reportage, etc.

Artistic genres are novel, story, poem, poem, etc.

Speech genres of colloquial speech include story, dialogue, family conversation, etc.

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Accommodation- combinatorial change of article-ii - (adjustment) change of articulation of consonant when changing a vowel and vice versa. PY vowels often accommodate consonants (gender - row, current - tek).

Analyticism- simplification of morphs of forms and an increase in the role of syntax order in the construction of a phrase.

Analytical structure of language- p-p I, in which the main means of expressing grammatical meanings are word order and function words, showing the relationship between words or groups of words.

Areal linguistics- deals with the study of changes in languages ​​during their interaction (affinity for the self, linguistic union).

Assimilation- combinatorial change of article-ii - adjusting the sound to the neighboring one, vowels affect vowels and consonants affect the acc.

Letter Is a member of an alphabetical or graphic sign system.

Phoneme variant – weak position phonemes - a phoneme changes its sound depending on the position.

Internal and external linguistics- Internal linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the systemic relations of linguistic units without referring to external linguistic factors. External linguistics, extralinguistics, a branch of linguistics that studies the totality of ethnic, social, historical, geographical factors inextricably linked with the development of a language.

Excerpt- phase 2 of articulation - pronunciation of sound.

Genealogical classification I- a classification based on the genetic principle, that is, grouping related languages ​​into language families.

Grammatology- science, studying letters signs.

Grammema- refers the word form to some morphological class, computer gram category.

Graphics- all the signs of the cat are used in the ODP writing system (letters, prep-i signs, blow-i, etc.)

Denotat- the relation of a word to an object (subject relatedness). Denotates: elements of the language (hide, incline), false (mermaid, goblin); objects, events, facts.

Diacritics- a combination of signs, f-ia cat - specify the value of # Щ.

Dynamic stress- the stressed syllable is pronounced louder.

Dissimilation- the reverse process of assimilation. Assigning sounds. Vowels and consonants are matched. (The bomb is the bonba, the doctor is the doctor.)

Differential sign of a phoneme- a sign that distinguishes one phoneme from another. (deafness, sonorousness) - volume - house, bite - beak (according to the degree of rise of the tongue).

Sign- a tangible carrier of intangible information.

Index sign- there is no direct resemblance to m / y form and sod-em. Communication is based on contiguity. # smoke is a sign of fire. In I - interjections.

Sign-symbol- the connection between the SP and the PS is conditional (there are many such signs.)

Ideogram- the same as Ideography

Ideography- (recording ideas) pictography, selection> abstract of a concept - image of the eye -> look, see, eye, cry ...

Hieroglyph- more schematic pictograms.

Insulation -

Iconic sign- (pictogram) the signs of the cat PV are similar to PS # Roman numerals, onomatopoeia.

Incorporation- unification into one morphological whole of two or more semanthemes, which are mobile components with separate lexical meanings; the number and order of these components each time is determined by the content of the utterance, and the relations between them correspond to syntactic relations.

Iterfixes- affixes that have no meaning, serve to connect the roots in complex words.

Intonation is a set of sound means of a language, which, superimposed on a number of pronounced and audible syllables and words: a) phonetically organize speech, dismembering it according to meaning into phrases and significant segments - syntagmas; b) establish semantic relations between the parts of the phrase; c) give the phrase, and sometimes significant segments of the narrative, interrogative, imperative, and other meanings; d) express various emotions. Phonetic means of I. (intonation means): the distribution of the force of dynamic (otherwise - expiratory) stress between words (accent system), melodic speech, pauses, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythmic and melodic means, loudness of speech and its individual segments, emotional shades of voice timbre.

Infix- the affix, the cat is inserted into the root, breaks the ago.

Cognitive function I- (mental) I am a means of forming thought.

Quantitative stress- stressed syllable lasts longer.

Communicative function I- I am - in the exchange of thoughts, information.

Connotative component of meaning- additional meaning, awareness (when emoj is okr)

Consonant letter- consonants are indicated on the letter, and vowels are indicated by diacritical signs (dots, dashes ...)

The concept of linguistic relativity- p-p I defines the p-p of thinking.

Lexicography- the section of linguistics dealing with the practice and theory of compilation dictionaries.

Lexicology- a section of linguistics, which examines the vocabulary of the language, its vocabulary.

Lexical meaning- this is an indication of the known content, properties of t this word in excl. from other words.

Logical stress- a means of semantic highlighting of any significant unit of the statement.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of the name of an object (or phenomenon) to another object (phenomenon) on the basis of similarity in form, function, etc.

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of an object or phenomenon to another object or phenomenon, based on real connections between the object or phenomenon.

Morpheme- a half-character, a morpheme always appears as part of a word.

Homonymy- Homonyms - words do not have common semantics, but have the same sound or spelling form. (The same spelling / pronounced, different meanings).

Opposition- the opposite of phonemes to the Ya system.

Excursion- phase 1 of articulation - a speech apparatus in position for pronunciation of a sound.

Spelling- a set of forms and rules for graphic writing.

Perceptual function of phonemes- morpheme - an object of perception.

Pictography- writing with drawings, the cat is represented by specific objects. Is used to this day (signs, symbols).

Expression plan and content plan- PV (mater side zn) - signifying (exponent), PS (id stor) - signified.

Postfix- place in the word - after the root.

Pragmatics- the ratio of m / y by the sign and by the user.

Regulatory function of language- the language allows direct air on the new addressee.

Reduplication- doubling of the basis both with and without a change in the phonetic structure.

Recursion- phase 3 of articulation - (indent) return of the speech apparatus to the ref.

Speech activity- pr-with gov-ia and rez-you of this pr-sa.

Speech situation- canonical and non-canonical - canonical - the time and place of the speaker and the perceiver coincide, the addressee is a specific person, non-canonical - the place of the addressee and the addressee does not coincide (phone / letter / publ speech).

Semantics- value, relative m / y sign and signified.

Significative function of the phoneme- the ability to distinguish with sound matter significant elements of language (sound and meaning).

Syllabic writing- syllabic writing.

Syllabema- the element of a syllabic letter is a syllable.

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy - transferring a name from part to whole or from whole to part.

Synonymy- Synonyms - words belonged to one part of speech coincided in denotative knowledge and diffused in connotative knowledge.

Syntactics- rel-e m / y with a sign and other signs (compatibility).

Synthetism- the word, being taken out of the sentence, retained its gram h-ku.

Synthetic system I- system I defined by prefixes and suffixes.

Synchrony and diachrony- sync - state-e I am on this moment, diachr - I am in its development.

Wordform- a term denoting a specific word in a specific grammatical form. A paradigm is a system of word forms.

Comparative Historical Linguistics- studies the I in their ist development (origin I, establish kinship on the basis of comparison).

Suppletivism- the grammatical form of the word arr from different roots, while the lex does not change.

Typological linguistics- deals with the selection of patterns, languages ​​are grouped into types.

Tonal accent- on the stressed syllable, the tone is either raised or lowered.

Transcription- more accurately displays the pronunciation of a word.

Transliteration- mezhdunar sist - writing a word from one self by means of another I.

Actual function I- (kontaktoustanavl) language can serve as a means of creating and subtracting a contact when noun info is not yet given. (talking about nothing is important for self-affirmation).

Phoneme- a stable idea of ​​sound, a generalized image of sound in our minds. / abstraction, cannot be pronounced.

Phonetic ud-e -

Phonography- expresses PV and not PS (countries of the Middle East. Words are monosyllabic)

A phrase is the basic unit of speech. Complies with proposal as a unit language; syntactic-phonetic whole, which has a syntactic structure, semantic completeness and intonation form.

Language- a means of general-I, accumulation and exchange of information with the help of sounds / def class of knowledge systems / some real noun system of isp in defining society / many dialects.

Language type - groups I arr by similarity.

1. The place of linguistics in the system of sciences.

Linguistics- the science of languages ​​of the past, present and future. Tasks of linguistics as a science 1) it is necessary to study I in I 2) to study I by foreigners. The connection between linguistics and other sciences... 1) if language is a communicative system of signs, then language has close ties with the science of the general theory of signs ( semiotics)- study of any sign system as a means of designating and transmitting meaning (types of codes, animal alarm fonts, signs of maps of drawings, finger technique of the deaf and dumb). 2) if I am a social phenomenon, then the science of language is associated with sociology ( the structure of society, the use of language by various social associations 3) if I am associated with thinking, then linguistics is associated with logic 4) mk Linguistics has speech as its subject, and this is a psychophysical process. Connection of linguistics with psychology and physiology. Psychology studies thinking. The speech act is studied by physiology (articulation, perception of speech by the organs of hearing) 5) Violation of speech, pathology - medicine. 6) Sound phenomena are studied by the physics section - acoustics 7) Ethnography ( ethnology) - folklore (songs, fairy tales, epics), the study of the life of the speakers of a particular language or dialect (dwelling, clothing, beliefs, superstitions) 8) Study of extinct ancient languages ​​and identification of their carriers, their area, i.e. areas of their distribution, their migration (resettlement) connects linguistics with archeology. 9) study of the origin of speech in primitive people, how are the signs of language and race connected or not connected - anthropology- the science of the biological nature of man, his structure. C / z anthropology linguistics mb connected with biology ( animal behavior) 10) Historical sciences ( history of language) 11) Geography(geographical facts through history can become linguistic factors) 12) Philology- "love of words", the study of everything that is connected with the word, with the written word, ie study of written monuments. 13) Maths- skills of prediction in linguistics. fourteen) Information theory(code is an arbitrary system of preset characters, alphabet is a set of code characters, text is a sequence of characters of a given message, channel is a medium through which code characters are transmitted, taking into account interference and noise, bit is a unit of information measurement, redundancy is the difference m / with the theoretically possible transmitting ability of any code and the average amount of transmitted information, entropy is a measure of missing information and uncertainty) - Algorithm - a set of exact rules for describing, coding or re-coding any information system. 15) Cybernetics- the machine translates texts from one language to another.

2. The structure of the science of me.

Linguistics - Linguistics - Linguistics. 1) theoretical(engaged in general problem I), a) general- engaging in sv-mi is inherent in any I (typological I) b) private- is studying the specific I (comparative-historical linguistics, lexicology) 2) applied(development of methods for solving practical problems - studying I, the composition of dictionaries, lexicography, translations ...) Dr principle of affairs-i 1) internal lingua(spelling, grammar, phonetics, lexicology, morphology) 2) external linguistics(sociolinguistic - interaction between I and the community, psycholinguistic - study of the generation and acceptance of speech), areal linguistics. Neuro-linguistic programmer does not belong to any of the above categories.