Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. speech apparatus
Phonetics(from Greek phone) - a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language, i.e. ways of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech flow, their role in the functioning of the language as a means of human communication, as well as stress and intonation.
You can study the phonetics of a language for different purposes, in different aspects. Depending on this, general and particular, descriptive and historical phonetics are distinguished.
General phonetics on the material of various languages, considers the methods and nature of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of vowels and consonants, the structure of the syllable, types of stress, etc. The sound structure of a particular language is studied private phonetics.
Descriptive (synchronic) phonetics explores the sound structure of a particular language at a certain stage of its historical development. Historical (diachronic) phonetics studies changes in the phonetic system that have occurred over a more or less long period of time.
Phonetics as one of the levels of the language system has its own specifics.
The sound units of a language (sounds), unlike its other units - morphemes, words, phrases, sentences - do not have a meaning. The word has a certain meaning, the suffix brings meaning to the word (for example, -tel, -ik). But we cannot establish the meaning of the vowel [o] or the consonant [d], they do not have an independent meaning. However, sounds serve to form other language units - lexical, grammatical (words and morphemes, phrases and sentences). Therefore, they say that the sound side of a language exists not by itself and not for itself, but in the grammar and vocabulary of a given language. Sound units and their combinations are realized in the vocabulary and grammatical structure, i.e. play a specific functional role.
sound and letter
Writing is like the clothes of oral speech. It conveys spoken language.
The sound is pronounced and heard, and the letter is written and read.
The indistinguishability of sound and letter makes it difficult to understand the structure of the language. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay wrote: whoever mixes sound and letter, writing and language, “he will only with difficulty unlearn, and maybe never unlearn to confuse a person with a passport, nationality with the alphabet, human dignity with rank and title”, those. entity with something external .
Sound as an object of phonetics
The focus of phonetics is sound.
Sound is studied from three sides, in three aspects:
1) the acoustic (physical) aspect considers speech sounds as a variety of sounds in general;
2) articulatory (biological) studies the sounds of speech as a result of the activity of the organs of speech;
3) the functional (linguistic) aspect considers the functions of speech sounds;
4) the perceptual aspect studies the perception of speech sounds.
The work (set of movements) of the organs of speech during the formation of sound is called articulation of sound.
The articulation of sound consists of three phases:
Excursion (attack)- the organs of speech move from the previous position to the position necessary for pronouncing this sound (Panov: “the exit of the organs of speech to work”).
Excerpt- the organs of speech are in the position necessary to pronounce the sound.
Recursion (indentation)- the organs of speech come out of their occupied position (Panov: "leaving work").
Phases interpenetrate each other, this leads to various kinds of changes in sounds.
The set of movements and positions of the organs of speech habitual for speakers of a given language is called articulation base.
Phonetics deals with the sound material of human speech. Phonetics studies the sound composition, sound structure and sound changes in the language and the patterns of these changes (from the Greek phone - voice).
In the sound composition of each language, phonemes are distinguished - the main units of the sound system and their varieties.
The first to develop the concept of a phoneme was Professor Baudouin de Courtenay of Kazan University. He emphasized that the selection of a phoneme is possible only if the entire system of phonemes of a given language is taken into account. Sound outside the system will not be the system. The sound system of any language consists of a certain number of phonemes. They themselves do not have meanings, but are potentially associated with meaning as elements of a single sign system. In combination with each other and often separately, they provide recognition (identification) and distinction (differentiation) of linguistic signs as meaningful units. So, due to the different composition of phonemes in the Russian words genus and glad, it is possible to recognize and distinguish between these words, English. -but-boot.
Phonemes perform their function of distinguishing words or word forms on the basis of their distinctive features. These features are distinguished from phonemes as a result of their opposition to each other in the system of a particular language. Therefore, in different languages distinguishing features may be different. So, for the Russian language, it is very important to contrast consonant phonemes in terms of hardness - softness (compare: was - beat, vases - elms, garden - sit down). There is no such opposition in English and French. In Russian, there is no opposition of vowels in longitude - brevity, but, for example, for in English this contrast is very significant.
Currently, they are talking not just about phonetics, but about phonetic sciences, each of which has its own subject and its own point of view on the sound structure of the language.
Phonetics in a broad sense considers:
1) how sounds are pronounced, more precisely, what is the physiological process of creating a sound (the so-called articulation of a sound), on the one hand, and 2) what are the acoustic properties of the sounds of a language, on the other hand,
3) how all these sound units and sound phenomena are used in the language as a means of communication.
Phonetics in a narrow sense considers these sound means in such aspects as physical (acoustic) and biological (articulatory plus perceptual). Sometimes it is divided into articulatory phonetics, which studies the production of sound, acoustic phonetics, which studies the result of sound production, and auditory (or perceptual) phonetics, which deals with the perception of sound.
Synchronic and historical (diachronic)
descriptive and normative
Theoretical and applied.
What is the point of studying the acoustic and physiological properties of sound? When learning new languages (or teaching someone a language), you need to take into account the properties of the sounds of a given language. It is also important to know them when developing an alphabet for a non-written language. The importance of phonetics for speech therapy is generally recognized. In all these cases, the applied, practical significance of phonetics clearly emerges.
But what is the significance of phonetics as a linguistic theoretical discipline? The theoretical meaning of studying the sound side of a language is that without taking into account sound changes, it is impossible to give scientific history no vocabulary, no grammar. It is impossible to understand sound changes without knowing the properties of sounds.
Sound characteristic
From an acoustic point of view, sound is the result of vibrations of an elastic body transmitted by the air medium. The human ear perceives sounds if the number of vibrations is not less than 16 and not more than 20 thousand per second. (if the number of oscillations is more than 20 thousand, then they are perceived as a sensation of pain in the ears).
Depending on the nature of the oscillations, tones and noises are created. Tones are obtained if the oscillation is rhythmic in nature, noises are generated in the absence of rhythm.
In sound, strength, pitch, duration and timbre are distinguished.
The strength of the sound depends on the amplitude of the vibrations: the larger the amplitude, the stronger the sound.
The pitch of the sound depends on the number of vibrations, the more vibrations per second, the higher the sound.
The duration (longitude or duration) of the sound depends on how long the oscillation lasts.
The timbre of the sound depends on the relationship between the main tone and side tones.
Regarding the sounds of human speech, it should be noted:
a) most speech sounds are noisy, do not represent pure tones.
b) the strength of the sound of speech is determined by the force of the pressure of the jet of exhaled air on the vocal cords or other places of the obstruction.
c) the pitch of speech sounds is determined by the length and tension of the vocal cords. In children, in women, the vocal cords are shorter, the tension is greater, the pitch is also correspondingly increased.
d) vowels are longer than consonants
e) the timbre of speech sounds is determined by the volume and shape of the oral and nasal cavities, as well as the pharyngeal cavity.
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6. Phonetics, sound, vowels and consonants
Phonetics is a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language, i.e. ways of formation and change of sounds in speech, as well as their acoustic properties.
Sound as a unit of language.
Sound is the smallest indivisible unit of speech, which is the result of human articulatory activity.
Sounds are vowels and consonants.
All sounds in Russian are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowels (6 pcs.) - These are speech sounds, during the formation of which the air stream freely passes through the vocal cords, they consist mainly of a voice tone with no noise at all.
Table 1.
RiseFrontMiddleRear ranks Upper and middle e Lower aNote: the rise of the tongue to the sky is the way of formation, the row is the place of formation (the place of the rise of the tongue).
Depending on whether the stress falls on the vowel in the word or not, all vowel sounds are divided into stressed (characterized by full pronunciation) and unstressed (reduced) sounds.
Consonant sounds (37 pieces) are speech sounds, during the pronunciation of which the air stream meets various obstacles, they consist of noise or voice and noise.
From how voice and noise participate in the formation of consonant sounds, consonant sounds are divided into:
Noisy, which in turn are divided into voiced (formed by noise with the help of voice): [b], [c], [g] [e] [g] [h] [b "] [c"] [g"] [ d "] [h"]; and deaf (formed only with the help of noise): [n], [f], [k], [t], [w], [s], [x], [c], [h "], [n"], [f"], [k"], [x"]. [t "], [s"].
Consonants are divided into solid ([b], [p], [c], [f], [d], [t], [h], [s], [c], [g], [w], [g], [k], [x], [m], [l], [n], [p]) and soft ([b "], [p"], [c "], [f"] , [d"], [t"], [s"], [s"], [g"],,, [m"] [l"], [n"], [r"]).
Consonant sounds can be paired with each other according to DEAFNESS-VORONITY ([b] - [p], - [n "], [c] - [f], [c "] - [f "], [d] - [t ], [d "] - [t"], [s] - [s], [s "] - [s"], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], [g "] - [k "]) and by HARDNESS-SOFTNESS ([b] - [b"], [p] - [p "]. [B] - [B"], [f] - [f "], [D ] - [D "], [t] - [t "], [h] - [h "], [s] -, [g] - [g "], [m] - [m "], [l ] - [l "], [n] - [n"], [r] - [r "]).
Some consonants are not included in these pairs, they are called unpaired: voiced [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p"],, deaf sounds [x], [c], [h "], solid sounds[g], [w], [c] and soft [h "], [u"], .
Because of their sound, the sounds [g], [w], [h] are called hissing, and [h], [s] - whistling. The sounds [c] and [h] are called affricai. since they are a fused combination of sounds: [ts] and [tsh].
Strong and weak positions of sounds.
In speech, all sounds are either in strong (pronounced more clearly) or in weak position. The stressed position is strong for vowel sounds, and the unstressed one is weak (cf. do?m - at home?). For consonants, the position before the vowels [a], [o], [y], [i], [s], (mushrooms) is strong, and the weak one is at the end of the owl (mushroom - [flu], position before voiced and deaf consonants, in which consonants paired by deafness-voicedness do not differ (passage [passage]).
Boris Elena
Phonetics as a branch of linguistics
2. Russian sounds language
2.1 Vowel sounds
2.2 Consonants
3. Word stress
4. Syllabification
3. Concept phonetic position
4. Positional exchange of vowels and consonants
5. Positional changes in vowels and consonants
Modern Russian language is National language Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It represents a historical linguistic commonality and unites the whole linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons. The highest form of national Russian language is a Russian literary language, which has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of existence language: processing, normalization, breadth of social functioning, universal obligation for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various areas of communication [in].
In the course of modern Russian language is represented by a number of sections. This is vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics, graphics, spelling, orthoepy, word formation, morphology, syntax and punctuation.
Phonetics(from Greek phone) - section of linguistics studying the sound side language, i.e., methods of education (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech flow, their role in the functioning language as a means of communication between people, as well as stress and intonation.
There are general and particular, descriptive and historical phonetics.
General phonetics based on various languages considers the methods and nature of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of vowels and consonants, the structure of the syllable, types of stress, etc. The sound system of a particular language is studied by private phonetics.
descriptive (synchronous) phonetics explores the sound structure of a particular language at a certain stage of its historical development. historical (diachronic) phonetics studies changes in the phonetic system over a more or less long period of time.
1. Phonetic units of the Russian language.
Sound units phonetics divided into segments (linear)- sound, syllable phonetic word, speech tact (syntagma, phrase - and supersigment (nonlinear)- accent and intonation.
Phrase is the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.
speech beat (or syntagma) most often consists of several words, united by one stress and characterized by the intonation of incompleteness [c].
Phonetic word - a segment of the sound chain, united by one verbal stress.
A syllable is a part of a measure consisting of one or more sounds and pronounced in one breath.
Phoneme - the sound unit of the language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds and serving to distinguish and identify significant units language - words and morphemes. main function phonemes- semantic. The founder of the phonological theory of Russian language is AND. A. Courtenay, who in the 70s of the 20th century opposed the concept of sound to the concept phonemes [p].
Sound is formed as a result of speech activity, the activity of the human speech apparatus in complex interaction with the central nervous system. Sound is the shortest sound unit in speech.
Sound is studied from three sides, in three aspects:
1. acoustic (physical) aspect considers the sounds of speech in terms of their physical characteristics: longitude, strength, pitch, timbre.
2. articulatory (biological) studies the sounds of speech as a result of the activity of the organs of speech;
3. Phonological (functional) aspect phonetics studies the proper linguistic side of sounds, that is, their function in the process of communication as signs for the formation of word discrimination.
4. The perceptual aspect studies the perception of speech sounds.
Work (set of movements) organs of speech in the formation of sound is called the articulation of sound.
Articulation of sound consists of three phases:
1. Excursion (attack)- the organs of speech move from the previous position to the position necessary to pronounce this sound
2. Exposure - the organs of speech are in the position necessary to pronounce the sound.
3. Recursion (indent)- return of organs to a neutral position or transition to the articulation of the next sound [b].
Phases interpenetrate each other, this leads to various kinds of changes in sounds.
The set of habitual for speakers of a given language movements and positions of the speech organs are called the articulatory base.
2. Russian sounds language.
Each sound is formed as a result of the activity of the human speech apparatus, in a complex interaction with the central nervous system. The air stream coming from the lungs is modeled by the vibrations of the vocal cords located in the larynx (voice source) and the obstacles created by the speech organs in the mouth and nose (closing or drawing together of the lips, language and sky, etc.. - Noise source. Acoustic properties (sound effect) sounds depend on the size and shape of the supraglottic cavities, which play the role of a resonator.
2.1. Vowel sounds.
Vowel sounds are the sounds of speech formed by the free passage of an air stream through the vocal cords, which consist mainly of voice (voice tone) with almost no noise. The basis for the classification of vowels by their articulation put:
1) the degree of backrest language(way of education): upper vowels rise: [and], [s], [y]; vowels of the middle rise [e], [o]; low vowel [a];
2) backrest lift language(place of formation): front vowels row: [i], [e]; middle vowels row: [s], [a]; back vowels row: [y], [o].
3) participation or non-participation lips: labilized vowels (rounded [o], [y]; non-labilized (not rounded): [a], [e], [i], [s].
According to the width of the mouth opening (which is related to the degree of backrest lifting language) vowels divided into broad(acoustically louder): [but]; medium (acoustically average sonority): [e], [o]; narrow (acoustically less sonorous): [and], [s], [y] [p].
2.2 Consonants.
Consonant sounds are speech sounds, consisting either of one noise, or of voice and noise, which is formed in the pronunciation organs, where the air stream exhaled from the lungs meets various obstacles. The classification of consonants is based on the following features. [R]
2) at the place of noise generation,
3) according to the method of noise generation,
4) by the absence or presence of softness.
Participation of noise and voice. According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorants are consonants formed with the help of a voice and a slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], ["], [s ], [h "], [j], , ["], , formed by noise with the participation of the voice. To noisy voiceless consonants relate: [n], [p "], [f], [f "], [k], [k"], [t], [t"], [s], [s"], [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of voice (see § 62).
The location of the noise. Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or language) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or language, consonants can be labial [b], [p] [m] and labial [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [r] ; middle-lingual - mid-palatal [j]; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].
Noise generation methods. Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k], fricative [c], [f], [s], [h ], [w], [g], [j], [x], affricates [c], [h], stop- walk-through: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants)[R].
Hardness and softness of consonants. Absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of midpalatal articulation language, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it are called hard.
A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlative in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic terms(before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) do not differ and coincide in their sound. Compare: rose - dew and rose - grew [grew - grew]. So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.
The correlative series of deaf and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants differ in the presence of a voice (voiced) or lack thereof (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p "] [j] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c] , [h "] - unpaired deaf. [c].
3. Word stress.
In the speech flow, phrasal, clock and verbal stress is distinguished.
Word stress is the emphasis during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs of an independent word. Service words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one with them. phonetic word.
Russian language inherently forceful (dynamic) stress, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with unstressed ones with greater tension of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than its corresponding unstressed sound. Russian accent heterogeneous: it can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit). Variation of stress is used in Russian language to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and separate forms of various words (mine - mine, and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - well done). The mobility and immobility of the accent serves additional means in the formation of forms of the same words: stress either remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ov, etc., or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -y, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.).
Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Functional words and particles are usually devoid of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that the preposition with the following one independent word has one stress: [for-winter], [out-of-town], [under-evening].
Weakly impacted can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives to be and become, some of the introductory words.
4. Syllabification.
The structure of the syllable in Russian language obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in the syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous.
Initial and final syllables in Russian language built on the same principle of increasing sonority.
syllable section when combining significant words, it is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word that is part of the phrase
private regularity syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonants within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word.
The recording of oral speech in full accordance with its sound cannot be carried out by ordinary spelling. In orthographic writing, there is no complete correspondence between sounds and letters, there are no signs in the graphics necessary to record all the sounds of oral speech. These difficulties are eliminated by a special type of writing, which is called phonetic transcription.
Bibliography
1. Bondarenko L.V. Phonetics modern Russian language. SPb., 1998
2. Valgina N. S., Rosenthal D. E., Fomina M. I. Modern Russian language: Textbook / Edited by N. S. Valgina - 6th ed., Revised. and additional - M.: Logos, 2002. - 528 p.
3. Rosenthal D. E., Golub I. B., Telenkova M. A. Modern Russian language. -12th ed., - M.: Iris Press, 2013. -448 p.
Most experts consider phonology (the study of the functional side of speech sounds) as a section (part) of phonetics (the study of speech sounds); some see the two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.
The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not limited to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).
Phonetics- a section of linguistics in which the sound structure of the language is studied, that is, the sounds of speech, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three aspects of speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:
- 1. Acoustics of speech. She studies physical signs speech.
- 2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. It studies the biological signs of speech, that is, the work performed by a person during pronunciation (articulation) or perception of speech sounds.
The subject of phonetics is the close relationship between oral, internal and written speech. Unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics studies not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers. Unlike non-linguistic disciplines, phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into a material sound form, without which communication is impossible. In accordance with the fact that the sound side of the language can be considered in the acoustic-articulatory and functional-linguistic aspects, phonetics proper and phonology are distinguished in phonetics. phonetics sound speech morphemic
Among the linguistic sciences phonetics occupies a special place. Phonetics deals with the material side of the language, with sound means devoid of independent meaning.
Distinguish between general and private phonetics, or the phonetics of individual languages. General phonetics studies general terms and Conditions sound formation, based on the capabilities of the human pronunciation apparatus (for example, labial, anterior-lingual, posterior-lingual consonants are distinguished, if we mean the pronunciation organ that determines the main features of the consonant, or occlusive, slotted, if we mean the method of forming a barrier to the air stream passing from the lungs, necessary for the formation of a consonant), and also analyzes the acoustic characteristics of sound units, for example, the presence or absence of a voice when pronouncing different types consonants. Universal classifications of sounds (vowels and consonants) are built, which are based partly on articulatory, partly on acoustic features. General Phonetics also studies the patterns of combinations of sounds, the influence of the characteristics of one of the neighboring sounds on others ( different kind accommodation or assimilation), coarticulation; the nature of the syllable, the laws of combining sounds into syllables and the factors that determine syllable division; phonetic organization of the word, in particular stress. She studies the means that are used for intonation; pitch of voice, strength (intensity), duration separate parts sentences, breaks.
Phonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound system of a language and the functioning of sounds in a language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is oppositions ( opposition) phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.
Phonemma is the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words).
Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.
Phonology is often singled out as a discipline separate from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - the acoustics of speech and the physiology of speech are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.
