The grammatical meaning is short. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word
Grammatical meaning- a part of the meaning (content) of a word or sentence that receives a mandatory formal expression as part of a word or sentence.
There are two types of meanings of linguistic units in a language: lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning words are the subject of vocabulary, and grammatical meaning is the subject of grammar. Lexical meaning is the specific, objective meaning of a word. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that this is a reflection of a fragment of the surrounding world in a word (see. Lexical meaning of a word).
The difference between the lexical meaning and the grammatical one is to a greater extent the abstraction of the latter, in its obligatory and regular, rather standard formal expression in the language. The grammatical meaning is more abstract: it does not name objects, signs, actions, etc., but classifies words, combines them into groups according to certain characteristics, links words in syntactic constructions. Grammatical abstraction is a distraction from a specific meaning, the isolation of grammatical features and relationships that characterize a whole class of words. Each part of speech is characterized by a specific set of grammatical meanings. For example, a noun has the meaning of gender, number and case, a verb has the meaning of tense, mood, etc.
Grammatical meanings are mandatory in the language: this means that they are expressed in a word or sentence without fail, regardless of the speaker's wishes. For example, when reporting an event, a Russian speaker must definitely note whether the event occurs now, it happened earlier, or it can only happen in the future, that is, indicate the tense of the verb. The noun necessarily refers to the masculine, feminine or neuter gender, has the form of number and case, etc.
The grammatical meaning is always formally expressed in the composition of a word or sentence. There are various ways of expressing grammatical meaning.
1. In Russian, grammatical meanings are most often expressed using the ending (inflection): cat - cats (number), cat - cat (case), go - go (face), etc.
2. Sometimes the grammatical meaning can be expressed through the alternation of sounds: name - name (category of the species), run - run (category of mood).
3. Grammatical meanings can also be expressed using stress: cut - cut (type meaning).
4. Grammatical meanings can be expressed by combining forms from different bases into one paradigm: man - people (category of number), I - me (category of case).
5. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by repeating the word: kind-kind (superlative adjective).
6. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by official words: I will read (the meaning of the future tense), I would read (the meaning of the subjunctive mood).
7. The grammatical meaning can be expressed using the word order in the sentence: the mother loves her daughter, the chair scratches the table (subject-object relations are formed by the subject and the object).
8. The grammatical meaning can be expressed with the help of intonation: He came. He came?
Standard and regular means of expression have grammatical meaning, that is, in most cases, homogeneous grammatical meanings are expressed by the same (standard) morphemes. So, for example, the instrumental case of nouns of the 1st declension is represented by the ending -th (s): girl, bird, dad, boys, etc., and the instrumental case of nouns of the 2nd declension is represented by the ending -th (s): boy, hammer, field, etc. The grammatical meaning is expressed, as a rule, regularly, that is, it forms paradigms - patterns of inflection, into which you can substitute any word of the same grammatical characteristic and get the correct form (see Paradigm). Therefore, the grammatical system is easily structured and can be presented in the form of tables (for example, tables of declension of nouns or conjugation of verbs).
Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
The lexical meaning of a word is a reflection in a word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.)
The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table is a masculine noun), as an element of an inflectional series (table, table, table, etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with in other words (table leg, put the book on the table).
The lexical meaning of a word is individual: it is inherent in a given word and by this it delimits a given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes whole categories and classes of words; it is categorical.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to one part of speech - a noun, to one grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - a singular.
An important feature of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the meaning of the lexical one, is the obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meanings (with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.).
NS.). So, pronouncing the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such signs of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table) ... All these signs of the table form are its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection (on the concept of zero inflection, see the section "Morphology" // Russian language: In 2 hours / Edited by L. Yu. Maksimov. - Part II .- M., 1989).
Pronouncing the word form with a table (for example, in the sentence Barred the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express the grammatical meanings of the instrumental case (cf. endings that serve to express other case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine gender (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. stol-ami). The lexical meaning of the word table - ‘a piece of home furniture, which is a surface made of solid material, fixed on one or more legs, and serves to put or put something on it’ - in all case forms of this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root stem stol-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
More on the topic § 52. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATIC MEANING OF THE WORD:
- 7. Word as the main nominative unit of language. Word signs. The grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.
- A2. Lexical norms (use of a word in accordance with the exact lexical meaning and the requirement of lexical compatibility, paronyms).
Grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; the differences between these two value types are as follows:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, therefore they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb form is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical meaning, therefore it characterizes only a certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw bureaucracy like a wolf (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental (meaning of comparison: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general category); such are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantitative in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of the word is supplemented and concretized by particular (private-categorical) grammatical meanings; so, a noun is characterized by private-category grammatical meanings of animateness ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical, and the lexical does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.
For example: the ocean is a person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical - noun, singular, I.p) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; walking, walking; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - by alternating sounds and stress (to die - to die; oils - special oils), as well as supportive, i.e. formations from different roots (man - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with the alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
In the analytical method, grammatical meanings are expressed outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
In a mixed or hybrid way, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning prepositional case expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person - by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: there is an ending in a verb - ut expresses both a person, and a number, and a mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of opposed morphological forms with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - write - write indicate a person and therefore are combined into a verbal grammatical category of a person; forms I wrote - I write - I will write express time and form a category of time, word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of numbers, etc. You can also say that grammatical categories are formed particular morphological paradigms. In general, grammatical categories have three characteristics.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems... The number of members opposed to each other in the grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and as a whole (in a synchronous cut) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented as one or several single-functional forms. So, the grammatical category of the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by the singular forms (table, book, pen), the other - by the forms plural(tables, books, pens). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, the verb has three faces, two kinds, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined in different ways, which is actually connected not with the volume of the category, but with the assessment of its components. So, in nouns 6, 9, 10 and large quantity cases. However, this reflects only different methods of case selection. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system is regulated in it. existing types declensions.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: I write means the first person, write - the second, write - the third; a table, a book, a pen indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate the plural, the large is masculine, the large is feminine, and the large is medium, the large form does not indicate the gender.
3) Forms that form morphological categories should be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of the grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for highlighting a grammatical category. Without this generality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories allocated in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and service parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words that are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words related to one part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part of speech (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate / inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of one part of speech have derivational affinity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech are distinguished, as well as interjections.
Independent parts of speech are used to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent members of a sentence, carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, full and non-significant words are opposed. Full-denominational words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most of adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and non-denominational words (these are pronouns and pronouns) only indicate objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.
Another distinction is important within the framework of independent parts of speech: nouns (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (inflected in cases) are opposed to the verb as parts of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change in mood, tenses, persons) ...
Service parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name the phenomena of reality, but denote the relations that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent members of the sentence, usually they do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah! Hurray! Etc.) are not included in the number of independent or official parts of speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker's feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for distinguishing parts of speech should be, first of all, grammatical. First, such grounds are the syntactic properties of a word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of the sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relations between the members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, morphological features of words are essential: their mutability or immutability, the nature of grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on the foregoing, all words of the Russian language are divided into sentences included in the grammatical composition and not included in this composition. The former represent the overwhelming majority of words. Among them, the words significant and service stand out.
Significant words are independent members of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, status category.
Significant words are called parts of speech. Among the significant words, according to the morphological feature of mutability-immutability, there are, on the one hand, names and a verb, on the other, an adverb and a category of state.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - are different syntactic function(adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of a state is a predicate of an impersonal sentence: "I am sad because you are having fun" (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of a state category are capable of controlling ("I am sad", "fun you ";" How fun, having shoes with iron sharp feet, Glide on the mirror of standing, even rivers! "- P.).
Service words (they are also called speech particles) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun to other words, unions establish a connection between the members of a sentence and parts complex sentence... Particles are involved in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentences (for example, interrogative). Words that are not included in the grammatical composition of the sentence include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, perhaps, perhaps, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker's attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like service words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
The words act as building material for the language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to associate in combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The section of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
The grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies a word and its change.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.
Thus, word is an object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar, on the other hand, studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its features and properties. If word difference is important for vocabulary House and smoke, table and chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most total value, inherent in a number of words, independent of their real-material content.
For example, the words smoke and House have different lexical meanings: House- this is a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it; smoke- aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change in cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, component parts complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is an grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using service words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, intonation.
Each grammatical meaning is expressed in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form assumes the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, inside a word (consists of one word): was reading- verb past tense.
When grammatical meaning is expressed outside of a token is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, the singular and plural meanings are combined into a number system. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of the species, etc.
Each grammatical category possesses a number grammatical forms... The collection of all possible forms of this word called the word paradigm. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm is:
universal- all forms (complete);
incomplete- there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, the adjective voiced in the phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has the forms of degrees of comparison: voiced, louder, most voiced). The same adjective in a phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of a voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, the verb run away in the meaning of "move quickly" is used only as an imperfect verb: He ran for a long time, until he fell down in complete exhaustion. The lexical meaning ("to escape") also determines another grammatical meaning - the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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Grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical categories of words
Grammar as a Science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, the morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of the language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changes in words and 2) the principles of their unification when constructing an utterance. According to the duality of the object, the traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything that is associated with the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form change refers to morphology. All phenomena associated with the syntagmatics of a word, as well as with the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belongs to the syntactic sphere of the language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the assignment of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax is often conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of the language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of the language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir A. Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetric: only fragments
reality, a person is inclined to perceive as if through a magnifying
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
deformation ”of reality is one of the basic properties of human cognition.
The grammatical values are exactly the values that fall into the field
magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for using
a given language system of meaning.
2.Grammatical meaning.
Grammar focuses on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. The grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed expression in the language 3). For example, in the sentence Petrov - student the following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of the statement of a fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed in descending intonation)
the meaning of the fact that a fact is related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; compare: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
the meaning of the singular (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, masculine gender).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about syntagmatic connections of the word
information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Scherbs: Glockaya kuzdra shteko barked the sides and curls the bokrynka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. The listener, for example, it is clear to which parts of speech all words of this phrase refer, what between budlanula and bora there is a relationship between an object and an action, that one action has already taken place in the past, while the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generalization
mandatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of a number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
The prevalence for a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in Russian express the meanings of the species, mood, person and number.
The closed list: if the lexical system of each language is open and constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then the grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, in Russian nouns these are gender, number and case meanings.
By the typification of expression: grammatical meanings are transmitted in languages in strictly defined ways - with the help of means specially assigned to them: affixes, service words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical ones. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but non-grammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages the name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of certainty / ambiguity is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages, and non-grammatical in Russian, where articles are missing.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the framework of the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (using different types of affixes: walking - walking);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari- white, farfaru- white in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (go - go)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes a separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of full-sign morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (service words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let it go away). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a service element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings prevail in the language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: the synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and the analytical type (in which the tendency towards analyticism prevails). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in the language. In synthetic languages, the word retains its grammatical characteristics outside the sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires a grammatical characteristic only in a sentence.
The grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of the opposition of one linguistic unit to another. So, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. The grammatical category can be defined as a series of opposed homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by formal indicators (affixes, official words, intonation, etc.). In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for the values to be opposed according to some attribute, they must also have some common feature... So, the present can be opposed to the past and the future, since they all relate to the sequence of the described events. In this regard, another definition of the grammatical category can be given: it is a unity of some grammatical meaning and formal means of expression that actually exists in the language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of tense), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and the means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, service word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposed members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationship between them, the more features in the content of each grammatical category.
Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong different forms the same word. For example, a case category. Each noun has the form of a nominative, genitive, etc. case: table, table, table, table, table, about table... In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong different words... The word cannot be changed according to the classifying attribute. For example, the category of gender in nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but the bed, the beds, the bed are feminine. However, the gender of the noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since the forms of the agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the angle of view under which reality is considered, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammatical categories of words
The grammatical categories of words must be distinguished from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of opposed grammatical forms with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category, such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
The semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and affect the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. So, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within the parts of speech, smaller groupings are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way they form the grammatical forms of the words they contain. These are groupings of words by the type of conjugation (conjugation classes), by the type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
