Funds syntactic connection and construction of syntactic units

To build syntactic units, lexical, phonetic, morphological, syntactic means are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic links and relations.

Morphological means- these are word forms and their elements, endings and prepositions. The main function of the ending is to express syntactic links and relationships between word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences. The role of endings in the design of a subordinate relationship is especially important: in coordination and management:

Was reading a book- ending in n. - the connection is subordinate.

The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement, reinforce, specify the semantics of word forms, which include: at home– near the house, in front of the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house etc.

Important role in the construction of syntactic constructions play lexical means languages ​​that are called typed. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative ( who, what, which, where, whither etc.), pointers ( this, that, such and others in different forms; there, there, therefore and under.); lexico-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections). So, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, the lexical and grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( shine, frost etc.) forms the structural center of one-component impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech (to speak, to say, etc.) - a component of sentences with direct speech, etc. For example, verbs of speech, thoughts - said that- this is a signal for an explanatory construction; a group of words in the category of state, for example, constitutes a group of impersonal sentences.

One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, constituent elements which is the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), the rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as the logical stress that highlights the informative center in the sentence.

Intonation is included in the number of essential features of the sentence, since it is one of the indicators of completeness, the integrity of the sentence in oral speech; intonation shapes types simple sentences, allocated according to the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relations between members of sentences, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the speech meaning of a sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. The intonational characteristic of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) is often given with the help of lexico-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the mode of action, with verbs of speech: with reproach, with reproach...; angry, joyful...; fast slow...; quiet, loud...; with emphasis on... etc.

Syntactic means:

1) official words;

2) word order.

I. Unions , connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after and others express the meaning of time, because that, since, for etc. - the meaning of the cause, so- the meaning of the consequence.

Particles and their combinations can form:

a) inseparable sentences ( Yes. No. But how! So what! Still would! etc.),

b) act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.: That's all what I see in front of me.

II. For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. Word order in a sentence performs the following functions:

a) communicative - highlights an important message;

b) grammatical - delimits ch. and secondary. sentence members: Life is harmony. Harmony is life.

c) self-semantic function - a change in shades of meaning: About thirty boys and girls sat in the classroom. - expressed as an approximate number.

d) stylistic function: I take yellowing strands.

Means of expressing a syntactic link

Syntactic links have certain means of expression: formal and informal.

Formal means include:

• 1) endings (since the Russian language is inflectional), prepositions, conjunctions and allied words;
• 2) word order in a simple sentence, coupled with syntagmatic articulation, which combines syntactically related word forms in a speech stream into one rhythmic-intonational group:

I visited my native places

That countryside

Where did he live as a boy

Where is the watchtower with a birch tower

The bell tower without a cross shot up.

(S. Yesenin)

Only the location of the prepositional-substantive combination without a cross next to the noun Bell tower allows you to combine them in one syntagma. According to the meaning, this combination could stand with other nouns: tower(no cross) tower(without the cross), but then the syntagmatic articulation of the sentence and the syntactic links between its members would be different. Wed: tower with birch tower and tower without a cross.

An informal means of syntactic communication is intonation. Of course, this only happens in spoken language. In Pushkin's lines:

And we will all die, if we do not have time soon

Find shelter; And where? woe, woe!

depending on whether you combine an intonationally distinguished adverb with a verb we'll have time or gain, the meaning of the statement changes.

... "Don't you see, tell something,"

The young man told me, pointing the distance with his finger.

When reading these lines, in accordance with punctuation marks, intonationally stands out as an introductory word tell. But in the absence of commas in the first line, it can be read and understood differently: "Don't you see, say something".

As part of the text, most of the sentences and parts of the text are also related in meaning and formally. Exist special means their connections, primarily in book styles (scientific, journalistic).

1. Noun repetition(without definition or with definition). There are two cases of repetition:

• a) the repetition of a noun that ends a sentence at the beginning of another sentence. For example: Matter is in continuous movement. Movement is an essential property matter. Matter exists and moves in space and in time. Space and time are forms of being of matter; AT Russian Federation recognized and guaranteed local government. Local government within the limits of their powers independently(Constitution of the Russian Federation) ;
• b) the repetition of the same noun at the beginning of each sentence. For example: are used and protected in Russia as the basis of the life and activity of peoples, living in the respective area. Earth and others Natural resources may be in private and other forms of municipal property(Constitution of the Russian Federation).

2. Personal pronouns 3 lit., used when we are talking about specific objects and persons, and a demonstrative pronoun this is, usually used when talking about generalized facts, events. For example: International treaties of the Russian Federation are part of its legal system. They define the rules of some federal laws; The main thing in marketing is a thorough and comprehensive study of the market, demand, taste and needs, orientation of the organization to meet these requirements, active influence on the market and existing demand, on the formation of needs and consumer preferences. it , as well as permanence, purposefulness of actions brings together marketing and public relations.

3. Words like then, here, from here, So, there, above, below. For example: We observe movements in everyday life. From here visualization of mechanical representations follows; Movement occurs not only in space, but also in time. Above , considering the subject of physics, we wrote, that space and time are inherent properties of matter.

4. Words like said, last, mentioned; both, the first, second. For example: Movement occurs as in space, as well as in time. From what has been said should, that in order to describe motion, it is necessary to decompose it into two main types - translational and rotational. First is such a movement, under which any line, associated with a moving body, remains parallel to itself.

5. Words and phrases like let's get down to, stop at, first of all, primarily, indicating a transition to a new question. For example: It was said above, that the point refers to the basic concepts of geometry. let's move on to consider the projection of a point; First of all, let's turn To a question, which is of great importance in deciding physical tasks; Let's set , the candidate spoke seriously, - What are we talking about? What is the subject of our conversation?(V. Shukshin).

6. Words and phrases like then (Further), Moreover, simultaneously, at the same time, firstly, Secondly, used when continuing a conversation on an issue. For example: At the end of the XIX century. introduced the concept of quantum. Then the electron was discovered; Further we turn to the consideration of two elementary concepts of geometry - a point and a line; Besides , promotion of social, racial, national, religious and linguistic inequality; A little historical background, I say. But, firstly , not you, and you. And secondly , Vladimir Mikhailovich Bastrygin is me(G. Nemchenko).

7. Words and phrases ( and) finally, Finally, all this, so, used at the end of a closing sentence. For example: Automation is characterized by the use technical means and use mathematical methods calculation. Finally , automation is characterized by the use of control systems, which release a person from direct participation in production; So , management as an activity carries out communication management, communications of the organization and the social environment.

8. Words and phrases like So, for example, exemplify, give an example; according to, He speaks, writes; let, allowable, imagine. For example: Oscillatory processes lie at the very basis of various branches of technology. So , all radio engineering is based on oscillatory processes; As they say (they say ) witnesses, the accident occurred through the fault of the victim; Let (allowable ) the body has moved from point A to point B; But the phenomenon was recently discovered, that's why I'm asking. Natural philosophy, allowable, determine so, strategic philosophy is completely different ...(V. Shukshin).

The subject of syntax.Units of the syntax of the Russian language.Means of expression synth. values ​​in Russian. The concept of syntactic form.

syntax is a section of linguistics, the subject of which is the syntactic structure of the language, i.e. its syntactic units and connections and relations between them. Units of syntax are phrases, syntactic sentences. The means of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase, compared with a sentence, are rather limited: 1) word forms; 2) prepositions; 3) stable word order. One can speak very narrowly about intonation as a means of conveying syntactic relations in relation to a phrase: only as a means of detecting the core word and the dependent word.

The means of expressing syntactic relations in a sentence are as follows: 1) word forms; 2) service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles); 3) word order; 4) intonation. A sentence is the minimum unit of the top level of a syntactic system that has communicative significance; units of a lower level are singled out from the sentence - phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or being converted into sentences; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate syntactic units from themselves even more low level-syntactic forms of words. The latter, under appropriate conditions, are also capable of acquiring independent communicative significance or being included in the sentence as its structural element. Thus, sentences can also consist of phrases, whole or transformed, and of separate word forms. So, in the sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are singled out bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence On the street it is dark there are no phrases, the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence It’s dark on a deserted street, the word form on the street is distributed by an agreed part of speech, as a result of which the phrase deserted street appears, but this combination itself does not depend on a single word (cf .: It’s dark on a deserted street. - Being on a deserted street).

The phrase as a syntactic unit. The form and meaning of the phrase. Types of syntactic relations between the components of a phrase. Phrase and other combinations of words in a sentence.

A phrase is a semantic and grammatical combination of two (or several) significant words or word forms, showing their subordinating properties: a civilized society, a rocket flight, a desire to work, fly by plane, love sports, go to the city, stay in an apartment, lie on the ground, read aloud, a person of strong character, ready to fight, free from prejudice, economically advantageous. The phrase serves as a means of nomination and is built according to a certain pattern: a noun and an agreed adjective, a verb and a controlled word form, etc. The components of a phrase are: 1) the main word (or core) and 2) the dependent word. The main word is a grammatically independent word. A dependent word is a word that formally obeys the requirements coming from the main word. Word forms that make up phrases are in certain syntactic relationships, which are built on the basis of the interaction of the lexical meanings of these words and their grammatical forms. All the variety of these relations is generally reduced to the main ones: attributive, objective, subjective, adverbial and complex. Attributive relations arise during the semantic-grammatical interaction of nouns: 1) with adjectives: a beautiful girl, a milestone, a bear's den, useful work, Active participation; 2) with consistent pronouns: my book, our child, some object, every person; 3) with ordinal numbers: the first campaign, the sixth house, the thirtieth round; 4) with full forms of participles: a loving woman, green fields, a cooked dinner, a solved problem, an edited manuscript. The attribution of such phrases is primarily based on the general lexical meaning noun - on its objectivity (it is natural for an object to have features that define it) and on the general lexical meaning of the parts of speech combined with it, capable of denoting features. On this basis, the formal consistency of the components of the phrase is also built. However, attributive relations arise when nouns are combined with some other parts of speech; 5) with prepositional and non-prepositional forms of nouns: a letter from Volgograd, a habit from childhood, a bottle of cream, fatigue from exertion, shoulder-length hair, a jar lid, a house near a river, love without hope, striped trousers, a man with a gun , a gazebo under the mountain, bound books, jam on molasses; hotel gate, father's house, grief of separation, wedge beard; 6) with adverbs: riding at a pace, the house opposite, barbecue in Caucasian style; 7) with the infinitive: the desire to learn, the decision to go, the need to rest, the ability to hear, the opportunity to leave. Object relations arise during the semantic-grammatical interaction of verbs, including participles and participles, with nouns and less often with the infinitive. Such relationships are primarily characteristic of phrases with a verb that requires the accusative case of a direct object to be extended: buy a book, put on a dress, invite a friend, think over a decision, write a letter. These phrases are semantically limited: the main word in them denotes an action, state, perception, feeling, and the dependent word means the object of this action, perception, feeling: to fish, catch a hare, love a friend, wait for a brother; the verb can also denote movement, and the noun can have an object-spatial meaning: cross the road, cross the street. Object relations also arise when verbs of different semantic classes are combined with other cases without prepositions: with the genitive part - drink water, buy milk; with the dative of the person or object to which the action is directed - object to the speaker, trust a friend, worship beauty; with creative tools - write with a pencil, chop with an ax, etc. Nouns with prepositions also enter into object relations with verbs: to learn from a friend, to be treated by a doctor, to sing for listeners, to attach to a house, to touch a hand, to knock on a door, to wrap oneself in a shawl, to give thanks for kindness, to hit the ground, to talk about life , quarrel with a friend, send for a doctor, take pity on a person, work on a machine. Other parts of speech can also act as dependent words in verb phrases - pronouns, numerals, quantitative-nominal combinations and, of course, substantiated adjectives and participles: wait for him, invite many friends, see two, interview students, visit the patient. Subject relations characterize phrases, the occurrence of which is associated with a special type of verb sentences, as well as with passive phrases. Such phrases are based on the lexical and grammatical nature of passive verbs and passive participles. The dependent form of a noun in them denotes an acting person or object (active case). For example: given by people, planted by the father, returned by the brother, occupied by the enemy (district), spoiled by life, overturned by the wind, inspired by memories, muffled by the siren, liberated by the army.

By analogy with verbs, some substantive phrases with subject relations can also be formed: release by the medical commission, discussion by the government. Subjective relations are also characteristic of some phrases with a dependent word in the form of the genitive case, for example: the arrival of the father, the departure of the commander, the appearance of the car. In such cases, the relationship "action and actor or object" is also established.

Circumstantial relations are characteristic of verb phrases, since various adverbial meanings always accompany certain actions and states and are based on lexical procedurality. Circumstantial relationships are concretized as definitive circumstantial: run fast, speak excitedly, love passionately, look menacingly, remember often, look affectionately; temporary: arrive in the evening, return in a year, wait a minute, meet in the morning, happen at night; spatial: go through the forest, stay nearby, live in a hotel, leave the table, walk near the house, settle three kilometers from the city; causal: to make a mistake out of ignorance, to say by mistake, to forget out of absent-mindedness, to liquidate as unnecessary, to rejoice foolishly, to say hastily; target: fall on purpose, say jokingly, come on a date, go on vacation, go on vacation, give as a keepsake, save in reserve, keep in case. Complementary (replenishing) relationships arise from the need for some words in the obligatory semantic addition. The dependent word form makes up for the informative insufficiency of the core word. For example: four corners, to be called a guest, to be known as a simpleton. A sentence is the minimum unit of the top level of a syntactic system that has communicative significance; units of a lower level are singled out from the sentence - phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or being converted into sentences; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate from themselves syntactic units of an even lower level - syntactic forms of words. The latter, under appropriate conditions, are also capable of acquiring independent communicative significance or being included in a sentence as its structural element. Thus, sentences can consist of phrases, whole or transformed, and of separate word forms. So, in the sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are singled out bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence On the street it is dark there are no phrases, the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence It’s dark on a deserted street, the word form on the street is distributed by an agreed part of speech, as a result of which the phrase deserted street appears, but this combination itself does not depend on a single word (cf .: It’s dark on a deserted street. - Be on a deserted street).

Types of subordination of words in a phrase.

Subordinating syntactic connection at the level of a phrase always has a subordinate character. Subordinative connection is a direct and one-way directed connection, a connection between a subordinate and a subordinate. Such a connection is realized in three main ways: agreement, control and adjacency. Agreement is a type of subordinating connection in which the forms of the gender, number and case of the dependent word are predetermined by the forms of the gender, number and case of the word of the subordinate. Coordination can be complete: green grass, a little boy, wooden product (gender, number and case agreement) or incomplete: our doctor, former secretary (number and case agreement); Lake Baikal, on Lake Baikal (coordination in number); on seven winds, nine boys (case agreement). Management is a kind of subordinating relationship in which the subordinate word takes the form of one or another case, depending on the grammatical possibilities of the dominant word and the meaning it expresses. When managing, object relations are established (to write a letter, love for the motherland), subjective (arrival of a brother), complementary (four sons, a chair leg). Phrases built according to the type of control always express a relationship with the subject. A noun or its equivalent always acts as a controlled word form: approached a neighbor, approached a departing person. A verb, a name and an adverb can act as a dominant word in management; on this basis, the management of the verb is distinguished - buy a book, drive up to the house; adjective - a glass of milk, five brothers, a sport, hatred of the enemy, submissive to fate; adverbial - furtively from parents, alone with his brother, upside down. Depending on the presence or absence of a preposition in a controlled form, there can be a prepositional control - love for the motherland, to go home and an unprepositional one - to send a letter understandable to everyone, full of hope, a loaf of bread. Management can be strong or weak. Under strong control, the dominant word, with its lexical and grammatical properties, predetermines the obligatory appearance of a certain controlled case form with it, i.e. communication is necessary. Such a connection is required by transitive verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, numerals, for example: send a letter, break the silence, buy a book; nine days, plenty of time; full of hope, faithful to duty.

With weak control, the distribution of the dominant word by a given case form is not predetermined by its lexical and grammatical properties, i.e. the presence of managed forms is optional; cf .: watering flowers - strong control, watering from a watering can - weak control; liberation of the city - strong management, liberation by the army - weak management. Examples of weak management: knocking on the table, thanking for a gift, smiling at a friend, supply shortages, supply shortages, poor in spirit, deep in thought. Adjacency is a kind of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning. In phrases with an adjoining connection, relations of informative completion are expressed, adverbial and - less often - attributive.

Adverbs (or word forms functionally close to them), gerunds, infinitive adjoin. Such words do not have grammatically inflected forms of expression of syntactic relations, and immutability turns out to be a formal sign of adjacency. For example: read aloud, arrive late, walk during the day, work together, be nearby; sit bent over; go faster; want to study, offer to come; very good, unusually cheerful; very near, this afternoon; the opportunity to relax, the reason to come.

Classification of phrases according to the nature of the main word. Simple and complex phrases.

By morphological properties of the main word of the phrase classified in the following way:

Verbs Examples: make a plan, stand at the blackboard, ask to come in, read to yourself.

Nominal

1. substantive(with a noun as the main word) Examples: essay plan, city trip, third grade, eggs in the fridge.

   Adjective(with an adjective as the main word) Examples: worthy of a reward, ready for a feat, very diligent, ready to help.

   quantitative(with a numeral as the main word) Examples: two pencils, the second of the contenders.

   pronominal(with a pronoun as the main word) Examples: one of the students, something new.

Adverbial Examples: essential, away from the road.

Simple phrases, as a rule, consist of two significant words.

Examples: new home, white-haired person (= gray-haired person).

Complex phrases are formed on the basis of simple phrases.

Examples: fun walks in the evenings, relax in the summer in the south.

Apart from simple and difficult phrases, also distinguish: combined. The main criterion for this classification is the method of linking words as part of a phrase.

Phrases are free and syntactically related

Free phrases consist of words that retain their independent lexical meaning. The components of a free phrase can be replaced by words of the corresponding category, for example: late autumn, early autumn, cold autumn; love work, love science, love children; to speak softly, to speak excitedly, to speak affectionately. The combined word forms are free here in the sense that they can be replaced when used in a sentence in accordance with a specific communicative task. However, free phrases can be lexically restricted. Unlike lexically unlimited ones, the place of one or another component in them can be filled not by any word of this category, but only by some - those that form a certain semantic group. For example: the phrase listen to sounds is not lexically limited (listen to the radio, listen to a child, listen to a broadcast, listen to noise, etc.), while the phrase eavesdrop on a conversation is lexically limited, since the semantics of the verb eavesdrop does not allow wide compatibility (it is impossible: to eavesdrop on a lecture) .Syntactically non-free phrases are phrases that are lexically related and inseparable in this context: for example, in the sentence A tall girl approached me, the phrase of tall stature is not free, it performs a single definitive function, cf .: tall girl. The phrase of high growth is indivisible, since the noun in its composition is lexically impoverished (one cannot say a girl of growth). However, the same phrase in other contextual conditions can act as quite freely constructed, for example: High growth singled out this girl in the group (cf.: Height singled out this girl in the group). Both words in such a phrase are lexically complete. The phrase two boys, depending on the contextual conditions of its use, can also be either free or not free, cf .: I admired the play of these two boys (both words are lexically complete and occupy an independent position in the sentence: I admired the play of these boys). In the sentence Two boys came to the table, both words are lexically connected, and the dismemberment of the phrase is impossible, it performs the function of one member of the sentence. This means that syntactically non-free phrases are found only when functioning in specific sentences, where they lose the separateness of their components.

The sentence as the basic syntactic unit. Signs of the proposal: predicativeness, intonational isolation.

A sentence is a grammatically and intonationally formalized minimal unit of speech that conveys the relation of the speaker to reality. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predication (predication) finds its expression, i.e. disclosure of the content of a logical subject by a logical predicate. The relationship between subject and predicate in a judgment finds its parallel in the predicative relationship between subject and predicate in a sentence, which expresses the relationship between the subject of thought, denoted by the subject, and its attribute, denoted by the predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting. Predicative relations can only be in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativity to be such a general, basic feature of a sentence, understanding it as the relation of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of tense, person, mood, and different types intonation (intonation of the message, question, motivation, etc.). Since, while expressing his thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of what is being expressed (its desirability or undesirability, obligation or conditionality, etc.), modality is also an essential feature of the sentence. The means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, are the category of mood (indicative, imperative, conditional-desirable) and special lexico-grammatical means (the so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles). Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonations of a message, a question, an urge, etc., differ. Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the relation of the speaker to the expressed), predicativity (the relation of the content of the sentence to reality), intonation and relative semantic completeness.

Classification of sentences according to the purpose of the statement: Narrative, incentive, interrogative. Types of sentences by emotional coloring: exclamatory and non-exclamatory. Proposals are affirmative and negative.

Narrative sentences are sentences that contain a message about some fact of reality, phenomenon, event, etc. (approved or denied). Narrative sentences are the most common type of sentences, they are very diverse in their content and structure and are distinguished by a relative completeness of thought, conveyed by a specific narrative intonation: an increase in tone on a logically distinguished word (or two or more, but one of the increases will be the largest) and calm lowering the tone at the end of the sentence: Kibitka drove up to the porch of the commandant's house. The people recognized Pugachev's bell and the crowd ran after him. Shvabrin met the impostor on the porch. He was dressed as a Cossack and grew a beard (P.).

Interrogative sentences are called sentences that have the goal of inducing the interlocutor to express an idea that interests the speaker, i.e. their purpose is educational. For example: Why do you need to go to Petersburg? (P.); What are you going to say to yourself now? (P.).

The grammatical means of making interrogative sentences are as follows:

1) interrogative intonation - an increase in tone on a word with which the meaning of the question is associated, for example: You are on Western front were? (Sim.) (Compare: Were you on the Western Front?; Were you on the Western Front?);

2) word arrangement (usually the word with which the question is connected is placed at the beginning of the sentence), for example: Is the hostile hail burning? (L.); But will he soon return with a rich tribute? (L.);

3) interrogative words - interrogative particles, adverbs, pronouns, for example: Wouldn't it be better for you to get behind them yourself? (P.); Is there really no woman in the world to whom you would like to leave something as a keepsake? (L.); Why are we standing here? (Ch.); Where does the glow shine from? (L.); What were you doing in my garden? (P.); What are you supposed to do? (P.).

Incentives are sentences that express the will of the speaker, their goal is to induce action.

They can express: 1) an order, a request, a plea, for example: - Be silent! .. you! - the Leftover exclaimed in an evil whisper, jumping to his feet (M. G.); - Go, Peter! - commanded by a student (M. G.); Uncle Gregory ... bend over with your ear (M. G.); And you, my dear, do not break it ... (M. G.); 2.) advice, suggestion, warning, protest, threat, for example: The original woman is this Arina; you notice, Nikolai Petrovich (M. G.); Pets of the windy Fate, tyrants of the world! Tremble! And you, take heart and listen, rise up, fallen slaves! (P.); Look, often my hands are mine - beware! (M. G.); 3) consent, permission, for example: As you wish, do so; You can go where your eyes look; 4) a call, an invitation to joint action, for example: Well, let's try with all our might to defeat the disease (M. G.); My friend, let us dedicate our souls to the homeland with wonderful impulses! (P.); 5) desire, for example: Give him Dutch soot with rum (M. G.). Exclamatory sentences are emotionally colored, which is conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. According to the correlation of the components of thought (the subject of thought and its attribute), sentences are divided into affirmative (what is said about the subject of thought is affirmed) and negative (what is said about the subject of thought is denied).

Structural types of sentences: segmented and non-segmented, simple and complex, one-part and two-part, common and not common, complicated and uncomplicated, complete and incomplete.

An uncommon sentence is a sentence that has only the positions of the main members - the subject and the predicate, for example: Several years have passed (P.); It was noon (Shol.); It began to get light (Prishv.); Silence. Hum (Cat.). Such sentences represent a structural minimum and include only a predicative basis.

Sentences that, along with the main ones, have the positions of minor members are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun rose quite high. Again, the clear, as if swept, without clouds, the sky shone with pale blue (B. Paul); At noon, Razmetnov came home to have lunch and through the gate door he saw pigeons near the threshold of the hut (Shol.); In every spiritually developed person, the outlines of his Motherland are repeated and live (Spread).

A sentence is considered two-part if its predicative core is represented by two positions - subject and predicate, and one-part if the structure of the sentence involves only one position of the main member.

in complete sentences, all the necessary formal links of a given structure are verbally represented, and in incomplete sentences, certain positions of this structure are unsubstituted. The latter can be caused by various reasons: the context, the speech situation, the general experience of the speakers. Incomplete sentences in their communicative significance are no different from complete sentences, they are quite understandable. However, they are characterized by the formal lack of expression of some components. Ahead is a deserted September day

A simple sentence has one predicative center organizing it and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); From the station to the pier I had to go through the whole town (Paust.); Lopatin, from afar, saw the black jackets of sailors (Sim.).

Syntactic links have certain means of expression: formal and informal.

Formal means include:

• 1) endings (since the Russian language is inflectional), prepositions, conjunctions and allied words;
• 2) word order in a simple sentence, coupled with syntagmatic articulation, which combines syntactically related word forms in a speech stream into one rhythmic-intonational group:

I visited my native places

That countryside

Where did he live as a boy

Where is the watchtower with a birch tower

The bell tower without a cross shot up.

(S. Yesenin)

Only the location of the prepositional-substantive combination without a cross next to the noun Bell tower allows you to combine them in one syntagma. According to the meaning, this combination could stand with other nouns: tower(no cross) tower(without the cross), but then the syntagmatic articulation of the sentence and the syntactic links between its members would be different. Wed: tower with birch tower and tower without a cross.

An informal means of syntactic communication is intonation. Of course, this only happens in spoken language. In Pushkin's lines:

And we will all die, if we do not have time soon

Find shelter; And where? woe, woe!

depending on whether you combine an intonationally distinguished adverb with a verb we'll have time or gain, the meaning of the statement changes.

... "Don't you see, tell something" -

The young man told me, pointing the distance with his finger.

When reading these lines, in accordance with punctuation marks, intonationally stands out as an introductory word tell. But in the absence of commas in the first line, it can be read and understood differently: "Don't you see, say something".

As part of the text, most of the sentences and parts of the text are also related in meaning and formally. There are special means of their connection, primarily in book styles (scientific, journalistic).

• 1. Noun repetition(without definition or with definition). There are two cases of repetition:
  • a) the repetition of a noun that ends a sentence at the beginning of another sentence. For example: Matter is in continuous movement. Movement is an essential property matter. Matter exists and moves in space and in time. Space and time are forms of being of matter; The Russian Federation recognizes and guarantees local government. Local government within the limits of their powers independently(Constitution of the Russian Federation) ;
  • b) the repetition of the same noun at the beginning of each sentence. For example: are used and protected in Russia as the basis of the life and activity of peoples, living in the respective area. Land and other natural resources may be in private and other forms of municipal property(Constitution of the Russian Federation).
• 2. Personal pronouns 3 l., used when talking about specific objects and persons, and a demonstrative pronoun this is, usually used when talking about generalized facts, events. For example: International treaties of the Russian Federation are part of its legal system. They define the rules of some federal laws; The main thing in marketing is a thorough and comprehensive study of the market, demand, taste and needs, orientation of the organization to meet these requirements, active influence on the market and existing demand, on the formation of needs and consumer preferences. it , as well as permanence, purposefulness of actions brings together marketing and public relations.
• 3. Words like then, here, from here, So, there, above, below. For example: We observe movements in everyday life. From here visualization of mechanical representations follows; Movement occurs not only in space, but also in time. Above , considering the subject of physics, we wrote, that space and time are inherent properties of matter.
• 4. Words like said, last, mentioned; both, the first, second. For example: Movement occurs as in space, as well as in time. From what has been said should, that to describe the movement must be decomposed into two main types - translational and rotational. First is such a movement, under which any line, associated with a moving body, remains parallel to itself.
• 5. Words and phrases like let's get down to, stop at, first of all, primarily, indicating a transition to a new question. For example: It was said above, that the point refers to the basic concepts of geometry. let's move on to consider the projection of a point; First of all, let's turn To a question, which is of great importance in solving physical problems; Let's set , the candidate spoke seriously, - What are we talking about? What is the subject of our conversation?(V. Shukshin).
• 6. Words and phrases like then (Further), Moreover, simultaneously, at the same time, firstly, Secondly, used when continuing a conversation on an issue. For example: At the end of the XIX century. introduced the concept of quantum. Then the electron was discovered; Further we turn to the consideration of two elementary concepts of geometry - a point and a line; Besides , promotion of social, racial, national, religious and linguistic inequality; A little historical background, I say. But, firstly , not you, and you. And secondly , Vladimir Mikhailovich Bastrygin - it's me(G. Nemchenko).
• 7. Words and phrases ( and) finally, Finally, all this, so, used at the end of a closing sentence. For example: Automation is characterized by the use of technical means and the use of mathematical calculation methods. Finally , automation is characterized by the use of control systems, which release a person from direct participation in production; So , management as an activity carries out communication management, communications of the organization and the social environment.
• 8. Words and phrases like So, for example, exemplify, give an example; according to, He speaks, writes; let, allowable, imagine. For example: Oscillatory processes lie at the very basis of various branches of technology. So , all radio engineering is based on oscillatory processes; As they say (they say ) witnesses, the accident occurred through the fault of the victim; Let (allowable ) the body has moved from point A to point B; But the phenomenon was recently discovered, that's why I'm asking. Natural philosophy, allowable, determine so, strategic philosophy is completely different ...(V. Shukshin).

To express syntactic links, the language has a variety of means, different at the level of links in a phrase and a simple sentence and at the level of links in a complex sentence.

1. Word forms as minimal elements of syntactic constructions with their lexico-grammatical properties serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions, and endings and prepositions are elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning.

2. The main function of the ending is to express syntactic links and relationships between word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings in the design of a subordinating connection is especially important: in coordination and management.

3. The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement and enhance the service role of endings. Prepositions are used to express syntactic links of forms of indirect cases of nouns: believe in victory, enter the house, alone with yourself.

4. Syntactic links at the link level in a complex sentence, as well as some types of links between word forms in a phrase and a simple sentence, express unions, as well as their functional substitutes from other categories of words, in particular relative pronouns (allied words).

Conjunctions, connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after and others express the meaning of time, because, since, for etc. - the meaning of the cause, so- the meaning of the consequence.

Less bright signaling of grammatical meanings are composing conjunctions, but they also express the semantic relationships between the composed components.

5. Particles and their combinations can form inseparable sentences ( Yes. No. But how! So what! Still would! Etc.), formulate the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.

6. An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by the lexical means of the language, which are called typed. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative ( who, what, which, where, whither etc.), pointers ( this, that, such and others in various forms; there, there, therefore and under.); lexico-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections, etc.).

Typed lexical means take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. So, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, the lexical and grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( shine, frost) forms the structural center of one-component impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech ( speak, say) is a component of sentences with direct speech.

7. For the structure of syntactic units, word order is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. AT German the order of the components of syntactic units has a direct type, while in Russian there are two types of word order: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). With a direct order, each component of syntactic constructions occupies a certain place, with a free order, the components can change their place.

8. One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting and in the sentence information center.

Intonational means divide the syntactic constructions of sounding speech into syntagmas, usually in accordance with syntactic links. Sometimes such a division becomes the only indicator of communication.

Intonation is one of the indicators of completeness, the integrity of the sentence in oral speech; intonation forms the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the utterance, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relations between the members of the sentence.

Types of syntactic links.

The main types of syntactic communication are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, while subordinating - syntactically unequal: one acts as the main one, the other as a dependent one. A coordinative connection connects homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.

Types of syntactic connection in a phrase.

The subordinating syntactic connection at the level of the phrase is subordinate in nature. Subordinative communication is a direct and one-way directed connection, a connection between a subordinate and a subordinate. Such communication is implemented in three main ways: coordination, control and adjacency.

1. Agreement is a type of subordination, in which the forms of the gender, number and case of the dependent word are predetermined by the forms of the gender, number and case of the word of the subordinate. In agreement, certain relationships are always established.

Consent may be complete or incomplete. Full agreement is a connection in which the influence of the main component on the dependent extends to all of their namesake grammatical forms. Example: green grass, little boy, wooden product(consent in gender, number and case). Incomplete agreement is such a connection in which the dependent component does not correlate with the main one in all forms of the same name.

There are two cases of incomplete agreement. The first case is the lack of correlation in the case (when the dependent component is likened to the main one in number and gender). In a sentence Anya could not eat and got up from the table hungry.(Chekhov) word form hungry depends on the word got up, which is expressed by the form of the case, and from the word form Anya, which is expressed by the correlation of the forms of number and gender.

The second case is the absence of similarity in gender. This is observed in combinations of adjectives with masculine nouns that name professions or positions, when such nouns are used in relation to women: our doctor, the new secretary.

2. Management is a kind of subordination in which the subordinate word takes the form of one or another case, depending on the grammatical possibilities of the dominant word and the meaning it expresses. When managing, object relations are established ( write a letter), subjective ( brother's arrival), complex ( chair leg). Phrases built according to the type of control express the relationship with the subject. The controlled word is always a noun or its equivalent: approached a neighbor, approached a departing. A verb, a name and an adverb can act as a dominant word in management; on this basis, the control of the verbal is distinguished - buy a book, appropriative - a glass of milk, adverb - alone with brother. Depending on the presence or absence of a preposition in a controlled form, there may be a prepositional control - love to motherland and unpredictable - send a letter.

Management can be strong or weak. Strong control is such a dependence of a noun or a preposition with a noun on a verb, in which there is a necessary connection between a given case or a given preposition with a given case, on the one hand, and the dictionary or grammatical side of the verb, on the other hand. Such a connection is required by transitive verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, numerals, for example: send a letter, nine days, true to duty.

Weak control is defined as a connection that is not necessary, that is, one in which the dependent indirect case is not required and is not predicted by the dictionary (lexical) or grammatical properties of the control word. Compare: water the flowers- strong management pour from a watering can- Weak management.

3. Adjacency is a kind of subordinating connection in which the subordinate word, being an invariable part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word lexically. In phrases with adjacencies, circumstantial and less often attributive relations are expressed.

Adjacency is also heterogeneous in terms of grammatical properties dependent form. On this basis, the following types of adjunction are distinguished: adjunction of the infinitive, adjunction of the gerund, adjunction of the adverb, adjunction of the invariable adjective, adjunction of the inconsistent form of the noun.

Types of syntactic connection in a sentence.

The types of syntactic connection in a sentence, in comparison with the types of syntactic connection in a phrase, are much wider and more diverse.

1. Word connection. The adverbial clause is a mandatory or optional distributor of the key word, usually in an alternative position with a similar distributor - the form of the word.

The nature of the adverbial clause is determined by the properties of the reference word. In the formation of complex sentences with conditional clauses, the following properties of supporting words are essential: 1) belonging to a certain grammatical class - a part of speech that has the ability to spread by a clause of a certain structure, and 2) belonging to a certain lexical class - a semantic group, also characterized by the ability to spread by a clause part of a particular building. Compare: The thought expressed by the interlocutor captivated me; The thought that we are leaving tomorrow fascinated me. In the first sentence, the nature of the distribution of the key word thought is determined by the fact that it is a noun, which is why it is able to attach a substantive clause to itself; in the second, by the fact that it is included in the semantic-syntactic group of words that act as support in explanatory sentences.

The means of expressing the verbal subordinating connection are asemantic unions and allied words, that is, such means, the allied role of which is to express dependence on the reference word.

2. Determinant connection. The connection of a determinant, a secondary member of a sentence, expressed by a word form, associated not with a word, but with the whole sentence. This relation to the sentence is indicated by the word order: the determinant is located at the beginning of the sentence. For example: In youth all people are dreamers, In this country speak Spanish.

3. Correlation. This connection is based on the coincidence of the elements of the semantic organization of predicative units combined in difficult sentence, therefore, anaphoric elements always participate in the expression of this connection. The anaphoric elements of the main part are correlative words (demonstrative pronouns and their substitutes), the content of which is correlated with the content of the subordinate part and with which they interact, expressing this type of connection, allied words and those conjunctions that are used in this type of connection ( what to).

4. Gravitation is such a connection in which the nominal part of the predicate correlates with the subject through the third component. For example: He was considered a hero.

5. Writing connection. Word forms can occupy the same syntactic positions in a sentence, that is, line up in homogeneous rows.

6. A predicative connection is a connection of word forms representing components that are in a predicative relationship, that is, the subject and the predicate. The peculiarity of this connection is that the two components (subject and predicate) mutually determine and subjugate each other. For example: The wind subsided, the storm subsided, the voices subsided. On the one hand, here the agreement of the form of the predicate with the form of the subject in number and gender is manifested. On the other hand, the predicate determines the form of the subject - only the nominative case. A particular kind of predicative connection is the so-called coordination (term by V.V. Vinogradov), this is the connection between the subject - a personal pronoun in the form of 1 and 2 persons and the predicate - a verb in the appropriate form: I read, you read. In this case, it is impossible to establish what depends on what, since both the personal pronoun and the verb have independent form faces.

Relationship of syntax to other levels of the language.

AT modern research language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. Phonology is considered the lowest tier (level), syntax is considered the highest.

Let's consider this connection of syntax with other levels of the language based on the hierarchy of language levels: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, morphology.