Epithets, comparisons, metaphors. Expressive vocabulary
An epithet is a figurative definition of an object or action.
To tropes, in the strict sense of this term, only epithets belong, the function of which is performed by words used in a figurative sense: golden autumn, tear-stained windows, but in contrast to the exact epithets expressed by words used in the direct meaning: red viburnum, sultry afternoon. Epithets are most often colorful definitions expressed by adjectives.
When substantivating, adjectives-epithets can play the role of a subject, addition, address: Sweetheart, kind, old, gentle! Don't be friends with sad thoughts (EU).
Most of the epithets characterize objects, but there are also those that figuratively describe actions. Moreover, if the action is indicated by a verbal noun, the epithet is expressed by an adjective: heavy movement of clouds, lulling noise of rain, if the action is called a verb, then the epithet can be an adverb that acts as a circumstance: The leaves weretenselystretched out in the wind.Tightthe ground hooted(Paust.). As epithets, nouns can also be used that play the role of applications, predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of an object: Poet -echo of the world, not only -nanny of your soul(M.G.).
Epithets are examined from different positions, while offering different classifications. From a genetic point of view, epithets can be divided into general linguistic (deathly silence, lightning-fast decision), and individual-author's (cold horror, pampered negligence, chilling politeness - T.), folk-poetic (red girl, good fellow). The latter are also called constant, since phrases with them have acquired a stable character in the language.
The stylistic approach to the study of epithets makes it possible to distinguish three groups in their composition:
Reinforcing epithets that indicate the feature contained in the word being defined: mirrored surface, cold indifference; tautological ones also belong to amplifying epithets: bitter grief.
Clarifying epithets calling features object (size, shape, color, etc.): The Russian people created a huge oral literature:wiseproverbs andcunningriddles,funnyandsadritual songs,solemnepics. The expressive power of such epithets is often reinforced by other tropes, especially comparisons. It is not always possible to draw a clear line between amplifying and qualifying epithets.
Contrasting epithets that form combinations of words opposite in meaning with the nouns being defined are oxymorons: living Dead, joyful sadness.
Comparison
Comparison is the juxtaposition of one subject with another for the purpose of artistic description of the first: Under blue skiesmagnificent carpetsshining in the sun, the snow lies(NS.).
Comparison is one of the most common means of representation in metalological speech. Comparisons are widely used by poets, scientists resort to them to popularly explain a phenomenon: in a lecture on physics: If we imagine that a multi-ton mass of water every second passing through the dam of the world's largest Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station, we by some miracle will force it to squeeze through an ordinary water tap for the same second, only then we will get an indirect idea of how a laser beam differs from light all other sources; they are used by publicists as a means of vivid speech expression: In recent weeks, the builders have been gradually narrowing the river bed ... Two stone ridgesas if rushed towards each other... And how swift the course of the great Russian river has become!
Comparison is the simplest form of figurative speech. Almost any figurative expression can be reduced to comparison: gold leaves - the leaves are yellow like gold... Unlike other tropes, comparison is always two-term: it names both objects being compared (phenomena, qualities, actions).
In the works of oral folk art, negative comparisons are common. From folklore, these comparisons passed into Russian poetry: Not the wind, blowing from a height,the sheets touched the moonlit night; you touched my soul - it is as disturbing as leaves, it is like a gusli, multi-stringed... In negative comparisons, one object is opposed to another.
Vague comparisons are also known; they give the highest assessment of what is described, without, however, receiving a specific figurative expression: You cannot tell, you cannot describe what kind of life it iswhen in battle behind someone else's fire you hear your artillery(Tward.). Folklore is also a vague comparison. steady turnover neither in a fairy tale, nor to describe with a pen.
Sometimes, for comparison, two images are used at once, connected by a dividing union: the author, as it were, gives the reader the right to choose the most accurate comparison: The blues were waiting for him on guard, and she ran after him,like a shadow or a faithful wife(NS.). In figurative speech, it is possible to use several comparisons that reveal different sides of the same subject: We are rich, barely out of the cradle, in the mistakes of our fathers and their late wits, and life is already wearying us,like a smooth path without a goal, like a feast at a foreign party(L.).
Comparisons that indicate several common features in the compared items are called expanded. The detailed comparison includes two parallel images, in which the author finds much in common. The artistic image used for a detailed comparison gives the description a special expressiveness:
Design is perhaps best explained by comparison. (...) Design is lightning. For many days, electricity accumulates above the ground. When the atmosphere is saturated with it to the limit, white cumulus clouds turn into formidable thunderclouds, and the first spark, lightning, is born in them from a thick electric infusion. Almost immediately, following the lightning, a downpour hits the ground. (...) For the appearance of an idea, as well as for the appearance of lightning, most often an insignificant impulse is needed. (...) If lightning is a design, then a downpour is the embodiment of design. These are harmonious streams of images and words. This is a book.(K.G. Paustovsky)
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is a figurative expression consisting in the exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty, meaning of the described: My love,as wide as the sea, cannot accommodate the life of the shores.
Litota is a figurative expression that belittles the size, strength, meaning of what is described: Your spitz, adorable spitz,no more than a thimble... Litota is also called inverse hyperbola.
Hyperbole and litota have a common basis - a deviation from an objective quantitative assessment of an object, phenomenon, quality, - therefore, they can be combined in speech: Andersen knew that you can love every word of a woman, every lost eyelash, every speck of dust on her dress, to a pain in your heart. He understood this. He thought that such a love, if he let it flare up, would not contain a heart(Paust.).
Hyperbole and litota can be expressed in linguistic units of various levels (word, phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole), therefore, their classification as lexical figurative means is partly arbitrary.
Hyperbole can be "layered", superimposed on other tropes - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, giving the image the features of grandeur. In accordance with this, hyperbolic epithets are distinguished: Home aloneas long as the stars, other -moon-length; to heavenbaobabs(Lighthouse.); hyperbolic comparisons: A man with a bellylike that gigantic samovarwhere sbiten is brewed for the entire vegetated market(G.); hyperbolic metaphors: The fresh wind intoxicated the chosen ones, knocked them off their feet, raised them from the dead, because if you didn’t love, it meant thatneither lived nor breathed! (High). Litota most often takes the form of comparison: Like a blade of grass, the wind of the young man sways(Ring.), Epithet: The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ...with a marigold! (N.).
Like other tropes, hyperbole and litota are common linguistic and individual author's. The general language includes hyperboles: wait forever, strangle in an embrace, a sea of tears, love to madness etc.; litoty : wasp waist, two tops from the pot, knee-deep sea, a drop in the sea... These tropes are included in the emotionally expressive means of phraseology.
Periphrase
Perfrase (periphrase) adjoins lexical figurative means, which, as a composite speech unit, gravitates towards phraseology. A periphery is a descriptive phrase used instead of any word or phrase.
Not all paraphrases are of a metaphorical nature, there are also those in which the direct meaning of the words that form them is preserved: city on the Neva, sniffing part of the body(nose)(G.). Such periphrases, in contrast to figurative ones, can be defined as non-figurative. Only figurative periphrases belong to the paths, since only in them are words used in a figurative sense. Ugly paraphrases are only renaming of objects, qualities, actions. WITHThe sun of Russian poetry(author of "Eugene Onegin") - figurative periphrase; Golden Taurus(banknotes) - an unremarkable paraphrase.
Periphrases can be general language and individual author's. General linguistic periphrases acquire a stable character, are phraseologized or are on the way to phraseologization (our little brothers, green friend, the country of blue lakes). Such periphrases are usually expressively stained.
The individual author's paraphrases are even more expressive, they perform an aesthetic function in speech: It's a sad time! Eyes charm! (NS.); Have you heard beyond the grove the voice of the night singer of love, the singer of your sorrow(NS.). In such figurative paraphrases, metaphors, epithets, and evaluative vocabulary are often used. They can lend artistic speech the most varied expressive shades - from high pathos: Run, hide from your eyesCythera weak queen ! Where are you, where are youa thunderstorm of kings, a proud singer of freedom?(P.), to a relaxed, ironic sound: Meanwhilerural cyclops in front of a slow firea Russian product is treated with a hammer in Europe blessing the ruts and ditches of the paternal land(NS.).
Periphrases enable the writer to pay attention to those features of the depicted objects and phenomena that are especially important for him from an artistic point of view.
Unlike figurative periphrases, non-figurative ones perform not an aesthetic, but a semantic function in speech, helping the author to more accurately express a thought, to emphasize certain features of the described subject. In addition, recourse to periphrases avoids repetitions.
Ugly paraphrases are also used to explain words and names that are little known to the reader: Persian poet Saadi -crafty and wise sheikh from the city of Shiraz - believed that a person should live at least ninety years(Paust.). Periphrases that serve to clarify certain concepts are widely used in non-fictional speech: All the outer parts of the root, its skin and hairs, are composed of cells,that is, deaf bubbles or tubes, in the walls of which there are never holes (Tim.). In special cases, such paraphrases can also perform the stylistic function of reinforcement, emphasizing a semantic word that is important: A decrease in the cost of green mass will also entail a decrease in the price of livestock products,a source of dynamic energy of mass consumption .
The use of some lexical paraphrases is stylistically limited. Thus, the paraphrases of an emphatically polite style of explanation were archaized: I dare to report how you were pleased to notice.
There are euphemistic paraphrases: they exchanged pleasantries instead: they cursed each other... Such general language paraphrases are used most often in colloquial speech: wait for the addition of the family, instruct the horns... In works of fiction, such euphemisms are a source of humor: Doctor, doctor, is it possiblewarm inside me? (Tward.). The appeal to such paraphrases is due to the author's desire to give speech a casual, conversational tone.
In the literature it is called differently by the term "trope". A trope is a rhetorical figure, expression or word that is used figuratively in order to enhance the artistic expressiveness, imagery of the language. Different kinds these figures in literary works are widely used, they are also used in everyday speech and oratory. The main types of tropes include such as hyperbole, epithet, metonymy, comparison, metaphor, synecdoche, irony, lithote, paraphrase, personification, allegory. Today we will talk about the following three types: comparison, hyperbole and metaphor. Each of the above means of expressiveness in the literature will be considered in detail by us.
Metaphor: definition
The word "metaphor" in translation means "figurative meaning", "transfer". This is an expression or a word that is used in an indirect sense, the basis of this trope is the comparison of an object (unnamed) with another by the similarity of any sign. That is, a metaphor is a turn of speech, which consists in the use of expressions and words in a figurative sense based on comparison, similarity, analogy.
In this path, the following 4 elements can be distinguished: context or category; an object within this category; the process by which a given object performs a specific function; process application to specific situations or intersection with them.
A metaphor in lexicology is a semantic relationship that exists between the meanings of a certain polysemantic word, which is based on the presence of similarity (functional, external, structural). Often this trope becomes, as it were, an aesthetic end in itself, thereby displacing the original, original meaning of a concept.
Types of metaphors
It is customary to distinguish in modern theory describing a metaphor, the following two types: a diaphora (that is, a contrasting, sharp metaphor), as well as an epiphora (erased, familiar).
It is carried out sequentially throughout either the entire message as a whole, or a large fragment of it. An example can be offered the following: "The book hunger does not pass: more and more often products from the book market turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away immediately without trying."
There is also a so-called realized metaphor, which involves operating with an expression without taking into account its figurative nature. In other words, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of such a realization is often comical. Example: "He lost his temper and got on the tram."
Metaphors in artistic speech
In the formation of various artistic metaphors important role play, as we have already mentioned, characterizing this trope, associative connections that exist between various objects. Metaphors as a means of expressiveness in literature activate our perception, violate the "general comprehensibility" and automatism of the narrative.
In artistic speech and language, the following two models are distinguished, according to which this trope is formed. The first of them is based on personification or animation. The second is based on reification. Metaphors (words and expressions) created according to the first model are called personifying. Examples: "frost bound the lake," "the snow is lying," "the year has flown by," "the stream is running," "feelings are fading away," "time has stopped," "boredom has stuck." will "," root of evil "," tongues of flame "," finger of fate ").
Linguistic and individual varieties of this trope as a means of expressiveness in literature are always present in artistic speech. They add imagery to the text. When studying various works, especially poetry, one should carefully analyze what constitutes an artistic metaphor. Their various types are widely used if the authors seek to express a subjective, personal attitude to life, transform creatively the world... For example, in romantic works it is in metaphorization that the attitude of writers to man and the world is expressed. In philosophical and psychological lyrics, including realistic, this trope is indispensable as a means of individualizing various experiences, as well as expressing the philosophical ideas of certain poets.
Examples of metaphors created by classical poets
A.S. Pushkin, for example, the following metaphors are found: "the moon is making its way," "sad meadows," "noisy dreams," and youth "slyly advises."
In M. Yu. Lermontov: the desert "listens" to God, says a star with a star, "conscience dictates," "an angry mind" moves a pen.
F.I. Tyutcheva: winter is "angry", spring is "knocking" on the window, "sleepy" dusk.
Metaphors and images-symbols
In turn, metaphors can form the basis for various image-symbols. In the work of Lermontov, for example, it is they who make up such images-symbols as "palm" and "pine" ("Wild in the north ..."), "sail" (poem of the same name). Their meaning is in the metaphorical assimilation of a pine tree, a sail to a lonely person who is looking for his own path in life, suffering or rebellious, bearing his loneliness as a burden. Metaphors are also the basis of poetic symbols created in the poetry of Blok and many other symbolists.
Comparison: definition
Comparison is a trope, the basis of which is the assimilation of a certain phenomenon or object to another on the basis of a certain common feature... The goal pursued by this means of expressiveness is to reveal in a given object various properties that are important, new for the subject of the utterance.
Allocate in comparison: the object being compared (which is called the object of comparison), the object (means of comparison) with which this comparison takes place, as well as a common feature (comparative, in another way - "the basis of comparison"). One of the distinguishing features of this path is the mention of both the one and the other compared object, while a common feature is not necessarily indicated. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.
This path is typical for oral folk art.
Types of comparisons
Various kinds of comparisons are available. It is also built in a form which is formed with the help of unions "exactly", "like", "if", "how". Example: "He is stupid like a sheep, but cunning like a devil." There are also non-union comparisons, which are sentences that have a compound nominal predicate. Famous example: "My home is my castle." Formed with the help of a noun used in the instrumental case, for example, "he walks with a gogol". There are also deniers: "Trying is not torture."
Comparison in literature
Comparison as a technique is widely used in artistic speech. With the help of it, parallels, correspondences, similarities between people, their lives and natural phenomena are revealed. Thus, comparison, as it were, reinforces the various associations that arise in the writer.
Often, this trope is a whole associative array that is needed in order for an image to appear. So, in the poem "To the Sea", written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, the sea calls the author whole line associations with "geniuses" (Byron and Napoleon) and man in general. They are anchored in various comparisons... The noise of the sea, with which the poet says goodbye, is compared with the "mournful" murmur of a friend, his "call" at the hour of farewell. The poet sees in the personality of Byron the same qualities that are present in the "free element": depth, power, indomitability, gloom. One gets the impression that both Byron and the sea are two creatures with the same nature: freedom-loving, proud, irrepressible, spontaneous, strong-willed.
Comparison in folk poetry
In folk poetry, broadly enduring comparisons are used, which are comparisons based on tradition applied in certain situations. They are not individual, but taken from the stock of a folk singer or storyteller. It is a figurative model that can be easily reproduced in the required situation. Of course, poets who rely on folklore use similar stable comparisons in their work. M.Yu. Lermontov, for example, in his work "Song of the merchant Kalashnikov" writes that the tsar looked "like a hawk" at the gray-winged "young dove" from the heights of heaven.
Hyperbola: definition
The word "hyperbole" in Russian is a term that means "exaggeration", "excess", "excess", "transition" in translation. This is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration in order to enhance expression and emphasize a particular thought. For example: "we have enough food for six months", "I have said this a thousand times already."
Hyperbole is often combined with other various to which it gives the appropriate color. These are metaphors ("waves rose in mountains") and hyperbolic comparisons. The situation or character depicted may also be hyperbolic. This trope is also characteristic of the oratorical, rhetorical style, it is used here as a pathetic device, as well as romantic, where pathos comes into contact with irony.
Examples that use hyperbole in Russian are idioms and phraseological units ("lightning fast", "fast like lightning", "sea of tears", etc.). The listing can be continued for a long time.
Hyperbole in literature
Hyperbole in poetry and prose is one of the most ancient artistic techniques of expressiveness. The artistic functions of this trail are many and varied. Literary hyperbole is necessary mainly in order to indicate some exceptional qualities or properties of people, events, things. For example, the exceptional character of Mtsyri, the romantic hero, is emphasized with the help of this trope: a weak young man in a duel with a leopard finds himself an equal rival, just as strong as this wild beast.
Properties of hyperbolas
Hyperbole, personification, epithet, and other tropes tend to grab the attention of readers. The peculiarities of hyperboles are that they force us to look in a new way at the depicted, that is, to feel its significance and special role. Overcoming the boundaries established by plausibility, endowing people, animals, objects, natural phenomena with "miraculous" possessing supernatural properties, this trope, used by various authors, emphasizes the conventionality of the artistic world created by writers. The hyperbole also clarifies the attitude of the creator of the work to the depicted - idealization, "elevation" or, on the contrary, ridicule, denial.
This trope plays a special role in satirical works. In satires, fables, epigrams of poets of the 19-20 century, as well as in the satirical "chronicle" of Saltykov-Shchedrin ("The History of a City") and his fairy tales, in a satirical story " dog's heart"Bulgakov. In Mayakovsky's comedies" Bath "and" Bedbug "artistic hyperbole reveals the comic characters and events, emphasizing their absurdity and vices, acting as a means of caricature or caricatured images.
Instructions
The epithets include figurative definitions that highlight an essential feature in the depicted phenomenon (gray-haired, bottomless sky). A metaphor is a word or expression used in a figurative sense based on the similarity of objects or phenomena according to a chosen criterion (an avalanche of stars, a wall of fire).
You can distinguish between an epithet and a metaphor by the way of expression various parts speech. Epithets can be expressed:
Siberian larch is easier to compare with oak than with pine. For example, Venice stands on stilts built from larch since concrete piles do not withstand such a load in water. But its wood is much more difficult to process than pine wood. It is about 30% denser and heavier. Carefully slide along wooden surface with a fingernail. If a trace remains on it, then it is a pine tree. It should be borne in mind that the wood of the Angara pine is denser than the wood of its "European relative".
Consider one more point. In the same forest there are different pines and different larch, which are very different both in appearance and in their internal characteristics... Pine, for example, grown in a sunny and high place, has a drier and denser wood than one grown near swamps. The wood of such a pine is softer.
To determine which wood belongs to a particular tree, use fire, observing all safety measures. According to research carried out by specialists of the Moscow State University Forests, indicator of fire resistance of Siberian wood larch 2 times higher than that of ordinary pine wood.
Sources:
- Properties of wood of various species and their Comparative characteristics
Metaphor is a speech turnover in which the meaning of a word is transferred from it to another word or phrase. The concept itself was invented by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.
When people first learned to speak, nouns and verbs were enough for them. Then vocabulary supplemented with adjectives. Everything could be limited to this, if it were not for the desire of a person to decorate, decorate and diversify everything for his own pleasure. Well, the rain can't just be strong and cold. For completeness of the sensation for an experienced speaker, it will become icy, wintery, with scalding frosty drops. And its sound will be not just rustling fallen leaves under the broom of the janitor, but also ringing and gurgling along the drainpipes and drumming the autumn march on the tin windowsills.
When reading classical literature, a true connoisseur often admires beautiful comparisons and metaphors. It is they who make the printed publication not just information with a listing of facts and actions, but an interesting literary work that awakens fantasy and imagination. How can you come up with this yourself?
To do this, you just need to let go of your stereotypes, take a walk and listen to your own feelings. By the way, the phrase "let go for a walk" is also a metaphor. To find an original metaphor, you need to imagine what it looks like that you want to beautifully describe in words. Don't be afraid to be the first and be misunderstood. If one person can see chickenpox or a leaky umbrella in the night starry sky, then another, having read this metaphor, will certainly be able to imagine all this. If a thick fog seems to someone like cotton candy, then someone with a good imagination will even want to lick it. Just do not write definitions through the conjunction "as" or "as if", so that instead of a metaphor you do not get an ordinary comparison. Let it creep over the road in the description of nature cotton candy fog, and overhead stretches the black umbrella of the night sky into a small hole.
Oddly enough, but in science metaphors are used as often as in creative research. But they take root more firmly and more reliably after some time. The explanation is simple - the name that is initially given is easier to get accustomed to than the name that something is renamed. For example, the concept of "electric current" was named so as soon as scientists learned about it. The light wave, too, no one can name otherwise, although everyone knows that this is not the wave that we know from birth.
There are a lot of metaphors that have been used so long and often that they have already "set the teeth on edge" for the reading and listening public. For example, "tired to death", "bloody moon" or "airplane nose". But these expressions were also once unusual and original.
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Means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Trail concept. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, lithote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.
Trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the imagery of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. Trails are widely used in literary works, oratory, and in everyday speech.
The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, lithote, irony, allegory, personification, periphrase.
An epithet is a definition for a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb ("love ardently"), a noun ("fun noise"), a numeral (second life).
An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, saturation. Used both in poetry and prose.
Epithets can be expressed in different parts speech (mother Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature, without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.
Below us with a cast-iron roar
Instant bridges thunder. (A. A. Fet)
Metaphor ("transfer", "figurative meaning") is a trope, word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. The turn of speech, consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense, based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function,
Application of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarities (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and supplants the original original meaning of the word.
In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between aperture (a sharp, contrasting metaphor) and an epiphora (a familiar, erased metaphor).
An expanded metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large piece of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: "Book hunger does not go away: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying."
A realized metaphor presupposes operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comic. Model: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."
Vanya is a true loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (MA Bulgakov);
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Fading gold covered,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)
Comparison
Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to identify new, important, predominant properties for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.
In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (the object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (the means of comparison), and their common characteristic (the basis of comparison, the comparative characteristic). One of the distinguishing features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while a common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.
Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.
Types of comparisons
Known different types comparisons:
Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions, as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, and cunning as a devil." Unionless comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the noun in the instrumental case: "he walks with a gogol." Negative comparisons: "Trying is not torture."
Crazy years, extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);
Under it is a stream of lighter blue (M.Yu. Lermontov);
Metonymy
Metonymy ("renaming", "name") is a type of path, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon), which is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is designated the replaced word. In this case, the substitute word is used in a figurative meaning.
Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words "by contiguity" (part instead of whole or vice versa, a representative of a class instead of an entire class, or vice versa, container instead of content, or vice versa) and metaphor - "by similarity." Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.
Example: “All flags will visit us”, where “flags” mean “countries” (part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it distinguishes a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, in a greater real relationship of substitute members, and on the other, in greater restrictiveness, in the elimination of those features that are not noticeable in this phenomenon directly. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (compare, for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creation.
In early Soviet literature, constructivists attempted to maximize the use of metonymy both theoretically and practically, and put forward the principle of so-called “locality” (motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, limiting them to their real dependence on the topic). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the advancement of metonymy to the detriment of metaphor is not logical: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena, not excluding, but complementing each other.
Types of metonymy:
General language, general poetry, general newspaper, individual author, individual creative.
Examples:
"Hand of Moscow"
"I ate three plates"
"Black tailcoats flashed and were worn apart and in heaps here and there"
Synecdoche
Sinekdokha is a trope, a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Usually used in synecdoche:
Singular instead of plural: "Everything is asleep - man, beast, and bird." (Gogol);
Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);
Part instead of whole: “Do you need anything? "In the roof for my family." (Herzen);
Generic name instead of specific: "Well, sit down, shine." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);
A specific name instead of a generic one: "Take care of a penny most of all." (Gogol) (instead of: money).
Hyperbola
Hyperbola ("transition; excess, excess; exaggeration") is a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance the expressiveness and emphasize the said thought. For example: "I said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate color: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“waves rose in mountains”). The character or situation depicted can also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of pathetic ascent, as well as the romantic style, where pathos comes into contact with irony.
Examples:
Phraseologisms and catchphrases
"Sea of tears"
"Fast as lightning", "lightning fast"
"As numerous as sand by the sea"
"We have not seen each other for a hundred years!"
Prose
Ivan Nikiforovich, on the other hand, has trousers in such wide folds that if they were inflated, then the whole courtyard with barns and a building could be placed in them.
N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich
A million Cossack hats suddenly poured out onto the square. ...
... for one handle of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.
N. Gogol. Taras Bulba
Poems, songs
About our meeting - what to say there,
I waited for her, as they expect natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of harmful consequences!
Litotes
Litota, litótes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) is a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.
Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, power of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is opposite to hyperbola, therefore it is called in another way the inverse hyperbola. In the litote, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: "A horse the size of a cat", "A man's life is one moment", etc.
Many litoty are phraseological units or idioms: "turtle pace", "a stone's throw", "the cat cried money", "the sky seemed like a sheepskin."
Litota is in folk and literary tales: "Boy-with-finger", "little man-with-fingernail" "little girl".
Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing an assertion of some feature with an expression that denies the opposite feature. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: "smart" - "not stupid", "agree" - "don't mind", "cold" - "not warm", "low" - "low", "famous" - "notorious", "dangerous" - " unsafe "," good "-" not bad. " In this meaning, litota is one of the forms of euphemism (neutral in meaning and emotional "load" word or descriptive expression, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other, considered indecent or inappropriate, words and expressions.).
... and love for his wife will grow cold in him
Irony
Irony ("mockery") is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of what should be, is hidden or contradicts (opposes) the explicit `meaning '. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, the exact opposite of the literal one. Example: "Well, you are brave!", "Clever, clever ..." Here, positive statements have negative connotations.
Forms of irony
Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the described phenomenon.
Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows the object of anti-irony to be underestimated.
Self-irony is irony directed at one's own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements can imply the opposite (positive) connotation. Example: "Where can we, fools, drink tea?"
Socratic irony is a form of self-irony, constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to logical logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of an ironic statement, following the premises of a subject who does not know the truth.
An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows one not to take on faith common statements and stereotypes, and not to take too seriously the various "generally accepted values".
"Did you all sing? This is the case:
So go and dance! "(I. A. Krylov)
Allegory
Allegory (legend) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and was developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is the generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire a figurative meaning.
Example: justice - Themis (woman with scales).
The nightingale is sad at the fallen rose,
sings hysterically over the flower.
But the garden scarecrow also pours tears,
who loved the rose secretly.
Aydin Khanmagomedov. Two loves
Allegory is the artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific representations. Religion, love, soul, justice, strife, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military instruments, the seasons - with the help of their corresponding flowers, fruits or occupations, impartiality - through scales and blindfolds, death - by means of clepsydra and scythe.
Then with quivering relish,
then a friend in the arms of a soul,
like a lily with poppy seeds,
kisses with the heart of the soul.
Aydin Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.
Impersonation
Incarnation (personification, prosopopeia) is a trope, the attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate. Very often, personification is used to depict nature, which is endowed with certain human traits.
Examples:
And woe, woe, woe!
And grief girded with a bast,
Legs are entangled with scabs.
folk song
Incarnation was widespread in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folk poetry to the poetry of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the work of the OBERIUs.
Periphrase
In stylistics and poetics, paraphrase (paraphrase, paraphrase; "descriptive expression", "allegory", "statement") is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.
A periphery is an indirect reference to an object by not naming, but by description (for example, "night star" = "moon" or "I love you, Peter's creation!" = "I love you, St. Petersburg!").
In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their signs, for example, "who writes these lines" instead of "I" in the author's speech, "fall asleep" instead of "fall asleep", "king of beasts" instead of "lion", "one-armed bandit" instead of "slot machine". There are logical paraphrases ("the author of Dead Souls") and figurative paraphrases ("the sun of Russian poetry").
Often, paraphrase is used to describe the "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "devil", "get along with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, paraphrase is at the same time a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M .; L .: Publishing house of L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.
4. Khazagerov G.G.The system of persuasive speech as homeostasis: oratorio, homiletics, didactics, symbolism// Sociological journal. - 2001. - No. 3.
5. Nikolaev A.I. Lexical means of expressiveness// Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism: tutorial for students of philological specialties. - Ivanovo: LISTOS, 2011 .-- S. 121-139.
6. Panov M. I. Trails// Pedagogical speech: Dictionary-reference / ed. T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, A. K. Mikhalskaya. M .: Flint; Science, 1998.
7. Toporov V.N. Trails// Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary/ ch. ed. V.N. Yartseva. M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990.
Epithets, metaphors, impersonations, comparisons are all means artistic expression, actively used in the Russian literary language. There is a huge variety of them. They are necessary in order to make the language vivid and expressive, to enhance artistic images, to draw the reader's attention to the idea that the author wants to convey.
What are the means of artistic expression?
Epithets, metaphors, impersonations, comparisons refer to different groups means of artistic expression.
Linguistic scholars distinguish sound or phonetic pictorial means... Lexical are those that are associated with a specific word, that is, a token. If the expressive means covers a phrase or a whole sentence, then it is syntactic.
Separately, phraseological means are also considered (they are based on phraseological units), tropes (special turns of speech used in a figurative meaning).
Where are the means of artistic expression used?
It should be noted that the means of artistic expression are used not only in literature, but also in various spheres of communication.
Most often, epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons can be found, of course, in artistic and publicistic speech. They are also present in colloquial and even scientific styles. They play a huge role, as they help the author to realize his artistic idea, his image. They are also useful for the reader. With their help, he can penetrate the secret world of the creator of the work, better understand and delve into the author's intention.
Epithet
Epithets in poetry are one of the most common literary devices. It is surprising that an epithet can be not only an adjective, but also an adverb, a noun, and even a numeral (a common example is second Life).
Most literary scholars regard the epithet as one of the main techniques in poetry that adorns poetic speech.
If we turn to the origins of this word, then it comes from the ancient Greek concept, which literally means "attached". That is, it is an addition to the main word, the main function of which is to make the main idea clearer and more expressive. Most often, the epithet comes before the main word or expression.
Like all means of artistic expression, epithets have evolved from one literary era to another. So, in folklore, that is, in folk art, the role of epithets in the text is very great. They describe the properties of objects or phenomena. They highlight their key features, while extremely rarely refer to the emotional component.
Later, the role of epithets in literature changes. It is expanding significantly. This means of artistic expression is given new properties and filled with functions that were not inherent in it before. This is especially noticeable among the poets of the Silver Age.
Nowadays, especially in postmodern literary works, the structure of the epithet has become even more complicated. The semantic content of this path has also intensified, leading to surprisingly expressive techniques. For example: the diapers were gold.
Function of epithets
Definitions of epithet, metaphor, impersonation, comparison boil down to one thing - all this artistic means, giving convexity and expressiveness to our speech. Both literary and colloquial. A special function of the epithet is also strong emotionality.
These means of artistic expression, and especially epithets, help readers or listeners to imagine with their own eyes what the author is talking or writing about, to understand how he relates to this subject.
Epithets are used to realistically recreate the historical era defined by social group or people. With their help, we can imagine how these people spoke, what words colored their speech.
What is a metaphor?
Translated from the ancient Greek language, a metaphor is "transfer of meaning". This is the best way to characterize this concept.
A metaphor can be either a single word or a whole expression, which is used by the author in a figurative sense. This means of artistic expression is based on the comparison of an object that has not yet been named with some other on the basis of their common feature.
Unlike most other literary terms, metaphor has a specific author. This is a famous philosopher Ancient Greece- Aristotle. The initial birth of this term is associated with Aristotle's ideas about art as a method of imitating life.
At the same time, the metaphors that Aristotle used are almost impossible to distinguish from literary exaggeration (hyperbole), ordinary comparison or personification. He understood metaphor much broader than contemporary literary scholars.
Examples of the use of metaphor in literary speech
Epithets, metaphors, personifications, comparisons are actively used in works of art. Moreover, for many authors it is the metaphor that becomes an aesthetic end in itself, sometimes completely displacing the original meaning of the word.
As an example, literary researchers cite the example of the famous English poet and playwright William Shakespeare. For him, it is often not the everyday initial meaning of a specific statement that is important, but the metaphorical meaning it acquires, a new unexpected meaning.
For those readers and researchers who were brought up on the Aristotelian understanding of the principles of literature, this was unusual and even incomprehensible. So, on this basis, Leo Tolstoy did not recognize Shakespeare's poetry. His points of view in Russia XIX century adhered to many readers of the English playwright.
At the same time, with the development of literature, the metaphor begins not only to reflect, but also to create the life around us. A striking example from classical Russian literature is Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol's story "The Nose". The nose of the collegiate assessor Kovalev, who went on his own trip to St. Petersburg, is not only hyperbole, personification and comparison, but also a metaphor that gives this image a new unexpected meaning.
An illustrative example is the futurist poets who worked in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Their main goal was to distance the metaphor as much as possible from its original meaning. Such techniques were often used by Vladimir Mayakovsky. For example, the title of his poem is "A Cloud in Pants".
At the same time, after the October Revolution, the metaphor was used much less frequently. Soviet poets and writers strove for clarity and straightforwardness, so the need to use words and expressions in a figurative sense disappeared.
Although it is impossible to imagine a work of art, even by Soviet authors, without a metaphor at all. Almost everyone has metaphor words. In Arkady Gaidar's "The Drummer's Fate" one can find the following phrase - "So we parted. The stomp stopped, and the field is empty."
In Soviet poetry of the 70s, Konstantin Kedrov introduces the concept of "metametaphor" or, as it is also called, "metaphor in a square". The metaphor has a new one distinctive feature- she is constantly involved in the development of the literary language. As well as speech and culture itself in general.
For this, metaphors are constantly used, talking about the latest sources of knowledge and information, they are used to describe the modern achievements of mankind in science and technology.
Impersonation
In order to understand what is personification in literature, let us turn to the origin of this concept. Like most literary terms, it is rooted in the ancient Greek language. Literally translated, it means "face" and "do". With the help of this literary reception natural forces and phenomena, inanimate objects acquire properties and signs inherent in man. As if animated by the author. For example, they can be given the properties of the human psyche.
Such techniques are often used not only in modern fiction, but also in mythology and religion, in magic and cults. Impersonation was a key means of artistic expression in legends and parables, in which ancient man explained how the world works, what is behind natural phenomena. They were animated, endowed with human qualities, associated with gods or supermen. So it was easier for the ancient man to accept and understand the surrounding reality.
Examples of impersonations
To understand what is personification in literature, examples of specific texts will help us. So, in Russian folk song the author claims that "the bast girded with grief".
With the help of personification, a special worldview appears. He is characterized by an unscientific idea of natural phenomena... When, for example, thunder grumbles like an old man, or the sun is perceived not as an inanimate space object, but as a specific god named Helios.
Comparison
In order to understand the main modern means artistic expressiveness, it is important to understand what comparison is in literature. Examples will help us with this. At Zabolotsky we meet: "He used to be sonorous, like a bird"or Pushkin: "He ran faster than a horse.".
Comparisons are often used in Russian folk art. So we clearly see that this is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another on the basis of some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to find in the described object new and important properties for the subject of artistic expression.
Metaphor, epithets, comparisons, personifications serve a similar purpose. The table in which all these concepts are presented helps to clearly understand how they differ from each other.
Types of comparisons
Consider for a detailed understanding of what comparison is in the literature, examples and varieties of this path.
It can be used as a comparative turnover: the man is as stupid as a pig.
There are non-union comparisons: My home is my castle.
Comparisons are often formed at the expense of the noun in the instrumental case. Classic example: he walks gogol.
