Many researchers have repeatedly noted that stylistic devices find their most vivid reflection in a poetic text. Stylistic devices are a means of connecting sentences in the structure of a complex poetic whole. By organizing the connection of the micro-context with the surrounding context, stylistic devices perform the text's forming function, contribute to an increase in the general expressiveness of the poetic text, the organization of its special rhythm melody. In stylistics, there is also such a thing as poetic devices. According to Kvyatkovsky's definition, poetic techniques (tropes) are transformations of language units, which consist in transferring a traditional name to another subject area. Most often, imagery and expressiveness is achieved through the stylistic use of lexical units. The author uses words in a figurative sense (in the form of metaphors, metonymy, synecdoches or epithets), compares them with the meaning of other words (by means of comparisons), opposes different meanings to each other within the same word or the meanings of words - homonyms, etc.

The author refers to poetic techniques: epithets, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litota, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, etc. An epithet is one of the tropes, a figurative definition of an object (phenomenon), expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb, a noun , numeral, verb. Unlike the usual logical definition, which distinguishes a given object from many ("quiet ringing"), an epithet either highlights one of its properties in an object ("proud horse"), or - as a metaphorical epithet - transfers to it the properties of another object (" live trace ").

Comparison is a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them in order to identify new, important properties in the comparison object: any relation or contrast. In the metaphor, various signs (what the object is likened to, and the properties of the object itself) are presented in a new undifferentiated unity of the artistic image.

Incarnation is a special type of metaphor based on the transfer of human traits (more broadly, the traits of a living being) to inanimate objects and phenomena. There are the following types of impersonation:

• 1) personification as a stylistic figure inherent in any expressive speech: "the heart speaks", "the river plays";
• 2) personification in folk poetry and individual lyrics as a metaphor, close in its role to psychological parallelism;
• 3) personification as a symbol that grows out of the system of private personifications and expresses the author's idea.

Metonymy is a kind of path based on the principle of adjacency. Hyperbole is a stylistic figure or artistic device based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: “At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed ...” (V. Mayakovsky).

Litota is a trope, the opposite of hyperbole: an understatement of the attribute of an object ("little man-s-finger", "boy-s-finger").

Irony (in style) is an allegory expressing a mockery or slyness, when a word or utterance in the context of speech acquires a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, which puts it in doubt. Irony is blasphemy and contradiction under the guise of approval and consent.

Oxymoron is a condensed and therefore paradoxically sounding antithesis, usually in the form of an antonymous noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb.

A pun is a play on words based on polysemy, homonymy, or sound similarity in order to achieve a comic effect. A special role in the literary language, in its literary-book variety (in the written type of speech), is played by words and phraseological combinations known as poetisms.

Words of high, solemn coloring are often summed up under this concept. The term "poetism" itself shows the limited use of words by a certain style of language, namely the style of artistic speech. The opposition of the language of poetry to the language of prose, not in terms of the rhythmic-phonetic and figurative features of each of these types of literary speech, but in terms of a special vocabulary, allegedly characteristic of poetry, has its own historical and literary tradition.

The special vocabulary and phraseology of poetry, which is supposedly designed to maintain a special halo of poetry, tends to break away from the commonly used vocabulary of the national language.

Academician S.I. Vinogradov characterizes the role of poetism in the language as follows: “a web of“ poetic ”words and images clothe reality,“ stylizing ”it to fit the given literary norms and canons. The word is divorced from the real thing. Involved in the system of literary styles, words here were selected and grouped into images, in phraseological series, which froze, became stereotyped and became conventional symbols of certain phenomena or characters, certain ideas or representations. "

Poetisms represent a heterogeneous layer of words in modern English, including archaisms, which are brought to life by poets in special stylistic assignments, for example, the use of words such as whilome, ne, leman and many others in the first stanzas of the first song of Childe Harold. These archaic poetisms also include forms that are outdated for modern English, such as the third person singular of the present tense - eth (casteth) and words, one of the meanings of which is outdated.

So, for example, in the sentence “Deserted is my own good hall, its hearth is desolate” - the word “hall” means palace - a palace, a castle, a house - a meaning that is now archaic.

Here are some examples of the most common poetry in the English language. Nouns: billow (wave), swain (peasant), main (sea). Adjectives: yon (there), staunch (firm), hallowed (holy). Verbs: quit (leave), fare (walk), trow (believe). Strong past tense forms are preferred: wrought (worked), bade (bid), clad (clothed). Adverbs: haply (perhaps), oft (often), whilome (formerly). Pronouns: thee, ye, aught (anything), naught (nothing). Conjunctions: albeit `although), ere (before) o" er (over), etc.

In addition to archaisms, poetisms include words that, thanks to their frequent use in poetry, did not become archaisms, that is, they did not become obsolete in their use, but crystallized as a definite poetic terminology. In other words, they can be viewed as poetic terms. These words include the words bard poet, woe grief, billow wave, steed and charger horse, etc.

Further, words that can be called rarely used should be attributed to poetism. These are usually words borrowed in different periods from French, Latin and other languages, such as robe, garment, apparel, adieu, joyaunce, pleasaunces, reverie, circumambient, matin, perchance, etc.

Some neologisms created by the classics of English poetry and remaining in the sphere of their individual use should also be attributed to poetisms. Most often these are complex words. Here are some examples of such complex words from the works of Byron: goar-faced, dew-drops, sea-mew, long-reluctant, wave-reflected, dark-glancing (daughters), sea-girt (citadel), blood-red, awe- struck (world) and many others.

Poetisms or poetic phraseology are also called words and phrases that have arisen as a result of the peripheral display of reality.

The sphere of using poetry is not all poetry of the national English language, but the poetry of certain literary trends, certain historical stages in the development of the literary language. We see the greatest use of poetism in the literary movements of classicism and romanticism. It was the classicist poets who viewed poetry as "an art for the elite," and the presence of special words in it that support this poetic tradition of classicism was the norm. Currently, poetry is used in stylistics with the aim of creating a satirical effect. The satirical function of poetisms is realized when poetism stands next to words, the stylistic characteristics of which are opposed to poetisms. In modern English, despite the absence of a special poetic style, a layer of vocabulary remains, which, due to associations with poetic contexts, has a component in the constant meaning of the words included in it, which can be called a poetic stylistic connotation. This component is stable, and dictionaries mark it with a special label poet, and lexicologists call such words poetisms. These include not only those lofty words that were still recognized by the classicists, but also archaic and rare words introduced into poetic use by romantics.

Also in poetry, there are phonetic stylistic devices, such as euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme is the repetition (usually at certain intervals) of the same or similar sound combinations at the end of words. The emergence of rhyme in the English language is associated with the development of high-quality versification. It is the result of the adaptation of classical versification to the English language. An attempt to adapt the Greek metric system of versification to languages ​​with a different morphological structure led to some modification of the classical metric system, in particular, to the emergence of rhyme. The rhymes of English poetry are rich and varied in both sound and structure. A rhyme is called masculine if the sound repetition is created by one stressed syllable ending the foot, for example: Palace - roof of cloudless nights! Paradise of golden lights! If one stressed and one unstressed syllable is repeated, then the rhyme is called feminine, for example:

• - Higher still and higher From the earth thou springest;
• - Like a, cloud of fireThe blue deep thou wingest.

With the sound repetition of the latter, the so-called dactylic rhyme is formed in the line of the stressed and two unstressed syllables: “They have a number, though they never exhibit` emFour wives by law, and concubines at libitum ”.

Dactylic rhyme is more common in works written in three-syllable meter (dactyl, anapest). As Halperin writes, the most common in English are male and female rhymes, since they can be used in all poetic sizes. Often in English authors you can find a special type of rhyme, the so-called "compound" rhyme (in English, the term "broken rhyme" is used): two or more words are consonant with a word or part of it. Upon her - honor - won her bottom - forgot ` em - shot him.

Composite rhymes are typical for humorous and satirical works. A rhyme is called complete when the vowel of the stressed syllable and all the following sounds (vowels and consonants) match, for example:

• - might - right;
• - heedless - needless.

If a consonant, vowel and all subsequent sounds are repeated, then the rhyme is called exact or identical:

• - hours - ours;
• - perfection - infection.

With incomplete rhyme, as the self-name indicates, not all sounds of rhyming syllables are repeated.

A.I. Efimov distinguishes two types of incomplete rhymes, depending on the quality of the repetitive sounds:

• - assonant rhyme, which is formed by repetition of only vowels;
• - the consonants in this rhyme do not match: tale - pain - flesh - fresh - guess;
• - a consonant rhyme based on the repetition of the same consonants with different vowels: tale -pull, worth -forth.

He believes that some rhymes in English are based not on sounds, but on letters, that is, not on the coincidence of final sounds, but of final letters. The author defines such rhymes as visual:

• - love - prove;
• - flood - brood;
• - have - grave.

The sound differences in these rhymes are the result of the many changes that the sound system of the English language has undergone during its development. In earlier periods, the vowels in these rhymes sounded the same.

I.V. Gutorov distinguishes the following rhymes in the stanza:

• 1) paired - in adjacent lines (aa);
• 2) triple - (aaa);
• 3) cross - (abab);
• 4) enveloping (circular or framing), in which the extreme lines of the stanza rhyme: (abba);
• 5) ternary - two lines to the third (aabaab), etc.

Each type of stanza is characterized by a specific arrangement of rhymes. The rhyme can be not only at the end of the line, but also inside it. This rhyme is called internal, in contrast to the external rhyme, which is formed at the ends of the lines. The inner rhyme often appears in multi-foot lines: I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.

Yu.S. Sorokin, in addition, gives a definition of belted rhyme: belted rhyme is a rhyme of verses according to the abba scheme, that is, when in a four-line stanza the first line rhymes with the fourth, as if encircling the second and third lines, mutually rhyming in contiguity.

The role of rhyme in verse is extremely important. Rhyme clarifies the metric division of the verse into rhythmic units. It makes the rhythm of the verse more tangible and makes it easier to perceive. This is the main role of rhyme. In addition to the rhythm-forming meaning, the importance of rhyme for the semantic selection of a word should be emphasized. A word based on sound repetition becomes especially noticeable and attracts attention. Another technique associated with the sound organization of the utterance is onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia). The essence of this technique lies in the fact that sounds are selected in such a way that their combination reproduces any sound that we associate with the producer (source) of this sound.

For example: buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, to mew, etc., onomatopoeia can be direct or indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is the creation of an independent word in which the combination of sounds is designed to reproduce the desired sound. Examples of direct onomatopoeia are the above onomatopoeic words. There are few such words in the language, their purpose is not only to name phenomena, but also to reproduce it by sound. For example: ting-tang, ping-pong, tap. These words can be called sound metaphors of the language. They, like ordinary metaphors, create an image. However, unlike the lexical metaphor, the image is created not visual, but sound. The word to mew, just like the Russian word meow, not only objectively names an action correlated with its producer (cat), but also creates a sound image. Consequently, direct onomatopoeia, since it is realized in separate words, is impossible without the realization of subject-logical meaning.

Indirect onomatopoeia is the reproduction of a sound in nature by means of combining different sounds in different words.

Thus, indirect onomatopoeia is a special form of alliteration: sounds repeated in different words create an objectively existing sound, causing an association with the producer (source) of this sound, in the individual perception of the author. For example, in the motor line of a sentinel tongue twister, the repetition of the sound [p] in different words of this line creates the impression of a motor knocking. In the line: And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain ... (E.A. Poe) the alliteration of the sound [s] to some extent (in the poet's individual perception) reproduces the rustle of a curtain driven by the wind.

Rhythm also plays an important role in poetry. L.I. Timofeev defines rhythm as follows: the rhythm of a verse is based on the correct alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry (tonic principle). The tonic system is subdivided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabo-tonic. The latter can be regarded as characteristic of Russian and English versification. An important feature of poetic speech is the ordered repetition of the rhythmic units that organize it, namely, feet, lines, stanzas.

Thus, poetic devices include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litota, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, as well as phonetic stylistic devices euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme can be masculine, feminine, dactylic, complete, exact, identical, assonant, consonant, visual.

And also there is a girded rhyme, paired, triple, cross, sweeping, ternary. Another technique associated with the sound organization of the utterance is onomatopoeia. Its essence lies in the choice of sounds, the combination of which evokes certain associations. There are two types of this technique: direct onomatopoeia and indirect. In poetry, rhythm plays a very important role, which is based on the tonic principle. The tonic system is subdivided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabo-tonic. The latter can be regarded as characteristic of Russian and English versification.

The rhythmic units of poetic speech are foot, line, stanza, meter.

The sound and rhythm of the verse sets the poetic meter, which is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in the foot in modern poems (or long and short-sounding syllables for ancient versification).

As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important component of its artistic means. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.

In context, a word is a special world, a mirror of the author's perception and attitude to reality. The literary text has its own, metaphorical, accuracy, its own special truths, called artistic revelations, the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.

The individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is primarily the self-expression of an individual. Literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotional image of a work of art. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring that creates a kind of world that we discover when reading the text.

Not only in literary, but also in oral, colloquial speech, we use, without hesitation, various techniques of artistic expression in order to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, imagery. Let's see what artistic techniques are in the Russian language.

The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.

Metaphor

Artistic techniques in literature cannot be imagined without mentioning the most important of them - metaphors. This is a way of creating a linguistic picture of the world based on the meanings already existing in the language itself.

The types of metaphors are as follows:

1. Fossilized, worn out, dry or historic (boat bow, eye of a needle).
2. Phraseologisms are stable figurative combinations of words that have emotionality, metaphor, reproducibility in the memory of many native speakers, expressiveness (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
3. Single metaphor (e.g. homeless heart).
4. Unfolded (heart - "porcelain bell in yellow China" - Nikolai Gumilyov).
5. Traditionally poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
6. Individually-author's (hump of the sidewalk).

In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, periphrase, meiosis, litota and other tropes.

The word "metaphor" itself means "transfer" in translation from Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of the name from one subject to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some kind of similarity, they must be related in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression that is used figuratively due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects in some way.

As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the brightest means of expressing artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the lack of expressiveness of the work.

The metaphor can be either simple or detailed. In the twentieth century, the use of the expanded in poetry is revived, and the nature of the simple changes significantly.

Metonymy

Metonymy is one of the varieties of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means "renaming", that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word with another on the basis of the existing contiguity of two concepts, objects, etc. This is an imposition on the direct meaning of the figurative. For example: "I ate two plates." Mixing of meanings, their transfer are possible because objects are contiguous, and the contiguity can be in time, in space, etc.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means "correlation". Such a transfer of meaning takes place when instead of a larger one is called a smaller one, or vice versa; instead of a part, a whole, and vice versa. For example: "According to Moscow reports."

Epithet

Artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, cannot be imagined without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action from the subjective author's position.

Translated from Greek, this term means "attached, attachment", that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.

The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness.

Permanent epithets are used in folklore as a means of typing, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. In the strict sense of the term, only those of them belong to the paths, the function of which has words in a figurative meaning, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed in words in a direct meaning (red berry, beautiful flowers). Figuratives are created by using words in a figurative sense. Such epithets are usually called metaphorical. Metonymic transfer of the name can also underlie this trail.

Oxymoron is a type of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, which form combinations with the nouns defined by the words opposite to them in meaning (hating love, joyful sadness).

Comparison

Comparison is a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of various objects in terms of similarity, which is both obvious and unexpected, distant. It is usually expressed using certain words: "exactly", "like", "like", "like". Also, comparisons can take the form of the instrumental case.

Impersonation

Describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a kind of metaphor, which is the assignment of properties of living things to objects of inanimate nature. It is often created by referring to such natural phenomena as conscious living beings. Impersonation is also the transfer of human properties to animals.

Hyperbola and litota

Let us note such techniques of artistic expression in literature as hyperbole and litota.

Hyperbole (translated as "exaggeration") is one of the expressive means of speech, representing a figure with the meaning of exaggeration of what is being discussed.

Litota (translated as "simplicity") is the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is being discussed (a boy with a finger, a little man with a fingernail).

Sarcasm, irony and humor

We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be supplemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.

• Sarcasm means "tear meat" in Greek. This is an evil irony, a stinging mockery, a caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time there is a clearly ideological and emotional assessment.
• Irony in translation means "pretense", "mockery". It arises when one thing is said in words, but something completely different is meant, the opposite.
• Humor is one of the lexical means of expressiveness, which in translation means "mood", "disposition". In a comic, allegorical vein, sometimes whole works can be written in which a mockingly good-natured attitude towards something is felt. For example, the story "Chameleon" by A. P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I. A. Krylov.

The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to your attention the following.

Grotesque

The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique is a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("The Golovlevs", "The History of a City", fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic devices in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The works of J. Swift are grotesque (for example, "Gulliver's Travel").

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel "The Lord Golovlevs"? Grotesque, of course. Irony and sarcasm are present in V. Mayakovsky's poems. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, the examples of which we have just cited, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

Pun

A pun is a figure of speech that is an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that occurs when two or more meanings of a word are used in the context or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.

In puns, puns are based on homonymy and ambiguity. Jokes arise from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A. P. Chekhov.

Figure of speech - what is it?

The word "figure" itself is translated from Latin as "appearance, shape, image". This word has many meanings. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expressiveness related to figures: rhetorical exclamations, questions, addresses.

What is a "trope"?

"What is the name of an artistic technique that uses a word in a figurative sense?" - you ask. The term "trope" combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litota, hyperbole, personification and others. In translation, the word "trope" means "turnover". Artistic speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special turns that decorate speech, making it more expressive. Different styles use different means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of "expressiveness" for artistic speech is the ability of a text, a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.

We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, while others, on the contrary, excite, alert, cause anxiety, soothe or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. With the help of their combination, you can emotionally affect a person. Reading works of literature and Russian folk art, we perceive their sound especially sharply.

Basic techniques for creating sonic expressiveness

• Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
• Assonance is the intentional harmonious repetition of vowels.

Alliteration and assonance are often used in works at the same time. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.

Acceptance of sound writing in fiction

Sound writing is an artistic technique, which is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, the selection of words that imitate the sounds of the real world. This technique is used in fiction both in poetry and in prose.

Varieties of sound writing:

1. Assonance - translated from French means "consonance". Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It contributes to the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm, rhyme of poems.
2. Alliteration - from the Greek "letter". This technique is a repetition of consonants in a literary text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
3. Onomatopoeia - the transmission of special words, reminiscent of the sounds of the phenomena of the surrounding world, auditory impressions.

These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.

What are art techniques for? First of all, in order for the work to correspond to a certain style, implying a certain imagery, expressiveness and beauty. Moreover, the writer is a master of associations, an artist of words, and a great contemplator. Artistic techniques in poem and prose make the text deeper. Consequently, both the prose writer and the poet are not satisfied with just the linguistic layer; they are not limited to using only the superficial, basic meaning of the word. In order to be able to penetrate into the depths of thought, into the essence of the image, it is required to use various artistic means.

In addition, the reader needs to be enticed and attracted. For this, various techniques are used, giving special interest to the narrative and some mystery that needs to be solved. Artistic means are called in another way paths. These are not only integral elements of the overall picture of the world, but also the author's assessment, the background and general tone of the work, as well as much more that we, reading the next creation, sometimes do not even think about.

The main artistic techniques are metaphor, epithet and comparison. Although the epithet is often viewed as a kind of metaphor, but we will not go into the jungle of the science of "literary criticism" and traditionally single it out as a separate means.

Epithet

Epithet is the king of description. Not a single landscape, portrait, interior is complete without it. Sometimes a single correctly chosen epithet is much more important than a whole paragraph, created specifically for clarification. Most often, speaking about it, we mean participles or adjectives that endow this or that artistic image with additional properties and characteristics. An epithet should not be confused with a simple definition.

So, for example, the following words can be proposed to describe the eyes: living, brown, bottomless, large, painted, crafty. Let's try to divide these adjectives into two groups, namely: objective (natural) properties and subjective (additional) characteristics. We will see that words such as "big", "brown" and "painted" convey by their meaning only what anyone can see, since it lies on the surface. In order for us to imagine the appearance of this or that hero, such definitions are very important. However, it is the "bottomless", "living", "crafty" eyes that will best tell us about his inner essence, character. We begin to guess that there is an unusual person in front of us, inclined to various inventions, having a living, mobile soul. This is precisely the main property of epithets: to indicate those features that are hidden from us during the initial examination.

Metaphor

Let's move on to another equally important path - metaphor. comparison expressed by a noun. The author's task here is to compare phenomena and objects, but very carefully and tactfully so that the reader cannot guess that we are imposing this object on him. This is exactly how, insinuatingly and naturally, you need to use any artistic techniques. "tears of dew", "fire of dawn", etc. Here dew is compared to tears, and dawn is compared to fire.

Comparison

The last most important artistic technique is a comparison, given directly through the use of such unions as "as if", "how", "as if", "exactly", "as if". Examples include the following: eyes are like life; dew like tears; tree like an old man. However, it should be noted that the use of an epithet, metaphor or comparison should be done not only for the sake of a "catchphrase". There should be no chaos in the text, it should gravitate towards grace and harmony, therefore, before using this or that trope, you need to clearly understand for what purpose it is used, what we want to say by this.

Other, more complex and less common artistic techniques are hyperbole (exaggeration), antithesis (opposition), and inversion (reverse word order).

Antithesis

Such a trope as an antithesis has two varieties: it can be narrow (within one paragraph or sentence) and expanded (placed over several chapters or pages). This technique is often used in the works of Russian classics in the case when it is required to compare two heroes. For example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin in his story "The Captain's Daughter" compares Pugachev and Grinev, and a little later Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol will create portraits of the famous brothers, Andriy and Ostap, also based on the antithesis. The artistic devices in Oblomov's novel also include this trope.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a favorite technique of such literary genres as epic, fairy tale and ballad. But it is found not only in them. For example, the hyperbole "he could eat a boar" can be used in any novel, story or other work of the realistic tradition.

Inversion

Let's continue to describe artistic techniques in the works. Inversion, as you might guess, serves to add additional emotionality to the work. It can be most often observed in poetry, but prose is often used as well. You can say, "This girl was prettier than the others." And you can shout out: "This girl was more beautiful than others!" Immediately arises and enthusiasm, and expression, and much more, which can be seen when comparing two statements.

Irony

The next trope, irony, in another way - the hidden author's mockery, is also used quite often in fiction. Of course, a serious work should be serious, but the subtext hidden in the irony sometimes not only demonstrates the writer's wit, but also makes the reader take a breath and prepare for the next, more intense scene. In a humorous work, irony is irreplaceable. The great masters of this are Zoshchenko and Chekhov, who use this trope in their stories.

Sarcasm

Another one is closely connected with this technique - it is no longer just a good laugh, it reveals flaws and vices, sometimes exaggerates the colors, while irony usually creates a bright atmosphere. In order to have a more complete idea of ​​this path, you can read several tales of Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Impersonation

The next trick is impersonation. It allows you to demonstrate the life of the world around us. Images such as grumbling winter, dancing snow, singing water appear. In other words, personification is the transfer of animate properties to inanimate objects. So, we all know that only humans and animals can yawn. But in literature, there are often such artistic images as a yawning sky or a yawning door. The first of them can help create a certain mood in the reader, prepare his perception. The second is to emphasize the sleepy atmosphere in this house, possibly loneliness and boredom.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is another interesting technique, which is a combination of incongruous. This is both a righteous lie and an Orthodox devil. Such words, chosen quite unexpectedly, can be used by both science fiction writers and lovers of philosophical treatises. Sometimes just one oxymoron is enough to build a whole work that has a dualism of being, an insoluble conflict, and a subtle ironic overtones.

Other artistic techniques

Interestingly, the "and, and, and" used in the previous sentence is also one of the artistic means called multi-union. What is it for? First of all, in order to expand the narrative range and show, for example, that a person has beauty, intelligence, courage, and charm ... And the hero also knows how to fish, and swim, and write books, and build houses ...

Most often, this trope is used together with another, called This is the case when it is difficult to imagine one without the other.

However, these are not all artistic techniques and means. Let us also note the rhetorical questions. They do not require an answer, but at the same time they make readers think. Perhaps everyone knows the most famous of them: "Who is to blame?" and "What to do?"

These are just basic artistic techniques. In addition to them, one can distinguish parceling (division of a sentence), synecdoche (when the singular is used instead of the plural), anaphora (similar beginning of sentences), epiphora (repetition of their endings), litota (understatement) and hyperbole (on the contrary, exaggeration), paraphrase (when some word is replaced by its brief description. All these means can be used both in poetry and in prose. Artistic techniques in a poem and, for example, a story, are not fundamentally different.

Poetic techniques are an important part of a beautiful rich poem. Poetic techniques significantly help to make the poem interesting and varied. It is very useful to know what poetic techniques the author uses.

Poetic techniques

Epithet

An epithet in poetry is usually used to emphasize one of the properties of the described object, process or action.

This term is of Greek origin and literally means "attached." At its core, an epithet is a definition of an object, action, process, event, etc., expressed in an artistic form. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective, but other parts of speech, such as numbers, nouns, and even verbs, can also be used. Depending on the location, epithets are divided into prepositional, postpositional and dislocation.

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process.

Trails

Literally, the word "trope" means "turnover" in translation from the Greek language. However, the translation, although it reflects the essence of this term, cannot reveal its meaning even approximately. Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Trails are usually divided into several types, depending on what kind of semantic shade the word or expression was used in a figurative sense: metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Metaphor

Metaphor is an expressive means, one of the most common tropes, when, based on the similarity of one or another feature of two different objects, a property inherent in one object is assigned to another. Most often, when using a metaphor, to highlight a particular property of an inanimate object, authors use words whose direct meaning is used to describe the features of animate objects, and vice versa, revealing the properties of an animate object, they use words whose use is characteristic of describing inanimate objects.

Impersonation

Impersonation is an expressive technique, when using which the author consistently transfers several signs of animate objects to an inanimate object. These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Metonymy

When using metonymy, the author replaces one concept with another based on the similarities between them. Close in meaning in this case are the cause and effect, the material and the thing made from it, the action and the tool. Often, the name of the author is used to designate a work, or the name of the owner for property.

Synecdoche

Genus trope, the use of which is associated with a change in quantitative relationships between objects or objects. So, the plural is often used instead of the singular, or vice versa, the part instead of the whole. In addition, when using synecdoche, the genus can be designated by the name of the species. This means of expression in poetry is less common than, for example, metaphor.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun, for example, based on the presence of a particularly strong character trait in the given character.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Gain or gradation

When using this expressive means, the author arranges theses, arguments, thoughts, etc. as their importance or persuasiveness increases. Such a consistent presentation allows you to multiply the significance of the thought expounded by the poet.

Opposition or antithesis

Opposition is an expressive means that makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can also be used as an object of opposition.

Default

By default, the author deliberately or involuntarily omits some concepts, and sometimes entire phrases and sentences. In this case, the presentation of thoughts in the text turns out to be somewhat confused, less consistent, which only emphasizes the special emotionality of the text.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poem, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, communicating his experiences and feelings to him.

Inversion

To make the language of a literary work more expressive, special means of poetic syntax are used, called figures of poetic speech. In addition to repetition, anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal, in prose and especially in versification, inversion is quite common (Latin inversio - permutation).

The use of this stylistic technique is based on the unusual order of words in a sentence, which gives the phrase a more expressive connotation. The traditional construction of a sentence requires the following sequence: the subject, the predicate and the definition in front of the designated word: "The wind drives gray clouds." However, this word order is characteristic, to a greater extent, for prose texts, and in poetic works there is often a need for the intonation of a word.

Classic examples of inversion can be found in Lermontov's poetry: "A lonely sail gleams / In the blue mist of the sea ...". Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words wedged in between words: "Old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author's attitude towards heroes and to convey their emotional state.

Alliteration

Alliteration is understood as a special literary device consisting in the repetition of one or a number of sounds. In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section is of great importance. For example, "Where is the grove neighing guns neighing". However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, alliteration is out of the question. Alliteration is characterized by an irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique. Usually the alliteration technique is used in poetry, but in some cases alliteration can also be found in prose. So, for example, V. Nabokov very often uses the technique of alliteration in his works.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivative, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated.

The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Assonance

Assonance is understood as a special literary device consisting in the repetition of vowel sounds in a particular utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of the assonance technique. Firstly, assonance is used as an original tool that gives a literary text, especially a poetic one, a special flavor.

For example,
“Our ears are on the top of the head,
A little morning lit up the cannons
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there. " (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Second, assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

In the Middle Ages, assonance was one of the most commonly used methods of rhyming poetry. However, both in modern poetry and in the poetry of the past century, it is quite easy to find many examples of the use of the literary method of assonance. One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

“I will not turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat one -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water."

Anaphora

Anaphora is traditionally understood as such a literary device as monotony. In this case, most often we are talking about repetition at the beginning of a sentence, line or paragraph of words and phrases. For example, "The winds were not blowing in vain, the thunderstorm was not in vain." In addition, with the help of anaphora, one can express the identity of certain objects, or the presence of certain objects and different or identical properties. For example, "I go to the hotel, I hear a conversation there." Thus, we see that the anaphora in the Russian language is one of the main literary devices that serve to link the text. There are the following types of anaphora: sound anaphora, morphemic anaphora, lexical anaphora, syntactic anaphora, stanza anaphora, rhyme anaphora and stropic-syntactic anaphora. Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example, "A cattle dies, a friend dies, a man dies himself."

Literary and poetic techniques

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through specific artistic images.

Allegory examples:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech section is of great importance.

However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by an irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary technique.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repetitive sounds are concentrated not at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivative, albeit with a high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonants are alliterated. The main functions of the literary technique of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in a person.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs with guns."

"Up to a hundred years
grow
us without old age.
Year to year
grow
our cheerfulness.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
the land of youth. "

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Repetition of words, phrases, or sound combinations at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

"The winds were not blowing in vain,

The thunderstorm was not in vain "

(S. Yesenin).

Black-eyed girl

Black-maned horse!

(M.Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional character of words in the text.

For example:

"The cattle dies, the friend dies, the man himself dies."

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

The antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of the opposite in meaning concepts used in the text of the poem. Also, the opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of the antithesis:

I swear on the first day of creation, I swear on its last day (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing will become everything.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun for a figurative disclosure of the character's character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He's a big jealous man")

The stingy is often called Plyushkin, the empty dreamer - Manilov, the person with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary device that involves repeating vowel sounds in a given utterance. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives a literary text, especially a poetic one, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads
A little morning lit up the cannons
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhymes. For example, "the hammer city", "the princess is incomparable."

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into fat -
I eat, I write, from the heat of the bald.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poem, but, as a rule, authors use it, intonationally highlighting especially emotional moments in a verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that particularly excited him, communicating his experiences and feelings to him.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exaggerated exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of any object or phenomenon.

Hyperbole example:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others are as long as the moon; to the skies of baobabs (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonational highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is whitening
In the fog of the blue sea ... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different construction: A lone sail in the blue mist of the sea gleams white. But this will no longer be Lermontov and not his great creation.

Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when other words wedged in between words: "Old man obedient to Perun alone ...".

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author's attitude towards heroes and to convey their emotional state.

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a tinge of mockery, sometimes light mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with the opposite meaning in meaning so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

Play on words. A witty expression, a joke based on the use of words that sound similar, but different in meaning, or different meanings of the same word.

Examples of puns in literature:

In a year for three clicks on your forehead,
Give me boiled spelled.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And the verse that served me before,
Torn by a string, verse.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that started.
(E. Meek)

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, value of any object or phenomenon.

Litota example:

The horse is being led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ... and he himself has a fingernail! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. The metaphor is based on similarity or similarity.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

A sea of ​​problems.

The eyes are burning.

Desire boils.

The afternoon was blazing.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will visit us.

(flags replace countries here).

I ate three plates.

(here the plate replaces the meal).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of conflicting concepts.

Look, she has fun to be sad

So smartly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Impersonation

Impersonation is the transfer of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with the qualities inherent in living beings.

Examples of impersonation:

What, dense forest,

Thoughtful
With sadness in the dark
Fogged out?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Caution the wind
I came out of the gate,

Knocked on the window
I ran across the roof ...

(M.V. Isakovsky)

Parcelling

Parcelling is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcel example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes "(Shukshin).

Periphrase

A periphery is an expression that descriptively conveys the meaning of another expression or word.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts (instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers (instead of the Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically redundant words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In the month of May (suffice it to say: in May).

Local Aboriginal (suffice it to say: Aboriginal).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally (suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expressiveness.

For example:

Sadness-melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth image of the hero's mental and emotional experiences.

A repeating verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain grows into an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A proposal in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered.

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or has the Russian lost the habit of victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person, object.

Russia! where are you rushing?

(N.V. Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. At the same time, such an analogy is made so that the object, the properties of which are used in comparison, is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

Then my life sang - howl -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf -

And she cried over herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

A symbol is an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this it is close to the metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. The symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows only guessing what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of the symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics, they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground - a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane - the inner world of the lyric hero, his visions, memories, pictures generated by his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

Dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

Night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

Snow is a symbol of coldness, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoches:

Home (instead of "home").

A sail is sailing (instead of "sailing boat is sailing").

“... and it was heard until dawn,
how the Frenchman rejoiced ... "(Lermontov)

(here "French" instead of "French soldiers").

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means that it does not contain new information.

Examples:

Car tires are tires for a car.

We have come together.

Trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

Metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, the speech started is interrupted in the expectation of the reader's guess; the speaker, as it were, declares that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Quite often the stylistic effect of silence is that an unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be better explained -

Yes, so as not to tease the geese ...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or strengthening) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, lower the semantic or emotional significance of the transmitted feelings, the expressed thought or the described event.

An example of upward gradation:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry…

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly hazy care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will go away.

(E. Baratynsky)

Downward gradation example:

He promises half the world, And France only himself.

Euphemism

A word or expression that is neutral in meaning, which in conversation replaces other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in this case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead of being kicked out).

Figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. The epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used in its capacity, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

Velvet skin, crystal ringing.

Repetition of the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

"Festoons, all scallops: scallop cape, scallop on the sleeves, scallop epaulettes ..." (N. V. Gogol).