Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. Slavic languages

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West Slavic languages.

West Slavic languages

West Slavic languages - a group of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family... Distributed in Central and Eastern Europe (in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Germany [Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian languages - in the vicinity of Bautzen (Budishin), Cottbus and Dresden]. the territories of America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.) The total number of speakers is over 60 million people.

West Slavic languages include:

§ Lehite subgroup

§ Kashubian

§ Polabian †

§ Polish

§ Silesian (in Poland, the Silesian language is officially considered a dialect of Polish or transitional dialects between Polish and Czech. According to data from 2002, 60,000 people in Poland named Silesian as their native language. The language does not have its own literary tradition, although it was distinguished as a special one by the Slavists of the 19th century)

§ Slovinian †

§ Luzhitsa subgroup(Serbolic)

§ Upper Sorbian

§ Lower Sorbian

§ Czecho-Slovak subgroup

§ Slovak

§ Czech

§ knanite †

The most common West Slavic languages arePolish(35 million),Czech(9.5 million) andSlovak(4.5 million). A small population of the Kashubians lives in Poland. The Polabian language is now a dead language. It is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of living speech of the 17th - 18th centuries.

In Z. i. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lehite, Czech-Slovak, Serboluzhytsky, the differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lehite subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence, has survived.

Z. I. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of a group of consonants kv ", gv" before vowels i, "e," a (‹м) in accordance with cv, zv in South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polish. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech kvmt, hvmzda; Slovak. kvet, hviezda; bottom-puddles kwmt, gwmzda; top-puddles. kwмt, hwмzda (compare Russian "color", "star", etc.).

Preservation of non-simplified groups of consonants tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages of other Slavic groups: Polish. plуtі, mydіo; Czech pletl, mеdlo; Slovak. plietol, mydlo; bottom-puddles pletі, mydіo; top-puddles. pletі, mydіo; (Wed Russian "wove", "soap").

The consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic * tj, * dj, * ktj, * kti, which in other Slavic languages correspond to consonants and, ћ, љt, dj, ћd, w: Polish. њwieca, sadzaж; Czech svнce, sбzet; Slovak. svieca, sádzaќ; bottom-puddles swmca, sajџazh; top-puddles. swmca, sadџezh (compare Russian "candle", "plant").

The presence of a consonant љ in those cases which correspond to s or њ in the languages of other Slavic groups (with analogous formations ch): Polish. wszak, musze (date-sentence n. from mucha); Czech vљak, mouљe; Slovak. vљak, muљe; bottom-puddles vљako, muљe; top-puddles. vљak, muљe [cf. Russian "Everyone", "fly"; ukr. "Everyone", "musi" (= fly)].

Absence of l epenthetic after labial in the non-initial position of the word (from the combination labial + j): Polish. ziemia, kupiony; Czech zemm, koupm; Slovak. zem, kъpenэ; lower-puddle zemja, kupju; top-puddles. zemja, kupju (compare Russian "land", "purchase").

In the history of the development of Z. i. there were changes common for the whole group:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long one with the loss of intervocal j and assimilation of vowels in inflections and roots: Czech. dobrе

In Z. i. a fixed stress was established either on the first (Czech, Slovak, Lusatian languages), or on the penultimate syllable (Polish, some Czech dialects). In the Kashubian dialect, the stress is different.

For most of the Z. i. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced b and b> e: czech. sen

The main differences between individual Z. i., Which arose in the historical period of their development: different fate of nasal vowels, sound m (yat), long and short vowels; Proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Lusatian languages changed to h (guttural, fricative), the differences also concern the category of hardness / softness of consonants. In the system of the nominal declension of all Z. i. general Slavic processes took place: a regrouping of declension types based on grammatical gender, the loss of some previous types (mainly stems based on a consonant), the mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, the re-decomposition of stems, the emergence of new endings. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The most archaic declension system has been preserved by the Czech language. All Z. i. (except for Lusatian) have lost the forms of the dual number. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and a specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Sorbian) developed and received morphological expression. Short forms adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Sorbian) or preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of unproductive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti> sednouti), the loss (except for Lusatian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages and pluperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The most significant changes in the conjugation of the present forms of the verb were experienced by the Slovak language, where all verbs in the present tense have one system of endings.

The syntactic features are due in part to the influence of the Latin and German languages. Unlike East Slavic languages, they are more often used modal verbs, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinite-personal and generalized-personal meaning such as Czech. Jak se jde? `How to get through? 'And others.

The vocabulary reflected Latin and German influences, in Slovak - Czech and Hungarian. InfluenceRussian language, significant in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially increased after the 2nd World War.

In the early feudal period as a written language the Western Slavs used Latin. The most ancient literary language Slavs - Old Slavonic linguistic origin in the 9th century. The first proper Czech monuments date back to the end of the 13th century, Polish - to the beginning of the 14th century, Slovak - to the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, and Lusatian - to the 16th century. Modern goldsmiths. use Latin graphics.

The most widespread West Slavic languages are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of the Kashubians lives in Poland. The Polabian language is now a dead language. It is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of living speech of the 17th - 18th centuries.

The Luzhian languages have survived as small islands in Germany. There are about 150 thousand people in Luzhichy. They have their own schools, their own press, there is a Slavic department at the University of Berlin.

Lehitsky subgroup

Kashumbian language (alternative names: Pomor language, Pomeranian language; Kashubian kaszlbsczi jgzlk, ptmtrsczi jgzlk, kaszlbskf mtwa, kaszlbskt-sіowiсskf mtwa) - West Slavic language, widespread in the south of the Lehite subgroup west of the Lehite subgroup. Currently, about 50 thousand people speak the Kashubian language in everyday life, about 150 thousand people are familiar with it.

The closest language to Kashubian is Polish, with which Kashubian shares most of the main vocabulary... Kashubian also experienced a significant influence of Polish on its grammar and word formation. The main differences from Polish are borrowings from Old Prussian and German (of the latter - about 5% of the vocabulary), as well as the omission of vowels in syllables without stress and other rules of stress, which, however, are also heterogeneous in Kashubian itself. While in the south the stress always falls on the first syllable, in the north the stress can vary.

The Pomlsky language (jкzyk polski, polszczyzna) is the language of the Poles, native to about 40 million people in many countries of the world, including about 38 million people in the Republic of Poland. As a second and foreign, Polish is owned by another 5-10 million people.

The dialects of the Polish language include:

§ Wielkopolska dialect, occupies the territory of Wielkopolska, Krajny and Bor Tucholski. This dialect is based on the tribal dialect of Polyans.

§ Lesser Poland dialect, occupies the territory of Lesser Poland, Subcarpathian, Swietokrzyskie and Lubelskie provinces. It was based on the adverb of the Vislyans.

§ The Mazovian dialect occupies the eastern and central part of Poland. It was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Mazovshan tribe.

§ The Silesian dialect, widespread on the territory of Upper Silesia, is a continuation of the development of the Slazan dialect.

The Polambian language is an extinct West Slavic language. The native language of the Polabian Slavs, assimilated by the Germans by the beginning of the 19th century.

The Polabian language was closest to Polish and, together with it, Kashubian and the extinct Slovinian.

The name of the language comes from the Slavic name of the Elbe River (Polish Јaba, Czech Labe, etc.). Other names: ancient Polabian, Vendian. Accordingly, the Slavic tribe that spoke it was called the Polabian Slavs, Drevians (Drevans) or Vends (Vends is the German name for all Slavs in Germany). The language was spread before the first half of XVIII centuries on the left bank of the Elbe in the principality of Lünenburg (now the district of Lüchow-Dannenberg in the state of Lower Saxony), where monuments of this language were recorded, and earlier also in the north of modern Germany (Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Schleswig, Rügen Island).

In the south, the area of the Polabian language bordered on the Lusatian languages, which were widespread in the southern part of modern eastern Germany.

In the 17th century, the Polabian language becomes socially not prestigious, the "Vendians" hide or do not advertise their origin and switch to German, undergoing, among other things, forcible Germanization. By 1725, there are data on a family of native speakers, in which the younger generation no longer knew Polabian. The last entry was made around 1750. In 1790, the compiler of the first consolidated Polabian dictionary, Johann Jugler, was looking for people who could understand Polabian at least a little, but could no longer find anyone.

Slovin (Slovintsky) language is a West Slavic idiom of the Lechite subgroup, which became extinct in the 20th century. It is considered by some authors as an independent language, by others as a dialect of Kashubian or (not distinguishing Kashubian) Polish. There is a use of the term "Pomor (Pomeranian) language", which combines Kashubian and Slovin. It was spoken by the Slovinians, who were ethnographically described for the first time by A.F. Hilferding in 1856 and lived to the north-west of the Kashubians, between Lake eb and Lake Gardno.

In the 17th - 19th centuries, the Slovinian language / dialect was used even in church sermons, but after the unification of Germany in 1871 it was finally replaced by the German language. By the beginning of the 20th century, no more than a few hundred speakers remained, and all spoke German.

After 1945, the Slovinians - Protestants (since the 16th century), already speaking mainly German - were considered by the Polish government as Germans and were mostly exiled to Germany or then left Poland of their own free will, settling in the Federal Republic of Germany (many in district of Hamburg). There they finally assimilated. Some old people who remained in Poland remembered Slovinian words back in the 1950s.

Lumzic languages, Serbolumzhytskie languages: (outdated name - Serbian) - languages of the Lusican people, one of the national minorities in Germany.

They belong to the Slavic group of languages. The total number of speakers is about 60,000, of whom about 40,000 live in Saxony and about 20,000 in Brandenburg. In the Lusatian region, the tables with the names of cities and streets are often bilingual.

There are two written languages, which in turn consist of several dialects: the Upper Sorbian language (in the Upper Lusatia) and the Lower Sorbian language (in the Lower Lusatia).

The number of speakers of Lusatian languages in everyday life is significantly lower than the above figures. Unlike the fairly stable Upper Sorbian language, the Lower Sorbian language is on the verge of extinction.

Slovak language West Slavic ethnic

Czecho-Slovak subgroup

Chemsh language (self-name - еeљtina, еeske jazyk) - total number of speakers - 12 million Latin (Czech alphabet)

The Czech language is divided into several dialects, the speakers of which generally understand each other. Currently, under the influence of the literary language, the boundaries between dialects are blurred. Czech dialects are divided into 4 groups:

§ Czech dialects (with colloquial Czech as koine)

§ Central Moravian dialects group (Hanack);

§ East Moravian group of dialects (Moravian-Slovak);

§ Silesian dialects.

The borderlands, previously inhabited by the Sudeten Germans, cannot be attributed to the same dialect due to the heterogeneity of the population.

As in many related but independently developed languages for a long time, similar sounding Czech and Russian words often have different and even opposite meanings (for example, erstve - fresh; pozor - attention; mmsto - city; hrad - castle; ovoce - - fruit; rodina - family; and others, the so-called false friends of the translator).

The Slovak language (Slovak. Sloveniina, slovenske jazyk) - the total number of speakers is 6 million. The Slovak language is very close to the Czech language.

The standardization of the Slovak language began at the end of the 18th century. Then the book by Anton Bernolak "Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum" was published with the appendix "Orthographia" (1787). This literary language was based on Western Slovak dialects. The modern literary Slovak language, which is based on Middle Slovak linguistic features, arose in the middle of the 19th century thanks to the efforts of the Slovak patriots Ludovit Stuhr, Michal Miloslav Goji, Josef Miloslav Gurban, etc. The first variant of Stuhr's codification was formulated in the books "Nauka rei sloivenskej" ( Science about the Slovak language) and "Nbreija slovenskuo alebo potreba pнsatja v tomto nbrein" (Slovak dialect or the need to write in this dialect) and proceeded primarily from the speech of the intelligentsia of the Middle Slovak town Liptovsky Mikulas and was characterized by a strong phonological principle of spelling l "(" * ") and a long vowel" y "with the exception of the word" dcйra "(daughter) and other linguistic features that are in the modern version of the Slovak language. In 1851, at a meeting of Slovak intellectuals, a reformed version of Stuhr's codification was adopted, the author of which was the linguist Milan Gattala (we are talking about the so-called "Gojovsko-Gattal reform"). This variant is the basis of today's literary Slovak language. Important points in the history of further standardization of the Slovak language is the publication of spelling in 1931 and 1953. and the development of terminology in the interwar and, above all, the postwar period.

During the existence of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarian authorities persecuted the literary Slovak language, while promoting the less common Eastern Slovak dialect.

Hebrew-Slavic dialects (Knaanite, Qna`anith) is a conventional name for several dialects and registers of Slavic languages spoken by Jews who lived in the Middle Ages in Slavic countries. All known Jewish-Slavic dialects were supplanted by Yiddish or the surrounding Slavic languages towards the end of the Middle Ages.

The most famous is the Jewish-Czech version of the Old Bohemian language, which was spoken by Bohemian and Moravian Jews before the massive influx of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim from Germany and then the resettlement of both to the east and northeast to the Rzeczpospolita. However, nothing is known about its differences from the language of the surrounding population. Most likely, as in the case of other medieval Hebrew languages in Europe, the differences were minimal and limited to the inclusion of Hebrew and Aramaic words and the use of the Hebrew alphabet.

The name Knaanite (English Knaanic) is associated with the designation of the Slavic countries by the term Qna`an (Old Hebrew lrtp, since ancient times denoting Palestine - Canaan), found in Hebrew texts (for example, Benjamin from Tudela in the XII century. Kievan Rus"Land of Canaan"). The reason for this identification is unknown.

Polabian	Polish	kashubian	Upper Lusatian	lower lusatian	Ukrainian	Belorussian
					lyudina, cholovik




prenja zaima, jisin




					fire, fire	agony, vognishcha

						vetser, wind

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Origin

The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language was first separated from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Pro-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic linguistic continuum from Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time, it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants appeared later.

The process of the transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages most actively took place in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of Southeast and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of different geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were developed, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who stood at different stages of cultural development. All this is reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

Separation time

Gray and Atkinson

Atkinson and Gray performed a statistical analysis of the related words of 103 living and dead Indo-European languages (out of about 150 known), using a lexico-statistical database (created from the lists of Swadesh Isidore Dien) and additional information.

And the Slavic linguistic unity, according to the results of their research, disintegrated 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. The Balto-Slavic linguistic unity fell apart 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

The methods and results of Gray and Atkinson have been heavily criticized from various angles.

Chang, Cathcart, Hall and Garrett

Kasyan, Dybo

In September 2015, A.S. Kasyan and A.V. Dybo, within the framework of an interdisciplinary study on Slavic ethnogenesis, published a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages, based on high-quality 110-word lists of Swadesh, collected according to the standard of the project "The Global Lexicostatistical Database "And processed by modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree is in agreement with the traditional Slavic point of view on the structure of the Slavic group. The tree suggests the first division of the Proto-Slavic language into three branches: east, west and south. The moment of disintegration dates back to ca. A.D. 100 BC, this is consistent with the opinion of archaeologists that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. NS. the Slavic population occupied a rather vast territory and was no longer monolithic. Further, in the V-VI centuries. n. BC, three Slavic branches are almost synchronously divided into more fractional taxa, which corresponds to the rapid spread of the Slavs across Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. NS. (Slavicization of Europe).

The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, since Ljubljana Koine and literary Slovenian show a mixture of South Slavic and West Slavic lexical features (presumably this may indicate the original West Slavic attribution of the Slovenian language, which for a long time was influenced by neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and qualitative Svedeshevsky lists Slovene dialects were not collected at that time. Due to the lack or unreliability of lexical data, the study did not cover the so-called. Old Novgorod dialect, Polabian language and some other Slavic idioms.

The history of development

In the early period of the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was greatly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in the Ablaut, the root ceased to obey ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the Satem group (sьrdьce, pisati, prositi, compare lat.cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, compare lat.granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. praslav. * kamy, * kosa. * gǫsь, * gordъ, * bergъ, etc. The Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. The corresponding languages were then formed from them. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. In the West Slavic group, there were 3 subgroups: Lehitskaya, Serbolicheskaya and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system prevailed. Significant changes took place during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries, there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. In some cases, they disappeared, in others they passed into the vowels of a complete education. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity has been lost, at the same time in the Czech and Slovak languages (excluding the North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokav group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), as well as partly in the Slovenian language these differences remain. In the Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, nasal vowels are preserved, which have been lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polab language). Long time the nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovene language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the corresponding languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to the present day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t ’, d - d ’, n - n ', in Slovak - t - t ’, d - d ’, n - n ', l - l ’, while in the West Slovak dialect due to assibilation t ’, d ’ and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l ’, usually only one pair is presented n - n ', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazh, Trnava, Zagorsk) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and West Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - of the old paired soft consonants only n ' (< * nj), l ’ (< * lj) have not undergone hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).

Stress in Slavic languages is implemented in different ways. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile character of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the stress was also mobile in the extinct Polabian language). In the Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress has been formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in literary Polish and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern dialect of the Kashubian language, as well as in the Lemko dialect. The stress is on the first syllable in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, as well as in some Gural dialects of the Lesser Poland dialect. In the Macedonian language, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovene and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, in different places, according to dialects, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

The Slavic languages received the first literary processing in the 60s. IX century. The brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius were the creators of Slavic writing. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. Basically, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Solunian) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. He later received further development In Bulgaria . In this language (usually called the Old Slavonic language), the richest original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabet: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the IX century. no Slavic texts have survived. The most ancient ones belong to the X century: the Dobrudzha inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuel in 993, the Varosh inscription of 996 and others. Since c. more Slavic monuments have survived.

Similarities and differences of Slavic languages

For historical reasons, the Slavic languages have managed to maintain significant similarities with respect to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.

	Eastern group			Western group			Southern group
	Russian	Ukrainian	Belorussian	Polish	Slovak	Czech	serbo croatian	Bulgarian	Macedonian	Slovenian
Number of carriers	250	45	6,4	40	5,2	9,5	21	8,5	2	2,2
Nearest	Belorussian	Ukrainian	kashubian	Czech	Slovak	serbo croatian	Macedonian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
Writing	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin	latin	latin	Cyrillic / Latin	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin
Differences from others Slavic languages	reduction of unstressed vowels (akane); Preservation of soft consonants [g '], [k'], [d '], [p']	alternation of o-i, e-i in a closed syllable	phonetic principle in spelling; limiting vowel reduction (akane)	two rows of sibilant consonants; the stress is fixed on the penultimate syllable	ascending diphthongs	the stress is fixed on the first syllable; separation of long and short vowels;		loss of cases; variety of verb forms; no infinitive	loss of cases; variety of verb forms; no infinitive	the presence of a dual number; high heterogeneity (more than 40 dialects)
Stress type	free dynamic	free dynamic	free dynamic	fixed on penultimate	fixed noe on the first	fixed noe on the first	free musical	free dynamic	fixed third word ha from the end of the word)	free musical
Morphology: vocative form (case)	No	there is	there is	there is	No	there is	there is	there is	there is	No

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of a literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Russia - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - Latin).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. It has absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Church Slavonic, influenced by many European languages.

In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. The German language predominated in the cities. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from the popular language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th - century reflects the interaction of the old bookish language and the spoken language. The Slovak literary language had a different history; it developed on the basis of the folk language. In Serbia until the 19th century. the Church Slavonic language prevailed. In the XVIII century. the process of rapprochement of this language with the folk began. As a result of the reform carried out

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by over 440 million people in Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (which is spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serbolic) languages - Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, common in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: the Serbo-Croatian language (which is spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovene, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages - Slovinian, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabian, which became extinct in the 18th century, and Old Slavonic, the language of the first Slavic translations. Scripture, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and which was used in worship in the Slavic Orthodox Church, but was never an everyday spoken language ( cm... OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

In modern Slavic languages there are many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister - sister,three - three,nose - nose,night - night and etc. In other cases, the general origin of the words is less obvious. Russian word see akin to Latin videre, Russian word five related to German fünf, latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be both hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasalized (nasal) vowels have survived - ą and ERROR disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages differ greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Lusatian, the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish - the penultimate; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable except the last one can be stressed; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, the stress can fall on any syllable of the word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which vary in six or seven cases, in numbers and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, local or prepositional and vocative) testifies to the archaism of the Slavic languages and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature Slavic languages is a category of the verb form: every verb refers either to the perfect or to the imperfect form and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or lasting or repetitive action.

The habitat of the Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5-8 centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th century. the common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to 8 or 9 c. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th century. there were already predecessors of modern Slavic languages.

Languages. Distributed in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in the USSR (Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania), the GDR [Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian languages - in the vicinity of the cities. Bautzen (Budishin), Cottbus and Dresden]. Carriers of Z. i. also live in America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.). The total number of speakers is over 60 million.

In the 6-7 centuries. the ancestors of the Western Slavs occupied vast areas between the Oder and Elbe (Laba). The movement of the Slavs from the Carpathian region and the Vistula basin took place to the west and south-west to the Oder, beyond the Sudetenland, to the northern tributaries of the Danube. In the west, Slavic tribes lived interspersed with Germanic ones (some of them were Germanized during the 8-14th centuries, until the middle of the 18th century the language of the Polab tribes was retained), in the south they reached the Danube.

In Z. i. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lehite, Czech-Slovak, Serbolzhitskaya, the differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechit subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language with the Kashubian dialect has been preserved, which retained a certain genetic independence.

Z. I. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

Selishchev A. M., Slavic linguistics, t. 1, West Slavic languages, M., 1941;
Bernstein S. B., Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. [Introduction. Phonetics], M., 1961;
his, Essay on the comparative grammar of the Slavic languages. Alternation. Nominal bases, M., 1974;
Nachtigall R., Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenian, M., 1963;
Introduction to the historical-historical vivchennya of the words of the word, Kyiv, 1966;
Slavic languages. (Essays on the grammar of West Slavic and South Slavic languages), ed. A.G. Shirokova and V.P. Gudkov, M., 1977;
Historical typology of Slavic languages. Phonetics, word formation, vocabulary and phraseology, Kiev, 1986;
Lehr-Spławiński T., Kuraszkiewicz W., Sławski Fr., Przegląd i charakterystyka języków słowiańskich, Warszawa, 1954;
Horálek K., Úvod do studia slovanských jazyků, Praha, 1955;
Petr J., Základy slavistiky, Praha, 1984.

West Slavic languages

a group of Slavic languages, including Czech, Slovak, Polish, Lusatian (in two variants - Upper and Lower Sorbian), as well as the extinct Polabian languages. Distributed in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in the USSR (Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania), the GDR [Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian languages - in the vicinity of the cities. Bautzen (Budishin), Cottbus and Dresden]. Carriers of Z. i. also live in America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.). The total number of speakers is over 60 million.

Z. I. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of the consonant group kv ’, gv’ before the vowels i, ’e,’ a (← ě) in accordance with cv, zv in South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polish. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech květ, hvězda; Slovak. kvet, hviezda; bottom-puddles kwět, gwězda; top-puddles. kwět, hwězda (compare Russian “color”, “star”, etc.).

Preservation of non-simplified groups of consonants tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages of other Slavic groups: Polish. plótł, mydło; Czech pletl, mýdlo; Slovak. plietol, mydlo; bottom-puddles pletł, mydło; top-puddles. pletł, mydło; (Wed Russian "wove", "soap").

The consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic * tj, * dj, * ktj, * kti, which in other Slavic languages correspond to the consonants č, ž, št, dj, žd, ć: Polish. świeca, sadzać; Czech svíce, sázet; Slovak. svieca, sádzať; bottom-puddles swěca, sajźać; top-puddles. swěca, sadźeć (compare Russian "candle", "plant").

The presence of a consonant š in those cases that correspond to s or ś in the languages of other Slavic groups (with analogous formations ch): Polish. wszak, musze (date-sentence n. from mucha); Czech však, mouše; Slovak. však, muše; bottom-puddles všako, muše; top-puddles. však, muše [cf. Russian "Everyone", "fly"; ukr. "Everyone", "musi" (= fly)].

Absence of l epenthetic after labial in the non-initial position of the word (from the combination labial + j): Polish. ziemia, kupiony; Czech země, koupě; Slovak. zem, kúpený; bottom-puddles zemja, kupju; top-puddles. zemja, kupju (compare Russian "land", "purchase").

In the history of the development of Z. i. there were changes common for the whole group:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long one with the loss of intervocal j and assimilation of vowels in inflections and roots: Czech. dobrý ← dobry̌i, dobrá ← dobraja, dobré ← dobroje, mého ← mojego, tvému ← tvojemu, tv. n. units h. ženou ← ženú ← ženojǫ, děláme ← dělajeme, pás ← pojas; Slovak. pekný (male), pekná (female), pekné (cf. gender); Polish prosty (male), prosta (female), proste (compare); top-puddles. nowy, nowa, nowe.

For most of the Z. i. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced b and b> e: czech. sen ← sъnъ, den ← dьnь; Polish sen, dzień. Deviations are presented in Slovak, cf. pes ← pьsъ, deň ← dьnь, but orol ← orlъ, ovos ← ovьsъ, and in Upper Sorbian, cf. dźeń, but kozoł ← kozlъ.

The main differences between individual Z. i., Which arose in the historical period of their development: different fate of nasal vowels, sound ě (yat), long and short vowels; Proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Lusatian languages changed to h (guttural, fricative), the differences also concern the category of hardness / softness of consonants. In the system of the nominal declension of all Z. i. general Slavic processes took place: a regrouping of declension types based on grammatical gender, the loss of some previous types (mainly stems based on a consonant), the mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, the re-decomposition of stems, the emergence of new endings. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The most archaic declension system has been preserved by the Czech language. All Z. i. (except for Lusatian) have lost the forms of the dual number. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and a specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Sorbian) developed and received morphological expression. The short forms of adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Sorbian) or preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of unproductive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti → sednouti), the loss (except for Lusatian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages and pluperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The most significant changes in the conjugation of the present forms of the verb were experienced by the Slovak language, where all verbs in the present tense have one system of endings.

The syntactic features are due in part to the influence of the Latin and German languages. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, modal verbs, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinite personal and generalized personal meaning such as Czech are often used. Jak se jde? ‘How to get through?’ Etc.

The vocabulary reflected the Latin and German influence, the Slovak language - Czech and Hungarian. The influence of the Russian language, significant in the 18-19th centuries, especially increased after the 2nd World War.

In the early feudal period, Latin was used as a written language among the Western Slavs. The oldest literary language of the Slavs, the Old Church Slavonic, arose in the 9th century. The first proper Czech monuments date back to the end of the 13th century, Polish - to the beginning of the 14th century, Slovak - to the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, and Lusatian - to the 16th century. Modern goldsmiths. use Latin graphics.

Selishchev A.M., Slavic linguistics, t. 1, West Slavic languages, M., 1941; Bernshtein S.B., Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. [Introduction. Phonetics], M., 1961; his, Sketch of the comparative grammar of the Slavic languages. Alternation. Nominal bases, M., 1974; R. Nachtigall, Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenian, M., 1963; Introduction to the historical-historical vivchennya of the words of the word, Kyiv, 1966; Slavic languages. (Essays on the grammar of West Slavic and South Slavic languages), ed. A.G. Shirokova and V.P. Gudkov, M., 1977; Historical typology of Slavic languages. Phonetics, word formation, vocabulary and phraseology, Kiev, 1986; Lehr-Spławiński T., Kuraszkiewicz W., Sławski Fr., Przegląd i charakterystyka języków słowiańskich, Warszawa, 1954; Horalek K., Úvod do studia slovanských jazyků, Praha, 1955; Petr J., Základy slavistiky, Praha, 1984.

Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. Slavic languages

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