Reforms 60 70 19 century The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

The reforms of the 60s-70s of the 19th century, despite their limitations, were of great importance in the fate of Russia and meant the country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming the feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and the development of democracy. The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law. Long-term alienation from power became characteristic only of radical-minded youth and revolutionary democrats.

The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, in a peaceful way. A process of peaceful renewal began in Russia, but it was soon interrupted. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II, the tsar-liberator, was assassinated by members of Narodnaya Volya, which set out to change the political system by means of regicide.

On February 19, 1861, in the State Council, Alexander II signed the Reform Regulations (17 legislative acts) and the Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom.

1. The Manifesto provided the peasants with personal freedom and civil rights.

2. Regulations regulated the issues of land allotment to peasants.

3. Under the reform, the peasants received the established allotment of land, but for a ransom, which was equal to the annual amount of quitrent, increased by an average of 17 times.

4. For 49 years, the peasants had to pay this amount with interest.

5. Before the redemption of the land, the peasants continued to be considered temporarily liable to the landowner, they had to bear the old duties - corvee and quitrent.

The withdrawal of peasants from serfdom aggravated the problem of land shortages, the allotments of many peasants were very small, which hindered the development of agriculture.

But, despite its limited nature, the peasant reform was of great importance. She gave scope to the development of capitalism in Russia.

The abolition of serfdom in Russia entailed transformations in other spheres of the country's life.

Zemskaya reform 1864:

1) changed the entire system of local government;

2) in the provinces and counties, zemstvos were created, which were elected bodies of local self-government, consisted of representatives of all estates;

3) a high property qualification and a multi-stage election system ensured the predominance of nobles in the zemstvos;

4) zemstvos did not have political functions, their area of activity was limited only to economic issues;

5) zemstvos played a positive role in local public life.

Urban reform of 1870:

1) was carried out like a zemstvo.

City councils and city councils were created in the cities;

2) city bodies of local self-government were also in charge of economic issues;

3) the elected mayor headed the city council and council, coordinated their activities.

Judicial reform of 1864

1. This reform was the most radical of the transformations of 1860-1870.

2. According to the judicial reform, Russia received an updated court, which was based on the principles of bourgeois law, namely, the new court became: non-concise; vowel; adversarial; independent.

3. The reform introduced the electivity of some of the judiciary.

4. Under the new judicial system, a prosecutor and a lawyer were involved in the trials.

5. The question of the guilt or innocence of the accused was decided by the jury.

6. The competence of various courts was delineated. The highest court was the Senate.

Military reform:

1) the need for military reform became apparent in connection with the defeat in the Crimean War;

2) it was carried out until 1874. As a result of the military reform, recruitment was canceled; universal military service was introduced, which all men, without distinction of class, who had reached the age of 20, were fit for health service, had to serve; the service life in the army was significantly reduced: in the infantry instead of 25 years - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years; a system of various benefits to reduce the length of service began to operate for people receiving education, helping parents, etc.

Reforms in the education system:

1) there have been significant changes in the field of education;

2) in 1864, the Charter of gymnasiums and the Regulation on public schools were issued, which regulated primary and secondary education;

3) in 1863, the autonomy of universities, liquidated under Nicholas I, was restored.

In 1865, the Provisional Press Regulations were introduced, which abolished censorship for many print media.

The financial reform predetermined the formation of a unified state budget, the planning of which was entrusted to the Ministry of Finance.

The significance of the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century.

The reforms carried out have significantly changed the previous way of social life and the state. Thus, steps were taken towards the transformation of Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. The continuation of the transformations could be political reforms (draft constitutional amendments developed by M.T.Loris-Melikov).

But the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 radically changed the course of the government.

Liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s

In the early 60s, it became obvious thatthe bridge of the introduction of local self-government, about whichrum was declared by the liberal community: the government could not raise thethe province of the province. January 1st 1864 g. was accepted law on local government, establishedfor the management of economic affairs: construction local authorities and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals prostrate, almshouse, etc.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were gu-Bernese and county zemstvo meetings, executingtel - provincial and district zemstvo administrations. For elections of deputies - vowels- the county zemstvo meeting convened 3 voters congresses: large landowners, urbanowners and peasants. County zemstvothe meeting elected the vowels of the provincial zemstvoth meeting. Zemstvo assemblies were dominated by noble landowners.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change: a "third element" appeared, ascalled zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists,tistikov. Zemstvos slowly but surely raisedlocal economy, improved the life of the village, de-vival education and health care. Sooninstitutions have ceased to be purely economicnizations; associated with them the appearance of the zemstvo Beralism, who dreamed of all-Russian elections,decent power.

In 1870 was carried out reform of city government. Duma elections were held in three election congresses: small, medium and largetaxpayers. (Workers do not pay taxestili and did not participate in the elections.) City head and government were elected by the Duma. City authoritieslocal governments have been successfully organizingher urban life, the development of cities, but in generalThe participation of the national movement was weak.

In 1864, at the insistence of the public, carried out judicial reform. The court in Russia becamewordless, vowel, adversarial, independentfrom the administration. The central linknew judicial system became district Court. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the interests of thethe defendant was defended by a defense lawyer. Jury sit- donors, 12 people, after hearing the court pleadings, delivered a verdict ("guilty", "innocent", "guiltynew, but deserves indulgence "). Based onUpon reaching the verdict, the court rendered a verdict. Such a devicethe swarm of ships provided the greatest guaranteesfrom miscarriages of justice.

Analysis of minor criminal and civil cases was engaged world judge, elected zemstvo early or the city council for 3 years. Ruler- state could not, with its power, remove a magistrate judge or judges of a district court.

Judicial reform has been one of the mostconsequential transformations of the 60-70s, but still it remained unfinished: it was notthe Senate was reformed, for the analysis of smallconflicts in the peasant environment remained classthe volost court, which had the right to adjudicate forest punishments (up to 1904).

A number of important military reforms conducted by D.A.Me-lutin, appointed by the Minister of War in 1861. The army was re-equipped according to modern requirements.banyam. At the final stage,there is a transition, from recruitment to universalimprisonment. For a number of years, the conservative part of the general population blocked thisobedience; the turning point in the course of affairs was brought by the Franco-Prussian sky war of 1870-1871: contemporaries were struck by the speed of mobilization of the Prussian army. On January 1, 1874, a law was passed abolishing the routine and spreading the military obligation prevalence on men of all classes who have reached the age of 20 and fit for health. Service life benefitsbecame an additional incentive to obtaineducation. The reform hastened the breakdown of the estateth system; the cancellation of recruitment increased the popularity ness of Alexander II among the peasantry.

Reforms 60-70s, eliminating a number of kov, creating modern self-government bodiesand courts, contributed to the development of the country, growthcivil consciousness of the population. These were only the first steps: the upper levels of the power of the reform did not touch.

Abolition of serfdom

Economic and political preconditions for peasant reform

In the middle of the XIX century. serfs made up about 37% of the total population of the country. Among European countries, serfdom remained only in Russia, hindering its economic and socio-political development. The long-term preservation of serfdom was due to the nature of the Russian autocracy, which throughout its history relied exclusively on the nobility, and therefore had to take into account its interests. And yet, by the middle of the 19th century. there were both economic and political preconditions for the abolition of serfdom.

The defeat in the Crimean War testified to the serious military-technical lag of Russia behind the leading European states. Together with the defeat came the understanding that one of the main reasons for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom. The landlord economy, based on the labor of serfs, was increasingly falling into decay due to its inefficiency. The lack of civilian labor hampered the development of industry. Serfdom held back the process of the appearance of qualified personnel at enterprises, the use of complex machines on a massive scale. Since seasonal work was a seasonal phenomenon and there was no employee interest in the results of production, labor productivity remained low. Thus, serfdom interfered with the industrial modernization of the country, predetermined the low rates of development of Russia.

Along with the economic prerequisites, political preconditions for the abolition of serfdom were formed. The liberation of the peasants was the secret goal of many monarchs on the Russian throne. Even Catherine II, in her letters to Voltaire, declared her desire to abolish slavery in Russia. This topic was discussed in the Secret Committee of her grandson Alexander I, and the Baltic states in 1816-1819 were the touchstone of the future peasant reform. During the reign of Nicholas I, secret committees on the peasant question were created, a reform of the state peasants was carried out, a number of specific steps were taken, which served as the basis for further transformations of the private village. The need to abolish serfdom was also caused by the direct action of the peasants themselves. The bourgeois-liberal movement against the existence of serfdom also revived. Numerous notes were drawn up about the abnormality, immorality and economic disadvantage of the serfdom of the peasants. The most famous is the "Note on the Liberation of the Peasants", drawn up by a lawyer K. D. Kavelin. They called for the release of the peasants A.I. Herzen in the "Bell", N.G. Chernyshevsky and ON. Dobrolyubov in Sovremennik. Publicistic speeches by representatives of different political trends gradually prepared the country's public opinion for the solution of the peasant question.

For the first time about the need to abolish serfdom Alexander II (1855-1881 ) declared in 1856 in a speech at a meeting of the leaders of the nobility of the Moscow province. At the same time, knowing the mood of most landowners, he emphasized that it is much better if it happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below. January 3, 1857 was formed A secret committee to discuss the question of the abolition of serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nikolaev dignitaries, hindered the work of the committee. Under these conditions, Alexander II instructed the governor-general of Vilna V.I. Nazimov to appeal to the emperor on behalf of the Livonian nobility with a request to create commissions to develop a draft reform. In response to the appeal on November 20, 1857, a rescript of V.I. Nazimov on the creation of provincial committees "to improve the life of the landlord peasants." During 1858, such committees were established in 46 provinces. Thus, for the first time, the preparation of the reform began to be carried out publicly.

V February 1858 The Secret Committee was renamed to Main Committee. Its chairman was Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. V February 1859 the Main Committee established Editorial commissions. They had to collect all projects coming from the provinces. General was appointed chairman of the commission. ME AND. Rostovtsev. He recruited advocates of reforms - ON. Milyutin, Yu.F. Samarina, Ya.A. Solovyova, P.P. Semenova.

In projects coming from the localities, the size of peasant allotments and duties depended on the fertility of the soil. In non-chernozem districts, the middle nobility received the main income from the quitrent, so they offered to free the peasants with land, but for a large ransom. In the chernozem districts, the main income was provided by land, where landowners demanded the release of peasants without land in order to make them farm laborers. The government proposed an intermediate option: to free the peasants with a small allotment for a large ransom. Thus, the nobility as a whole advocated a gradual bourgeois transformation of the countryside while retaining actual power in their hands.

In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. On February 17, 1861, the State Council approved the reform project. February 19, 1861 it was signed by Alexander II. He announced the abolition of serfdom Manifesto "On the all-merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants." The practical conditions for liberation were defined in the "Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom."

Basic principles and conditions for the abolition of serfdom

According to these documents, the content of the peasant reform consisted of four main points. The first there was a personal release without ransom of 22 million peasants (the population of Russia, according to the revision of 1858, was 74 million.). Second point - the right of peasants to buy out the estate (the land on which the yard stood). Third - land allotment (arable, hay, pasture land) - was bought out by agreement with the landowner. Fourth point - the land purchased from the landowner became not the private property of the peasant, but the incomplete property of the community (without the right of alienation). After the landlord was deprived of power in the countryside, estate-based peasant self-government was created.

The most important achievement of the reform was to provide the peasants personal freedom, the status of "rural inhabitants", economic and civil rights. A peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, act as a legal entity. He was freed from the personal tutelage of the landowner, could enter the service and educational institutions, transfer to another class: become a tradesman, a merchant, marry without the consent of the landowner.

However, the freed peasants remained to live in peasant community. She, in turn, distributed the land among the communes, made a decision on the withdrawal of peasants from the community or admitting new members, was responsible for the administrative order, as well as collecting taxes (according to the system of mutual responsibility). The community periodically redistributed the land in connection with the emergence of new members and thus did not create an incentive for improving the soil. That is, the freedom of the peasant was limited by the framework of the peasant community. In addition, the peasantry bore recruitment, paid the poll tax, and could be subjected to corporal punishment.

"Regulations" regulated allotment of land to peasants. The size of the allotment received by each peasant depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three bands: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. In each of them, the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment were established. In various parts of the empire, it ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatines. And if by the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right "cut off" surplus, while the best quality lands were selected. In the country as a whole, the peasants have thus lost up to 20% of the land that they cultivated before the reform.

Before the redemption of their land allotments, the peasants found themselves in a position temporarily liable. They had to pay quitrent or serve corvee in favor of the landowner. The size of the allotment, the redemption, as well as the duties that the peasant carried before the start of the redemption operation (this took two years), were determined with the consent of the landowner and the peasant community and were recorded world mediator in the charter. It should be noted that the law did not force the redemption of the land, the redemption of the estate was mandatory. But it was forbidden to give up the allotment until 1870, since the landowner was then losing his labor force. The allotment was bought either by voluntary agreement with the landowner, or at his request. Thus, the temporarily liable state of the peasant could continue for 9 years.

When receiving land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost. The size redemption the field allotment was determined in such a way that the landowner did not lose the money that he had received earlier in the form of rent. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the value of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption amount at a time, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant, on the other hand, had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years at a rate of 6% per annum. At the same time, the calculations were carried out not with each separately, but with the peasant community. Overseeing the implementation of the reform on the ground were supposed to be world mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs, consisting of a governor, a government official, a prosecutor and a representative from local landowners.

As a result, the reform of 1861 created a special peasant status. First of all, the law emphasized that the land owned by the peasant (yard, share of communal property) is not private property. This land could not be sold, bequeathed or inherited. But the peasant could not refuse from the "right to land". It was possible to refuse only practical use, for example, when going to the city. A peasant was given a passport only for 5 years, and the community could claim it back. On the other hand, the peasant never lost his "right to land": upon returning, even after a very long absence, he could present a claim for his share of the land, and the world had to accept it.

The allotment land of the peasants cost about 650 million rubles, the peasants paid about 900 million for it, and in total until 1905 they made more than 2 billion redemption payments with interest. Thus, the allotment of land and the redemption transaction were carried out exclusively in the interests of the nobility. The redemption payments took away all the savings in the peasant economy, prevented it from restructuring and adapting to a market economy, and kept the Russian countryside in a state of poverty.

Of course, the peasants were not expecting such a reform. Having heard about the close "will", they indignantly perceived the news that it was necessary to serve corvee and dues. There was a rumor in the village that the "Manifesto" and "Regulations" were fake, that the landowners had hidden "real will." As a result, peasant riots took place in many provinces of the European part of Russia. Statistics confirm: in 1861-1863. there were over 2 thousand peasant unrest. The largest uprisings took place in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province. The riots were suppressed by the troops, there were killed and wounded. Only from the end of 1863 the peasant movement began to decline.

There was no consensus in the assessment of the Manifesto among the people who were considered advanced at that time. For example, A.I. Herzen wrote enthusiastically: “Alexander II did a lot, a lot: his name now stands above his predecessors ... We greet him with the name of the“ Liberator ”. CM. Solovyov spoke about this in a diametrically opposite tone. “Transformations,” he wrote, “are carried out by Peter the Great; but it’s a problem if Louis XVI and Alexandra II are accepted for them ”.

Significance of the 1861 reform

It can be said without exaggeration that the abolition of serfdom was a turning point in the history of Russia. It gave freedom to millions of serfs, a powerful impetus for the country's economic and social progress, opened up the possibility of a broad development of market relations. The emancipation of the peasants changed the moral climate in the country, influenced the development of social thought and culture in general. The reform has prepared in many respects the conditions for subsequent transformations in Russian society and state. At the same time, the reform testified that the interests of the state and the landowners were taken into account in it more than the peasants. This predetermined the preservation of a number of survivals of serfdom, and the agrarian question itself retained its urgency throughout the pre-revolutionary history of Russia.

Concepts:

- Temporarily liable peasants- after 1861 the former landlord peasants, who had not yet bought their land from the landowner and therefore were temporarily obliged to fulfill certain duties or to pay money for the use of the land.

- Redemption payments- a state credit operation carried out by the government in connection with the Peasant Reform of 1861. A loan was provided to the peasants to redeem land allotments from the landowners.

- World broker- an official from the nobility, appointed to approve charter letters and to resolve disputes between peasants and landowners.

- Segments- part of the peasant lands in use, cut off after the reform of 1861 in favor of the landlords, if the peasant allotment exceeded the maximum rate established by the "Regulations".

- Rescript- a letter from the monarch in the form of a specific prescription.

- Charter certificates - documents establishing the amount of land provided by the landowner to the rural community for permanent use by the temporarily liable, and the amount of duties due to him for this.

To the begining

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century

Tasks of transformations and methods of their implementation

Serfdom in Russia determined the structure of the local administration, the court, and the army. Therefore, after the liberation of the peasants, it was necessary to rebuild all spheres of the life of the Russian state. And for this, reforms were needed. They had to bring the judiciary, local governments, education, and the armed forces in line with the changed social and economic conditions. The reforms were supposed to provide favorable conditions for the accelerated development of domestic industry and capitalist relations. They were carried out for the sake of strengthening the state and military power of Russia, returning to it the lost position of a great power and its former international influence.

Transformations in the 60s and 70s. XIX century. were carried out gradually, peacefully, from above, i.e. relying not so much on society as on bureaucracy and with the expectation of avoiding social and political upheavals.

Local government reform

The course of bourgeois transformations taken by the government of Alexander II required certain changes in the political superstructure. The society has a stable opinion about the need to create representative non-class bodies. The government has had a number of projects to form such bodies both at the local and all-Russian levels. However, the autocracy did not dare to agree to the introduction of an all-Russian representation. As a result January 1, 1864 introduced in Russia "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in the counties and provinces. The reform of local government can be called the second most important after the peasant reform of 1861. Every three years, representatives of different estates elected a district zemstvo assembly (from 10 to 96 members - vowels), and it sent deputies to the provincial zemstvo assembly. District and zemstvo assemblies formed executive bodies - zemstvo councils. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The introduction of electivity, self-government, independence from administration and all-estate was a great progress. But the government artificially created a preponderance of the nobility in the zemstvos: in the 60s. they accounted for 42% of the county and 74% of the provincial vowels. The chairmen of the zemstvo assemblies were the heads of the estate bodies of the nobility - the leaders of the nobility. The self-government did not have its own coercive authorities. If necessary, I had to contact the governor. As a result, according to contemporaries, the zemstvo turned out to be "a building without a foundation and a roof": it did not have organs at the level below the district in the volost and at the all-Russian level. Zemstvos were introduced only in European Russia (34 provinces). Despite this, they played a special role in the development of education and health care. In addition, they became centers for the formation of a liberal noble opposition.

In 1870 g. following the example of the zemstvo urban reform. Every four years, a city council was elected in the cities, which formed the city council. The mayor was in charge of the Duma and the Council. Men who had reached the age of 25 enjoyed the right to vote in new governing bodies. All estates were allowed to participate in the elections, but the high property qualification severely limited the circle of voters. So, in Moscow it included only 34% of the population. The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the City Council.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of the Transcaucasus, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic cities not covered by the reform.

Thus, during the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. only representative local bodies were created, in charge of cultural and economic issues and completely devoid of political functions. Nevertheless, these bodies played a significant role in the social development of post-reform Russia and the involvement of broad strata of the population in resolving issues of governance, in the formation of the traditions of Russian parliamentarism.

Judicial reform

The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was judicial reform. It began with an introduction to 1864 g. new judicial statutes. Previously, the courts were class-based, the investigation was conducted by the police, who often intimidated and tortured the accused. The trial was conducted silently, in the absence of the defendant, deprived of protection, on the basis of clerical information about the case, often at the direction of the authorities and under the influence of a bribe.

Judicial reform introduced new principles of the judiciary and the judiciary. The court has become meaningless. The investigation was carried out by a forensic investigator. The defendant was defended in front of the public by a lawyer - attorney at law, the prosecution supported prosecutor, those. an oral, vowel and adversarial process was introduced. The decision on the guilt of the defendant - the "verdict" - was passed jurors(representatives of the society drawn by lot). In the country as a whole, apart from the capitals, about 60% of the jury were peasants, about 20% were bourgeois, so the reactionaries said that a "street trial" had been introduced in Russia. The judges were given high salaries, they, like the investigators, were irremovable and independent from the administration.

According to the new judicial charters, two systems of courts were created - peace and general. Less important cases were referred to elected justices of the peace. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. The magistrates' court of second instance was the circuit congress of justices of the peace. The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. The members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice and tried criminal and complex civil cases. Appeals against the District Court decision were made to the Trial Chamber. She also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. It was possible to appeal against the decisions of all instances in the Senate - the highest court.

But in the judicial sphere there are also vestiges: the volost court for the peasantry, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. It was impossible to appeal against the actions of officials in court. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform has dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory, it began only in 1872, in the Baltic States - in 1877. Only at the end of the 19th century. it was held in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia, etc. And nevertheless, the judicial reform contributed to the liberalization of public life, became a step towards a legal society. The judicial system in Russia has approached the standards of Western justice.

Military reform

For over ten years he carried out reforms in the army YES. Milyutin- Minister of War, brother of the author of the peasant reform. The command and control of the troops was centralized and streamlined. The country was divided into fifteen military districts directly subordinate to the Minister of War. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created.

V 1874 g. the recruitment, which lay on the taxable estates, was replaced general conscription. Every year, out of all men over the age of 20, the government selected by lot the required number of recruits (usually 20-30% of the conscripts). They served in the army for six years and were in the reserve for nine years, in the navy - seven years and three years in the reserve. The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempted from service. Those exempted from the draft were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Clergymen of all religions, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to the call. Significant benefits were given taking into account education: a graduate of an elementary school served four years, a secondary one - one and a half years, a higher one - six months. Illiterate conscripts were trained during the service. This stimulated the growth of education in the country. Soldier's service from class duty was transformed into the fulfillment of a general civil duty, instead of the Nikolaev drill, the troops strove to foster a conscious attitude to military affairs.

An important component of the military reform was the rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze weapons with steel ones began, etc. The accelerated development of the military steam fleet was of particular importance. The combat training system was changed. A number of regulations and instructions were issued, the task of which was to train soldiers in what was necessary during the war. The reform in the army made it possible to reduce its number in peacetime and at the same time to raise its combat effectiveness. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Education reform

Changes in the economy, new courts, the army, zemstvos made a demand for educated people, demanded the development of science. Therefore, the reforms could not but affect the education system. Charter of 1863 returned to universities taken from them under Nicholas I autonomy. The election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced. The university council began to decide on its own all scientific, educational and administrative-economic issues, and the representative of the government administration - the trustee of the educational district - only watched its work. At the same time, the students (unlike the professors) did not receive corporate rights. This led to tensions in the universities, periodic student unrest.

Gymnasium charter 1864 introduced equality in secondary education of all classes and religions. Two types of gymnasiums were established. In classical gymnasiums, the humanities were studied more deeply, in real ones - natural and exact sciences. The term of study in them was initially seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical grammar schools had the opportunity to enter universities. A secondary and high school for women was established. Ordinance on Primary Schools (1864) entrusted the public schools to the joint jurisdiction of the state, society (zemstvos and cities), and the church. The term of study in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

The press has become freer. In 1865, preliminary censorship for books and the capital's press was abolished. Now they were punishing for already published materials (punitive censorship). For this, the Minister of Internal Affairs had a "whip": either prosecution or administrative penalties - a warning (after three warnings the magazine or newspaper was closed), a fine, suspension of publication. For the provincial press and mass popular publications, censorship continued. There was also a special spiritual censorship.

Liberal reforms have also affected the Orthodox Church. The government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trusteeships arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of clergy. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864 the children of the clergy were allowed to enter the gymnasium, in 1866 - to the military schools. The Synod decided to abolish the inheritance of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy.

Results and features of the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century.

Thus, during the reign of Alexander II, reforms were carried out that dramatically changed the face of Russia. Contemporaries called the reforms of those years "Great", historians are now talking about "revolution from above". They opened the way for the intensive development of capitalism in the Russian economy. At the same time, they significantly changed the social and partly political life of the country. Millions of former serfs, having received civil rights, were included in public life. An important step was taken towards the equality of all estates, towards the formation of a civil society and the rule of law. In general, these changes were of a liberal nature.

Carrying out reforms, the autocracy kept pace with the century. After all, 1860-1870. for many countries it was a time of modernization (the abolition of slavery and the civil war in the United States of America in 1861-1865, the beginning of the Europeanization of Japan - the "Meiji revolution" of 1867-1868, the completion of the unification of Italy in 1870 and Germany in 1871) ... The administrative and social system of Russia, having preserved many vestiges, has nevertheless become much more flexible, more dynamic, closer to the European way of life, to the requirements of the time.

In general, the reforms of Alexander II, which marked the beginning of the comprehensive modernization of the country, due to the inconsistency of the internal political course, periodic deviations of the authorities from the reforms, complicated the process of restructuring of socio-economic, political and spiritual structures, which was extremely painful for the masses.

Concepts:

- Military service - the obligation of the population established by law to carry out military service in the armed forces of their country. It was introduced in 1874 in the course of the military reform.

- Vowels - elected members of the governing bodies.

- Zemstvo- the system of local all-class self-government, which included elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils. Introduced during the Zemstvo reform of 1864.

- World judge - after the judicial reform of 1864 and before 1889, as well as in 1912-1917. a judge who is selected or appointed to deal with minor cases and who decides alone.

- Constitutional state- a system in which the rule of law is ensured in all spheres of society, the protection of individual rights and the mutual responsibility of citizens and the state.

- Jurors - twelve electives sitting in court to determine in criminal cases the guilt or innocence of the defendant and taking the oath "to cast a decisive vote in accordance with the real truth and conviction of conscience."

- Attorney at law- the lawyer, according to the judicial reform, defended the defendant in the presence of the public.

capitalism tsarism revolutionary populist

The sixties of the nineteenth century were for Russia a time of major and profound reforms in their consequences. They covered not only the economy, but also the socio-political structure of society.

What was Russia in the middle of the 19th century, why did it embark on the "path of reforms? Russia was the largest state in Europe both in terms of territory and population. 73 million people lived in the multinational empire. The social composition of the population was slowly but steadily changing due to growth the working class "and the urban population. In the first half of the XIX century, some progress was made in the development of industry, primarily in metallurgy and manufacturing. And yet, the country seemed to be on the sidelines of the road of development of world civilization, along which the United States and many countries of the European "continent were rapidly advancing.

The development of capitalism in Russia was restrained by the existing feudal-serf relations and the absence of a free labor market. The number of free civilian workers in factories and plants was still insignificant. The bulk of the workers consisted of the same peasants released by the landowners on quitrent, state peasants and other legally dependent people.

Serfdom with its attributes (rent, corvee and land scarcity) aroused acute discontent, which found its expression in the growth of peasant uprisings. In just three pre-reform years, their number increased 1.5 times: from 86 - in 1858 to 126 - in 1860. Peasant uprisings took place almost everywhere, from the central black-earth provinces to Belarus - in the west, Podolia - - in the south, the Volga region and the Urals - in the east. Life imperiously demanded the abolition of the fetters of serfdom. Thus, the need for reforms was caused by the needs of the country's economic development, and the laws of the development of capitalism. There were also reasons "of a political nature: the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-56), which showed the rottenness and weakness of the feudal-serf system, the growth of discontent in wide circles of the Russian public.

The autocracy was faced with a choice: either reforms from above, or a continuous war with the peasantry. Without waiting for the peasants to free themselves from below, Alexander II embarked on the path of reforms. On February 19, 1861, he signed the Manifesto on the emancipation of the peasants (“On the gracious granting to serfs of the rights and condition of free rural inhabitants and the arrangement of their life”), as well as a special “Provision on the peasants who came out of serfdom”.

What was the essence of the land reform? According to the Manifesto, the peasants were declared legally free people, that is, they received the right to trade, own movable and immovable property, conclude deals, etc. But there was still a considerable distance from the declaration of freedom to its real economic support.

The fact is that the land was still the property of the landowners. By agreement between landlords and peasants (the so-called charter letters), the peasants received allotments of land. Their sizes varied, depending on local conditions, from 3 to 12 dessiatines. If the land plots of the peasants were more than the stipulated norms, then the landowner had the right to cut off their surplus. It was these lands, taken from the peasants during the reform period, and received the name “cut off”. And this was a considerable wedge of land: on average, in Russia, 20% of peasant lands, and in the Saratov and Samara provinces - up to 40%. If before the reform the average peasant allotment was 4.4 tithes, then after the reform it was 3.6 tithes. There were frequent cases when landowners took away the best land, and the peasants were given inconveniences.

The peasants, with the consent of the landowners, could redeem the farmstead and allotment land. Only those who redeemed the land became peasants-owners, and the rest were called temporarily liable before redemption. They were obliged to either pay a quitrent or serve a corvee. The temporarily liable state was determined at 9 years old, but in fact it stretched out to 20 years.

The main burden of payments for the redemption of land from the landowners was borne by the state - 75-80% of the value of the allotments, and the rest was paid by the peasants. To facilitate the possibility of redemption, they were given a loan for 49 years at 6% per annum.

But even after the redemption of the land, far from all the peasants became its owners. In many regions of the country, land redemption was carried out through the community, where there were periodic "redistribution of land allotments, mutual responsibility and the so-called peasant self-government. The land became the property of the peasant community. The community was ruled by the" world ", that is, a peasant gathering at which the headman was elected. He performed the functions of the executive power: he oversaw the economy of the village, its life, fulfilling the decisions of the gatherings.

The Russian community, as a manifestation of direct democracy and as a grassroots unit of local self-government, undoubtedly played a useful role. One cannot fail to note its importance from the point of view of preserving the peasant way of life, morality and traditions of the multimillion Russian peasantry. At the same time, the autocracy used the community as a convenient tool for levying various taxes and duties from the peasants, and for conducting recruiting for the army.

Under the conditions of rapidly developing capitalism, the community, with such flaws as periodic redistribution of land and various obstacles to the exit of the peasants, became a brake on social development, fettering the freedom and economic initiative of the peasantry. A peasant, even legally free, could not dispose of his allotment (sell or inherit, leave the village).

The peasant reform, breaking the bonds of serfdom and opening the way to a free labor market, thereby created the preconditions for rapid industrial progress. But, despite its undoubtedly progressive nature, it did not eliminate the main social contradiction between peasants and landowners. Landlordism persisted, which means that there was also an objective basis for social conflicts and upheavals in the future.

And it was not for nothing that this reform was sharply criticized by Herzen and Chernyshevsky, who called it an abomination and deception. And the peasantry met her with a wide wave of mass demonstrations in the Penza, Tambov and Kazan provinces, Poland, Lithuania, Belarus.

Zemskaya reform ("Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions") began to be carried out in January 1864. It provided for the introduction of new bodies of local self-government - elective county and provincial zemstvos.

According to the “Regulations,” zemstvo institutions were to consist of representatives of all estates. However, elections to the zemstvos were not equal, universal and direct. The right to vote was subject to property qualifications. Zemstvo vowels (representatives from estates) were elected for three

The first group included large landowners, as well as owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises. Smallholders (at least 10 dessiatines). Uniting, they nominated only their delegates. In the cities, representatives of the big and middle bourgeoisie received the right to vote. The petty bourgeoisie, artisans, workers did not participate in the elections of the vowels.

The structure of elections in the village was multi-stage:

Thus, the system of elections to the zemstvo assemblies ensured in them the predominance of representatives of the landowners, who, together with the representatives of the bourgeoisie, constituted the overwhelming majority. In 1865-1867. for 30 provinces of Russia, the composition of vowels in county zemstvo assemblies was as follows: nobles and officials - 42%, merchants and others - 20%, peasants - 38%. In provincial zemstvo assemblies, nobles and officials accounted for 74%, peasants - 11%.

Uyezd and provincial zemstvo assemblies were endowed with administrative functions, and the executive bodies were uyezd and provincial councils. The chairman of the provincial council was approved by the minister of internal affairs, and the uyezd one - by the governor. The governor and the minister could cancel decisions, zemstvo assemblies, which ensured full control: the government. 1

Right-bank Ukraine, in the Caucasus, that is, in those regions where there were few Russian landowners.

The second reform of local self-government was the introduction of the “City” regulation on June 16, 1870. It “was carried out on the same narrow, curtailed foundations as the zemstvo one. In accordance with the “Regulations”, city Dumas were elected in the cities. They appeared. Control and administrative bodies. The functions of the executive power were performed by city councils and mayors elected by the Duma and approved by the minister of internal affairs or the governor.

The elections of the Councilors of the Duma were held in three curiae, depending on the size of the tax paid. Each curia elected an equal number of vowels for a period of 4 years. This nature of the elections ensured the predominance in the Dumas of the “city fathers” - industrialists and merchants.

The competence of the city government included all issues of city life: improvement, trade, fire safety, medical care, public education, etc.

And yet, despite its narrowness and limitations, the city reform "was bourgeois in nature, contributed to the formation of capitalist social relations, was a step forward compared to the estate city Duma that existed since the time of Catherine II.

On the guard of feudal-serf relations, their inviolability "stood the judicial system and the order of legal proceedings created by Peter I. They were characterized by the caste limitation of the judiciary, the multi-stage judicial instances, the secrecy of judicial proceedings without the participation of parties, the widespread use of corporal punishment. Arbitrariness prevailed in the courts. red tape, bribe had an omnipotent meaning.From the point of view of bourgeois law, this system was the most backward and untenable.

In November 1864, Alexander II signed the Decree and the “New Judicial Charters”, which amended the judicial system and legal proceedings.

In accordance with the Decree, the court and legal proceedings were based on the basic principles of bourgeois law: equality of all estates before the law, openness and publicity of the court, independence of judges, adversarial prosecution and defense, and the presence of jurors.

According to the new judicial statutes, petty crimes were considered by justices of the peace, elected by zemstvo assemblies and city Dumas. More complex civil and criminal cases were tried by district jury trials, whose decisions were final. If the trial was without a jury, then it was possible to appeal to the judicial chamber, which considered cases of state and political crimes. The highest court was the Senate, which, on cassation, could overturn decisions of other courts.

In the 60s and 70s, on the initiative of the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin, a military reform was also carried out. The government was prompted by the defeat in the Crimean War. Its main goal was to create a bourgeois-type cadre army and envisaged not only re-equipping the army, but also changing its structure, the principle of recruiting and training personnel. First of all, the War Ministry was reorganized, the country was divided into military districts, and a network of military gymnasiums, schools and academies was created to train officers.

In 1874, the Charter on compulsory military service was adopted, in accordance with which the so-called recruitment kits were canceled and the male population of all classes was regularly conscripted into the army upon reaching 20 years of age. The terms of military service also changed. Instead of 25 years, soldiers were assigned a 6-year term of active service, after which they were transferred to the reserve for 9 years. "In the navy, active service lasted 7 years, and the reserve state - three years. The term of service was reduced for those who received an education. The only son in the family was released from service if he was the breadwinner. For persons of Muslim, Jewish and some other religions, military service did not spread, since for tsarism it was an “unreliable” element.

The new conditions of economic and social life in post-reform Russia urgently demanded trained and educated people. It was necessary to significantly expand the "base of public education. To this end, the reform of public education began in 1864.

The reform was regulated by a number of legislative acts adopted in the 60-70s of the 19th century. According to the “Regulations” of 1864, public organizations and individuals were allowed to open primary public schools. In rural areas, a little later, they began to be called parish schools with a 3-year term of study. They taught children from the people to read, write and count. Much attention was paid to the study of the law of God and church (choral) singing.

In the middle link of education (secondary school) there were "paid gymnasiums, they were divided into classical and real. Real gymnasiums were then transformed into real schools.

In classical gymnasiums, much attention was paid to the study of the Greek and Latin languages, humanitarian disciplines. They prepared young people for university admission. At first, the term of study in them was seven years, and since 1871 - eight years.

In real schools, on the contrary, preference was given to the study of natural and technical disciplines. They prepared young people for admission to technical universities.

Formally, access was open to children of all classes in the gymnasium. But the high tuition fees were a serious obstacle for the children of ordinary people, especially peasants.

The 1960s saw the beginning of women's education. For this purpose, female gymnasiums and higher female courses were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Kazan.

In 1863, a new charter for universities was adopted. It provided for the restoration of the autonomy abolished by Nicholas I. The direct management of universities was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected rectors, deans of faculties and teaching staff. But the autonomy did not exclude the possibility of supervision, and sometimes even interference by the minister of public education or the trustee (curator) of the district. Student organizations at universities were not permitted.

In the mid-60s, (1865), the government was forced to introduce some relaxation in the field of the press. Censorship was abolished when printing books of a significant volume (10--20 pp.), As well as for periodicals. But it remained for literature of a mass character. The government also retained the right to retaliate against violations of the law. Could ban retail sales, temporarily suspend a periodical or close it altogether, and in some cases bring to justice the owners of printers, editors, authors of articles and brochures.

The reforms of the 60s and 70s, despite their limitations and half-heartedness, became a powerful impetus for accelerating economic growth and changing the entire way of life in Russia. Thanks to them, Russia has embarked on a common path for the development of world civilization. However, the traffic on this road was uneven, and sometimes strained, due to potholes and debris of the old serfdom system.

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In the discipline "history"

Topic: Great reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century in Russia

Introduction

2.1 Zemsky reform

2.2 Urban reform

2.3 Judicial reform

2.4 Military reform

2.5 Financial reform

3. Socio-political consequences of reforms and their assessments in historical literature

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction.

All over the world, the second half of the 19th century. marked by powerful modernization processes that strengthened capitalism and established an industrial society in the developed countries of Europe and the United States. Technical scientific discoveries and inventions of the last third of the 19th century. led to the creation of new industries.

In the political sphere, important factors of modernization have become: the development of European statehood and the formation of national ideology and national movements; the formation of the German Empire, the Italian kingdom; the end of the civil war of 1861-1865 in the USA, a celebration of the unity of the country. In the second half of the XIX century. the process of creating political parties was completed, and many public organizations took shape. By the end of the XIX century. in a number of developed countries (Great Britain, the United States, partly France, Belgium, Sweden), elements of civil society were established and political modernization began to bear fruit.

Against this background, in the Russian Empire in the second half of the XIX century. the process of political modernization had just begun. An important place in this process was occupied by the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s. Large-scale in nature and consequences, the reforms marked significant changes in all aspects of the life of Russian society.

The failure in the Crimean War undermined the international prestige of Russia, accelerated the abolition of serfdom and the implementation of military reforms in the 60s and 70s. XIX century. The Russian autocracy had to embark on the path of urgent social, economic and political reforms in order to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country, to strengthen the social and economic base of absolutism.

1. Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II

Alexander II ascended the throne in 1855. Despite the fact that it was he who had to liquidate the consequences of the Crimean War, the beginning of his reign can be called quite successful. For the first time in a long time, there is no doubt about the legitimacy of the emperor. Moreover, this is almost the only Russian emperor who was deliberately prepared to take over the management of the country from childhood. He also believed that the policy of modernization is the duty of the emperor, the only possible option for a new integration into Europe. He realizes and recognizes Russia's lagging behind Europe in economic, social, legal terms, etc. He also realizes that he has practically no time, that this lag must be eliminated as quickly as possible. Around Alexander, a circle of progressive and liberal-minded individuals is being formed, to whose ideas he is receptive. You can name the Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, the Milyutin brothers, Valuev, the mother of the Dowager Empress Elena Pavlovna, his brother Konstantin Nikolaevich. Thus, a party is being created, a reformist party in power. reform social political liberal

By the middle of the XIX century. the agrarian and peasant question has become the most acute socio-political problem in Russia. Among European states, serfdom remained only in it, hindering economic and socio-political development.

Even the government and conservative circles in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries. did not remain aloof from understanding the solution of the peasant question. However, the government's attempts to mitigate serfdom, to give the landowners a positive example of managing the peasants, to regulate their relationship turned out to be ineffective due to the resistance of the serf-owners. By the middle of the XIX century. the preconditions for the collapse of the serf system have ripened completely. First of all, it has outlived its usefulness economically. The landlord economy, based on the labor of serfs, increasingly fell into decay. This worried the government, which was forced to spend huge amounts of money to support the landlords.

Objectively, serfdom also interfered with the industrial modernization of the country, since it prevented the formation of a free labor market, the accumulation of capital invested in production, an increase in the purchasing power of the population and the development of trade.

The need to abolish serfdom was also dictated by the fact that the peasants openly protested against it. The popular movement could not but influence the position of the government.

The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of a particularly important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, since it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Exports and imports of goods dropped sharply. The new foreign policy situation that developed after the Paris Peace testified to Russia's loss of its international authority and threatened to lose its influence in Europe.

2. Reforms in the field of public relations

2.1 Zemsky reform

It was the most important from a political point of view, introducing new self-government bodies in rural areas and in cities. On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" - a legislative act that introduced zemstvo. It should be borne in mind that for a country where the majority of the population were peasants who had just freed themselves from serfdom, the introduction of local self-government bodies was a significant step in the development of political culture. . Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-estate organizations, such as noble assemblies. The serf-owners were outraged by the fact that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly “yesterday’s slave was sitting next to his recent master”. Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, bourgeois and peasants. Members of the zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The meeting was chaired by the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The assemblies were formed by executive bodies - county and provincial zemstvo boards. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and hire employees. The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-class self-government was limited only by economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local communication routes, care for the medical assistance of the population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc.

2.2 Urban reform

Was the next step in changing local government. In 1870, the city regulation was approved, according to which all-estates city councils were created in 509 cities of Russia. They were elected for four years, elections were held on the basis of a property qualification. The right to elect and be elected to the City Duma was granted only to taxpayers. The mayor, elected by the Duma, was confirmed by the governor or the minister of internal affairs.

In 1892, self-government was introduced in 621 cities out of 707. City councils were engaged in the improvement of cities, the development of health care and public education. Like zemstvos, dumas acted under the control of government officials who could suspend any decision of the city government.

2.3 Judicial Reform (1864)

Which replaced the old estate court with a new one, based on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all citizens before the law and independence of the court from the authorities, irremovability of judges, publicity of the court and adversarial proceedings with the participation of a prosecutor and a lawyer.

Three types of courts were created: the magistrate court, the district court, and the court of justice. The World Court considered minor misdemeanors and civil claims, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. The district court tried criminal and civil crimes with the participation of jurors. The Judicial Chamber considered cases of state and political crimes. The highest court was the Senate, which could overturn the decisions of the courts. The judicial reform was a decisive step towards the creation of elementary norms of law and order in the country.

2.4 Defeat in the Crimean War

Sharply demanded the reorganization of the army and equipping it with new weapons. In 1861, D.A. The military reform stretched out over 15 years. In the course of it, the army was rearmed: a steam military fleet was created, artillery was renewed, smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, railways were built to the border. The system of military educational institutions was reformed: military gymnasiums, cadet schools, and military academies were created. The country was divided into 15 military districts, and military control was centralized. The army has new regulations focusing on the combat and physical training of soldiers. However, the core of the reform was the Decree of January 1, 1874 on military service. Instead of recruiting, universal military service was introduced for males who had reached 20 years of age at the time of conscription. The term of service in the army was reduced: the 25-year recruitment was replaced in the ground forces by 6 years, and in the naval forces by 7 years of service. In officer schools, access was opened not only to the nobles, but also to representatives of other estates. As a result of these measures, the state gained the opportunity to have a mobile cadre army.

2.5 Financial reform

The financial sector was reformed. In 1860 the State Bank was established. The Minister of Finance became the sole administrator of the budget. The list of income and expenses was published for general information. The system of leasing out in the wine trade, which gave rise to enormous corruption, was replaced by an excise system (excise is a tax on alcohol producers), and from the mid-60s commercial banks began to open in the country.

2.6 Reform of public education

Reform of public education provided the opportunity to study at school for children of all classes. In classical gymnasiums, more attention was paid to humanitarian subjects, and in real ones - to natural subjects. The university charter of 1863 restored the autonomy and democracy of higher education. The universities had four main faculties. Education in them (as well as in gymnasiums) was paid. Educational reforms allowed the country to have an intellectual elite, but there was no general education yet.

3. Socio - political consequences of reforms and their assessment in the historical literature.

The reforms of Alexander II were really great in terms of the depth of the changes they brought about in the social, economic and political order. Most scholars who have studied and analyzed the reforms, as a rule, were dissatisfied with their half-heartedness and inconsistency. This view is characteristic of the left wing of the Russian intelligentsia, which traditionally constituted its majority. But reform is not a revolution. Therefore, assessing the socio - economic reforms, we can only say that they opened the way for the gradual and rather slow development of Russia along the capitalist path.

The reforms were unequal in terms of the impact they had on the development of Russian statehood. In some cases, from the point of view of contemporaries, they were not radical enough, other reforms, from the point of view of the government, were too revolutionary and it took the adoption of a number of regulations in order to "correct" them somewhat.

The peasant reform of 1861 did not become the starting point for accelerating Russia's economic development. It did not help Russian society and the state to adequately respond to the challenge of the times - to move rapidly from feudalism to capitalism. Growing into capitalism turned out to be very painful for Russia and was accompanied by a revolutionary upheaval. However, a faster transition to capitalism would be even more painful for Russia.

The zemstvo reform did not form a harmonious and centralized system, did not create a body that heads and coordinates the work of all zemstvos. The government opposed this in every possible way. But it should be noted that in the post-reform decades the position of the peasants is clearly improving. Largely thanks to the zemstvos, at least in the field of health care and education. For the first time in the history of Russia, the peasantry received qualified medical care. The result was a rapid increase in the population, primarily in rural areas. The zemstvos contributed to education, in its development, zemstvo schools were opened, a veterinary service was established and, as a result, the situation of animal husbandry improved, and statistics were organized.

The city reform was close to the zemstvo reform. Therefore, the creation of new bodies of self-government contributed to the formation of social, political and cultural life, helped the commercial and industrial development of Russian cities. The judicial reform in the norm changed the judicial system, procedural and, in part, the substantive law of the Russian Empire. The principles proclaimed in the judicial statutes were of a bourgeois nature: the judicial power was separated from the legislative, executive, administrative, the principle of independence and irremovability of judges; the principle of equality of all before the law; an all-estates court is introduced; the legal profession has been established; the institution of jurors is introduced; introduced the principles of orality, publicity, adversarial proceedings; the presumption of innocence was proclaimed.

The reforms of the 60-70s affected all areas of military affairs. The result of the reform was a harmonious and clear organization of both central and local government. The apparatus has shrunk, office correspondence has diminished. The main drawback of the military command system was excessive centralization, which made it impossible on the ground to show any independence and initiative in solving even minor issues. The reform of military educational institutions made it possible to eliminate the shortage of officers and raise the level of their training. However, education was bought mainly by people from the nobility. For representatives of other estates, access to military educational institutions was difficult. However, the share of non-nobles in such establishments was constantly growing.

The reforms of the 60s still did not solve the main issue of reorganizing the army, its ability to quickly deploy in case of war. On the whole, military reforms were progressive in nature and contributed to the strengthening and increase of the army's combat capability.

After the Crimean War, it was necessary to look for ways to accelerate the rate of economic growth and eliminate the technical backwardness of Russia. The main result of the redemption operation was the transition of the bulk of the former serfs to the position of peasant-proprietors.

The increase in the tax burden that fell on the peasant led to a weakening of the reproductive potential of agriculture in the central regions of Russia. Starting from the 80s, the government was forced to radically change the approach to the redemption operation and recognize the need to commensurate the amount of payments not with the cost of peasant obligations to the landlord before the abolition of serfdom, but with the real payment capacity of the peasants.

The operation to lower the investment interest was one of the government's failed experiments. In the financial sphere of the budgetary reform, carried out in the 60s of the XIX century, for the first time in a complete form the principles of rational organization of the budgetary process and the conduct of the budgetary economy were embodied. The budgetary reform was complemented by a number of taxation innovations. The main one was the introduction of an excise taxation system for drinking and the abolition of wine leases.

A decisive role in the industrial upsurge in the second half of the 1960s and early 1970s was played by relatively favorable external economic conditions and measures of direct state support for enterprises in the basic industries and railway construction. As a result, during the reign of Alexander II, one of the world's largest railroad networks was created in Russia.

Also, the customs policy was radically changed in order to obtain from Western European countries goods necessary for industry and transport, primarily metallurgy and mechanical engineering products.

By the mid-1970s, a relative fiscal balance had been achieved. Deeper and more radical than the financial reforms of the 60s in the field of public education and the press, which acquired an inevitable character. Industry, transport, agriculture, trade needed qualified specialists no less than the state and administrative apparatus.

The leading place in the education system was occupied by universities. They were the focus of science and at the same time, from the middle of the 19th century, the center of the revolutionary movement. Due to the fact that tuition at universities was paid, those who were much more interested in the revolution than in study attended it. However, it must be said that the role of paying for fees should not be overestimated, since the share of students from low-income strata of the population was higher in Russian universities than anywhere else in Europe.

Conclusion

The time of reforms in the 60s-70s of the XIX century was really great, for the autocracy for the first time took a step towards society, and society supported the government. This is one of the reasons for the success of the reforms of Alexander II. Another reason is the complex nature of the reforms that affected all aspects of the life of Russian society.

The significance of liberal reforms lies in the fact that they contributed to the development of capitalist relations in Russia. The process of capitalization of the domestic economy took on a stormy character, especially in the 1880s. In the Russian countryside, a struggle unfolded between two ways of developing capitalism in it: the Prussian and the American. This struggle determined the life of the Russian countryside until 1917. The country's industry developed much more actively; this process was especially successful in the light industry. Significant changes have taken place in trade and finance.

As a result of transformations in the 1860s - 1880s. the Russian economy has made a noticeable leap forward, striving to catch up with the developed countries of the world that have gone ahead. By the end of the 80s. XIX century. in Russia, the industrial revolution was completed. However, the remnants of serfdom and the country's lagging behind in the first half of the 19th century. did not allow her to stand on a par with England, France, Germany.

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Reforms 60 70 19 century The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

Judicial reform of 1864

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