Characteristics of learning methods

Training methods are the most important tool In the hands of the teacher to lead the process of learning to nature. Consequently, there is a need to disclose their essence and pedagogical efficacy. Let us discuss briefly on the characteristics of groups and types of training methods used in education in elementary school.

Verbal methods.In the process of learning, natural science is an important source of knowledge is an oral or printed word. Often it is illustrated by various visual benefits. The activities of the teacher here is that it transmits himself or organizes the transfer of information to the word. The student's activities are to hear the word.

The word is the oldest, and sometime the only way of exposure to students. But, starting with the times of A. Ya. Komensky, the role of the word in the educational process was gradually limited, which is very important for natural scientific learning subjects. In fact, one wonderful-book teaching cannot give the right, complete ideas about natural objects and phenomena, without which the process of conscious assimilation of the theory is impossible. This approach in training practically does not allow to realize the tasks of student development, and after all, the role of nature in this development is invaluable. And yet the learning process without the use of verbal methods does not proceed. Live and printed words continue to remain important ways of exposure to students.

Lecturein the process of teaching initial environmental education, it is not applied, so we will not stop on its characterization.

Story -this is a consistent descriptive presentation of educational material. The story applies in cases where it is necessary to report new information that does not rely on the life experience of students or the previously studied, no observation. Thus, the teacher's story method applies for reporting the causes of the differences in indice plants from wildlying in our conditions; Differences of nature in remote geographical zones. This method is applied when the need to create an image by a verbal description, transfer the content of personal observations and experiences to the class.

the story must comply with certain requirements. First of all, it should not be long. According to our observations, the story in the lessons of environmental education should not exceed 5-7 minutes by the end of training in elementary school. Such a duration of the story should grow gradually, starting with one minute in I-II classes. It is also very important that the speech of the teacher is a clear, accessible, alive, figurative. Especially imagery is necessary in applying a story as a verbal clarity - in the story, the teacher should be carefully monitoring the use of scientific terminology, not allowing the dietary, many facts and terms, if necessary, apply visual benefits. In his story, the teacher may include students' stuff stories, small excerpts from popular science and scientific and fiction, be sure to establish connections with the studied.

The positive parties of the story is that a student in a short period of time receives a fairly large amount of information, assimilates the educational material more or less holistic. This method develops memory, as well as such an important personality quality, as the ability to listen to the story, a lecture. However, this is a method of formal information that students must accept finished video, for faith. He is poorly developing creative thinking of children.

Conversation -the learning method, with which the teacher, by targeted formulation, mobilizes the knowledge and practical experience of students, brings them to a new knowledge.

The main structural component of the conversation is the question. Questions should rely on the existing knowledge and experience of students, help children open new knowledge. The conversation should include different types questions. First of all - questions requiring reproduction of actual information from observations, life experience,

from the previously studied, etc. Such knowledge consists mainly of ideas or initial concepts. Therefore, it is most often used here questions with the words: "Who is it?", "What is it?", "What?", "What does?" etc. Another group of issues should direct the activities of children to understand (analysis and synthesis) of actual information. Here are appropriate questions and tasks for comparison, classification, clarification of causes and relationships, generalization. The third group of issues makes students practicing knowledge. A variety of training exercises are appropriate here. The main part of the tasks in the working notebooks is also aimed at practicing knowledge. The conclusion of the conversation is concluded, which will be a new knowledge.

The conversation can be built inductively and deductive. According to the laws of induction, it is constructed when studying several similar objects, when a general conclusion is made in conclusion. The same type of conversation is used at the beginning of the study. The final conversations on the topic or lesson are built most often deductive. In this embodiment, the initial material is the overall position, which is familiar with students. They first formulate this position, then confirm and develop the last additional facts. In conclusion, any conversation is concluded, which in an inductive conversation will be a new one, and in deductive - updated knowledge.

The value of this method is that the teacher has the opportunity to receive feedback on the level of informative and level of development of a large group of students in a relatively short time, the conversation activates the activities of students, forms communicative qualities, self-monitoring and self-assessment skills by comparing levels of knowledge of their and classmates. However, this method is a crusher knowledge of students, makes their generalization and the possibility of a holistic perception of educational material, does not teach students to transmit scientific knowledge in a coherent form.

Explanation- a consistent statement of educational material, which is characterized by evidence, reasoning with the formulation of withdrawal. A type of explanation is briefing to perform observations, experiments, practical work, to various kinds of independent work, including with a notebook, textbook, visual benefits. Briefing can be given in writing and orally. An example of written instructions can be tasks in the textbook to practical and laboratory work, instructional cards, tasks on the board.

The explanation method has its advantages, since it contributes to the formation of skills of academic labor, practical skills and skills, develops thinking and attention. At the same time, he demands from

a student of a large voltage of attention and thought, because in it every subsequent position follows from the previous one, is associated with it. Therefore, even a small pass of explanation deprives a student to perceive it in general, and therefore, consistently and efficiently perform work.

Visual methods.The use of visual methods in teaching is closely related to the implementation of the principle of visibility. However, these concepts are not identical. Visuality as the principle of learning is implemented under any methods. The function of the method is visible when it becomes the main source of knowledge, techniques of practical actions, developing and educating the impact on the student. A student, working with clarity, independently analyzes it, argues and comes to some of its own conclusions, we will prove this difference for the example.

Visual manuals are widely used in verbal methods. The teacher tells or talks about any plants, animals, processes occurring in nature, etc., and for greater concreteness, the word is reinforced by a demonstration of visual benefits. Here, visual benefits are not the main source of information, material for independent conclusions, but only supported, the word specifies that remains the main method of pedagogical impact on the student. In this case, independent cognitive activity Pupils are limited.

Visual manuals in visual methods are a source of independent reasoning, generalizations, conclusions. This task is solved in stages:

The presence of the object of study in nature or in the image;

Determining the type of child's activity with this object by system of targeted tasks that can be given orally, recorded on the board or cards, are indicated in the textbook, etc. Questions and tasks must be formulated as the class in such a sequence that will ensure as possible more detailed, comprehensive and consistent study of demonstrated objects or phenomena;

The presence of a certain duration of the stage of independent research and the design of them in the form of conclusions;

Discussion of private conclusions and the wording of the generalized result. At this stage it is useful to contact already studied benefits to clarify some details.

Thus, the word in visual methods performs a different role than in verbal: here with the help of the word teacher directs

pupils on analyzing visual benefits, and the Word acts as a form of expression of conclusions, generalizations, i.e., information obtained during the use of visual methods.

The use of visual methods has its own positive and negative sides. It is valuable that the use of these methods is sufficient to increase the activity of students, their independent cognitive activity. Visuality allows you to exclude verbalism in the teaching of environmental education, creates good conditions for practicing knowledge. Veliko and developing influence of visual methods for a student: they develop empirical thinking, without which the development of thinking theoretical, improves speech, observation, skills of self-esteem and self-control, creative imagination, skills of study labor, etc.

The difficulties of applying visual methods are primarily connected with the presence of objects themselves for study and auxiliary equipment. Ensuring the educational process by natural visual benefits is difficult due to the presence of serious environmental problems. The release of visual visual benefits requires additional material costs. Often schools use homemade visual benefits, but they, as a rule, do not correspond to gtostas, they are difficult to unify, but this does not mean their denial. In addition, the use of homemade visual benefits requires teachers and students of certain skills and work skills, compliance with safety regulations. The results of the educational process are achieved for a longer time than when using verbal methods. Children are experiencing certain difficulties in verbal expressions.

Visual methods can be used both in the study of the new material and when it is secured. When studying a new material, they are a way to form new knowledge, and when it is secured - a way of knowledge practices.

Study of nature with demonstration of natural objectsallows you to form quite complete and reliable ideas about the object being studied, facilitates the formation of ideas about objects and phenomena of nature, which, for various reasons, cannot be studied in nature itself, creates the possibilities of direct contacts of the child with wildlife. An important condition for the success of this method is to ensure the perception of the subject or phenomenon by all students and as much of the senses. To achieve this goal, objects put on special stands, create a special background, highlighting, use auxiliary equipment, such as projection equipment. Small objects can be displayed

put in the class. Mobile objects, such as small and medium animals, are placed in cells, transparent containers (glass or polyethylene jars, tubes, aquariums, terrariums).

The study of natural visual allowances is useful to combine with visual visibility, with work on the textbook text. The first of these conditions allows the child to see this object in the relationship with the habitat, obtain additional information about the habits, methods of manifestation of some vital processes, etc. The second is to find the right terms, to formulate formulations, etc. For example, in the lesson On the topic "Plants and animals" with the help of herbarium, children are studying the morphological features of weeds. A table "Field" and the corresponding drawing in the textbook allow you to understand the negative effect of weeds on cultivated plants: weeds grow among cultivated plants, shadow the latter, take away from the soil (often significant) water and mineral nutrients, and therefore reduce the crops of the main culture.

Application method demonstration of imagesnatural objects and phenomena is of great importance when studying environmental education. It also allows you to form the ideas of children about the subjects and phenomena of nature. This is especially important in cases where the natural object cannot be submitted to children in nature due to its size, considerations of ecology or for other reasons. The value of this method consists also in the fact that it makes it possible to study the objects of nature in their environment, in relationships with this medium.

According to visual visual benefits, it is possible to study the processes occurring in nature. At the same time, the use of this method does not always allow you to form exact correct ideas about the objects studied, phenomena. Some parts are often overlooked in the images, for example, in the development plan from the seed, considerable periods of the natural movement of the plant are missed. In some cases, it is impossible to transfer the exact dimensions of objects, for example, portray large animals in their natural value; Pictitate the entire object of the whole, such as natural zones, natural landscapes, etc. Therefore, in the visual visual guides, you have to use additional techniques to achieve as much as possible formation of accurate, full knowledge. Thus, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe natural sizes of objects depicted in a visual allowance can be strengthened by comparing it with familiar children objects. Knowledge of natural areas, landscapes, etc. can be formed by combining several visual aids.

For example, to form a more or less holistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe features of the nature of the tundra, children are given a landscaped image of the tundra, allowing you to draw a general idea about it, and to specify - images of individual objects of the tundra: plants, animals, life and labor of people, etc. Combine static and dynamic visual benefits, showing visual manuals with a pattern on a board and in notebooks, with brief records.

As in the case of studying the nature of natural visual benefits, when demonstrating visual visual benefits, it is important to ensure their perception of all students of the class and possibly a large number of senses. It is obvious that the greatest role in this method belongs to the vision, but perhaps the connection of hearing, for example, when demonstrating sound recordings, cinema and video films. In the application of this method, a lot of role is played by auxiliary means: support, fasteners, additional lighting, technical means of learning, etc.

The method of studying nature with demonstration experiencesit is used in cases where the subject or phenomenon must be studied in conditions that are artificially changed or some artificial element is brought into them.

This method is of great importance in teaching initial science, as it clearly allows you to study an object or a phenomenon that in natural conditions is difficult or not even impossible. For example, in vivo it is difficult to observe the entire process of water cycle. The experience allows you to see it for a rather short period of time. Another example. In nature, the reproduction of plants roots (root pigstream) is quite common. It is almost impossible to see this process in vivo. The latter is successfully solved in a specially set experience. The best material for the successful implementation of this experience is the root cuttings of raspberries. Demonstration of experiments has a positive effect on the development of research skills. However, experience requires a teacher greater than when using verbal methods, preparatory work, Knowledge and ability to follow the rules of safe work.

Experiments may be short-term, carried out in one lesson, but can be long. In the above examples of experiments, one of them is short-term, the other is long. In the first case, the new knowledge is formed in the same lesson. In the second case, either the lesson demonstrates the result of a pre-commissioned experience, or in this lesson, the experience is only laid. So in long experiments, the new knowledge is formed

after a period of time expires. Sometimes, for more complete, reliable information, experience is put in several versions. For example, to make sure that for the reproduction of potatoes, you need to take parts of a tuber with eyes, you need to land the tuber with eyes and without eyes. Moreover, the tuber parts can be in one embodiment with several eyes, in the other - with one.

As in relation to the two previous visual methods, the successful use of the method of demonstration of experiments will be facilitated by a clear definition of the content and system of the child's activities at all stages: the presence of an object for study (in this case, the installation for experience), tasks for studying, independent work and discussion phase conclusions. Experiments are useful to combine with graphic work On the blackboard, in notebooks. Sometimes to clarify some details, a more complete understanding of the entity of the phenomenon is possible repetitions of experience in general or individual fragments.

So, in all visual methods, clarity acts as an independent source of knowledge. These methods are widely combined with verbal learning methods, but the word here performs an auxiliary role.

Practical methods.In the history of the formation and development of initial natural science, these methods were developed and began to be applied later than verbal and visual. The use of visual methods in teaching was a step forward in comparison with purely verbal. But the conducted studies have increasingly convinced that when applying visual methods, the child remains largely a passive contemplator, while active activity is characteristic of it. Therefore, such methods that would have turned students in leaders, researchers, creators, workers are necessary. Thus arose practical methods. When applying them, objects, phenomena, instruments are transmitted to the students themselves for their independent research.

Practical teaching methods are of great importance in the educational process, as the most important principles of didactics are most importantly allowed - the active approach and humanization of the learning process. A child from the object of learning turns into a subject of its own activity, which mostly answers its nature. In addition, it is the subject of the child that is a characteristic feature of educational training. Practical methods are developing interest in teachings, form the creative abilities of children, activate the theoretical and practical cognitive activity of students,

developing their thinking, practical skills, skills, skills of study labor. The role of practical methods in ensuring the first - empirical and third - practical practice of the formation of the formation and development of natural concepts is great.

At the same time, a number of moments make it difficult to apply these methods. They require not one - two visual benefits, but entire sets of handouts. Often, work with the latter is accompanied by the use of auxiliary equipment, which also need to be in the number of dispensing sets. Special devices for storing all this material are required. The use of practical methods requires a teacher to a special organization of the lesson, since the leadership of the independent practical work of students is quite difficult. For more than when using verbal and visual methods, the process of obtaining finite learning outcomes.

In the practice of teaching, practical methods are implemented in stages.

1. Students receive an item for study. In contrast to visual methods, the subject is transferred directly to the student. Different students may have different, although the same type of objects.

2. Tasks that determine the type of activity of students with the obtained objects. Unlike visual methods, where all students receive the same tasks, in practical methods it is possible to certain individualization of tasks, and therefore the activities of children. Lastly to the least, children can determine themselves through independent compilation of an activity plan.

3. Independent research work. Here it is more diverse, complex and continuous than when applying the first first groups of methods.

4. Discussion of conclusions. With practical methods, compared with visual, the point of view of children is most often more diverse, even contradictory, so there are no discusses. Consequently, there is a more active discussion here, often requires additional study of objects. The latter causes the need to return to the stage of independent research.

5. Formulation of conclusions.

Forms of organization of students in whom practical methods are most often applied - these are excursions, subject lessons, and inside the lesson, individual practical and laboratory work, games. In particular, games can be frontal, group and individual. Among practical methods are distinguished by their characteristic types.

In Akvivyev. Methodik

Method, recognitionand definition of signs.The effect of this method is based on the analysis of the external morphological and partially anatomical features of objects and phenomena. The method is used when working with handouts, when it becomes necessary to make a characteristic of objects, phenomena, highlight their signs, determine the place of this item, phenomenon in the system of similar, similar. The use of recognition method and definition of signs is usually combined with the use of briefing. Briefing can be written on the board, distributed on cards or taken as an instruction for work from the textbook.

An example of the application of the recognition method and definition of signs may be learning external structure Plants during practical work. On the tables of students they are distributed instances of plants with well-pronounced parts. At the same time, different students or different groups can be proposed for studying various plants.

Another example. When forming the ability to read the card, practical work is organized. Here, the method of recognition and definition of signs allows you to develop the ability to recognize geographic objects with the help of conventional signs, to get knowledge about the distribution of these objects on Earth. This method is used when studying the thermometer device, the properties of water, soil, minerals, etc. This method is widely applied on excursions and in the process of performing independent observations.

The most widely used practical method in the process of studying environmental education is the method observations.Given the special importance of this method at the initial stage of natural science education, the characteristic of it we endure in an independent paragraph (see p. 135-140).

Experiment,or experience,how the learning method is used in cases where to study the object or phenomenon in conventional conditions It is not possible, and artificial creation of special conditions is required. The experiment is applied and then some artificial element is introduced into the natural process. For example, no matter how much we have considered the soil, we will not find air in it. To detect in the soil of the latter, it should be omitted into water. Water will displace air in the soil, which will go through water in the form of bubbles. So students are convinced available in air soil.

Another example. To make sure that plants can multiply with cuttings, it is not necessary to conduct long-term observations in nature and wait when it happens in it. You can specially

separate the cuttings from some kind of plants and put it for rooting into a specially created Wednesday. I. P. Pavlov wrote that the observation collects what nature offers, and the experiment allows us to take what we want. This method is implemented in experiments. It requires special equipment. According to its content, the experiment is richer observation, gives more convincing data to identify the essence of the phenomenon, causal relations, and, consequently, to clarify natural abnormal patterns.

The experiment can be short-term and long. A long experiment goes beyond the lesson and ends or, on the contrary, is laid in after-hours. Short-term experience is performed in a short period of time and usually does not go beyond the lesson. The first of the above experiments is short-term, second - long. From other short-term experiments, experiments can be called on the study of some properties of water (transparency, fluidity, water ability to dissolve some substances, etc.), soil (the presence of water, mineral salts), changes in the height of the liquid column in the thermometer when changing the ambient temperature and etc. Examples of other long experiments are the study of the conditions of freezing of water, its evaporation, plant development from seed, etc. These experiments can be laid in the lesson, then their result is demonstrated after a while that requires the preliminary repetition of the material passed. Experience can be laid in advance with this calculation so that its result coincides with the moment of studying the appropriate material. In this case, children perform the experience "blindly". His awareness comes later.

A special place is occupied by experiments conducted on an educational and experienced area. They, as a rule, long and often occupy the entire growing season. In such experiments there must be control and experience. The plant or animal is put in them in the same conditions except one test. For example, in the experiment, it is necessary to study the effect of seed seed depth on the appearance of plant shoots. For this experience, two are identical in the area, the soil fertility, the illumination of the defense. Seeds of one plant are taken, for example, beans, which are sown on both melts at the same time. In the future, plants are equally careful. The difference is only in one: on the control defense, the beans seeds are planted on a normal depth, and on an experienced one or more small, or more deeply, depending on which particular purpose is put in experience.

During any experience, it is very important to keep careful observations, perform the necessary measurements, calculations, it is useful to lead

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relevant entries in special notebooks separately on control and experience, having them in parallel graphs of a single table. This facilitates the comparison of the results and their generalization. We give examples of other similar experiments. In connection with the study of the material on the development of the plant from the seed, you can put experience in studying the influence of seed sowing appearance plants or their harvest. On the topic of "Plants and Animals of the Garden", you can put experience in studying the influence of the fiction of the top of the Raspios of the first year of life on the harvest of berries. The result of this experience will be received only next year. Interesting for children and quite affordable is the experience of studying influence joint landing Potatoes and legumes (beans, beans) on the spread of a colorado beetle.

As we can see, the action of the method of the experiment is based on studying research work, which has similarities with scientist research. This similarity consists in the overall direction of the logical process. Both the scientist, and the schoolboy leads observation of objects and phenomena in naturally modified conditions, compare the data among themselves, give an explanation of what is happening, make generalizing conclusions. These findings are in the other case are discoveries. Only discoveries scientists are really discoveries that enrich science. The opening of students is discoveries for themselves. As a rule, in science, these discoveries have already been made. It is also clear that the process of studying the child compared to scientific is shortened, simplified, many details, intermediate searches, erroneous samples are overlooked from it. And, finally, the scientist most often independently performs his research, it means its goal itself, develops a technique. The student also performs this work much less independently. His research is headed by a teacher, focusing on educational purposes.

Experiment as a learning method is of great importance in the educational process. Along with other practical methods, it provides an empirical level of knowledge, but, in contrast to other methods, causes more active mental activities. It develops research skills in students, their creative abilities, independence, self-control, purposefulness, etc. The negative parties of this method is that its fulfillment is often conjugate additional equipment, compliance with certain norms and rules, the process of obtaining a new knowledge is slowed down to a much greater extent than when applying other methods.

In the educational process on the subjects of the natural science cycle, the method is widely applied simulation.His name happened from

the words "model", whose definition is ambiguous. So cybernetic N. M. Amosov determines the model as a system in which relations between the elements reflect another system. Philosopher V. A. Shtoff under the model understands such a mentally represented or financially implemented system, which, displaying or reproducing the object of the study, is able to replace it so that its study gives us new information about this object.

Models are material (real) and ideal (speculative, mentally built). Material models include a globe, a thermometer, flower, heart model, and so on. Among ideal models, models shaped and iconic are distinguished. These models are created mentally based on the analysis of real reality. To save them, make the property of others, they are transferred to paper, board, computer, etc. in the form of signs, drawings, schemes, tables, diagrams, etc. An example of the iconic models is the conventional signs to indicate weather, environmental signs, Conditional signs of the plan and maps and others. Fashionable models are built from sensually visual elements. Such, for example, the schemes of the water cycle in nature, the development of the plant from the seed, the chain of the links of individual components of nature among themselves, of various kinds of instructive drawings (root levels, the manufacture of filter, etc.).

However, the model should not be confused as a visual allowance and modeling as a learning method. If a finished model is brought to the lesson, a pre-drawn scheme, then here we are dealing with a model as a visual benefit. Modeling performs the function of the method when a child based on the image created in the head itself creates the model and in the process of activity receives information about the simulated object, phenomenon. Thus, in the practice of teaching initial natural science, you can apply the modeling of children during practical work from sand, clay, plasticine and other materials using paints of surface forms, various types of water bodies, community fragments; In notebooks, students themselves create (draw) models of directions of the side of the horizon, model of terrain or path of movement in the form of a plan, a plant development scheme of a plant from seed, water cycle in nature, the formation of a spring, etc.

What is the meaning of modeling in the educational process? Why is it necessary to take his model instead of the object or phenomenon? Part of the objects studied, and even more so the phenomena of nature can not be brought to the classroom. It is easy to make sure if you analyze the models listed above. The model gives a more complete picture of the object or phenomenon than the table. In very

a case, the table gives a plane image, and most models are volumetric. When simulating, an object is created in which the studied aspects of the original can be studied much easier than with its direct observation. Modeling reduces the process of studying some lengthy processes. So, it is not necessary to observe the entire process of plant development from a seed, which can last for a whole growing period. It is enough to choose the individual stages and, by creating a model scheme, to get the appropriate knowledge. Similar can be said about the cycle of water in nature. The next significant positive side of the simulation is that this method, as equal to other practical methods, eliminates the formal transmission of students' knowledge; The study of the object, the phenomenon proceeds during the active practical and mental activity of the child. After all, any model is the unity of sensual, visual and logical, concrete and abstract. Obviously, the use of modeling method develops thinking and creative abilities of the child. It is also important that in the process of the cognitive process using modeling, different analyzers work, which contributes to the development of the sensory sphere of children.

At the same time, the models are built on the principle of effective simplification. At the same time, the model reflects the object or phenomenon in generalized, the mocking of some details, the details and, on the contrary, enhancing the essential sides. Therefore, they are possible some nursing with the original. Thus, the student does not have any information. However, most often this information does not have a significant negative impact on knowledge of this object, phenomenon. For example, the knowledge that the development of a plant from a seed to seed is a serial process, will not be less qualitative if the student tracerates individual stages and will not fix the appearance, for example, each new leaflet. But this is the great value of the model, as it allows you to give knowledge, eliminating the numerous similar elements. The disadvantages should also include the need to have materials, specific equipment, know and follow the rules of hygiene. Junior schoolchildren are still weak and practical skills and skills that can affect the quality of the model being created, its aesthetics.

Combination of learning methods.In the practice of teaching, different methods are rarely applied in its pure form. As a rule, they are used in various combinations. It is difficult to submit the use of visual and practical methods without words. On the other hand,

purely verbal teaching can form predominantly formal knowledge, the sample action, which adversely affects the development of the child's personality. Another important point of the need to combine methods is that they are able to level the negative sides of each other and strengthen positive. In fact, the weak visibility of verbal methods is compensated by the use of visual and practical methods. The slowdown process of obtaining knowledge, which takes place when applying visual and, in particular, practical methods can be accelerated by verbal methods.

- This is the most common group of methods used in pedagogical practice for all school subjects and at all levels of education.

The source of acquiring knowledge is considered a word that can be oral or written.

It is it that stimulates the active cognitive activity of students, ensures the highest culture of auditory perceptions and thinking, develops reading, oral and written speech, and also requires the skills of analysis and synthesis, concretization and opposition, the ability to argue and draw conclusions.

The verbal methods include a story and explanation, conversation and discussion, lecture, work with a book. These methods are extensively used during the formation of theoretical and practical knowledge in children, a verbal exchange of information between the teacher and students is supported. However, the acquaintance with the material is carried out mainly in the finished form, and therefore pays little attention to the formulation and solution of problem tasks, the fulfillment of creative tasks, development in children of cognitive independence and initiative.

Story and explanation

The story implies an oral narrative statement of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages. school learning, only the nature of the narrative, its volume, duration changes. For purposes distinguish between several types of stories: the story-joining (preparation of students for the perception of a new educational material, the story-presentation (disclosure of the content of the new topic), the conclusion story (conclusions and generalization of the studied).

During the story, such methodical techniques are used as intensifying attention, associative and natural comparisons, comparisons, allocation of the main, summarization. At the same time, a number of pedagogical requirements are made to the story, and therefore should: contain exclusively accurate facts; include a sufficient amount of clear and convincing examples, facts proving loyalty to the provisions; have a clear logic of presentation; allocate the main provisions, ideas, concentrate the attention of children; be emotional, expressive; make a clear and affordable language; It lasts no more than 10 minutes, because children are quickly tired and their attention is scattered. The presentation of the material can also be connected with reading fragments from the textbook or tutorial, recording students of definitions and dates, repetition of the most important, relevant provisions, conclusions.

Explanation - verbal interpretation of patterns, meaningful qualities of the object being studied, disclosure of facts, deregulation of laws and techniques of action, presentation of experiments. The explanation most often resorted when studying theoretical material, solving problems and theorems, in the disclosure of circumstances and consequences in the phenomena of nature and social life. At the same time, the teacher is obliged to comply with the following requirements: Specifically formulate goals and objectives, clearly set questions to be disclosed; state material clearly and consistently; Ensure an understanding of the children's information, attract them to the active observation of the explanations of the phenomena; Set the relationship with the already studied material. An explanation can be combined using visual funds, conducting experiments, using ICT.

Conversation and discussion

The conversation refers to the more well-known methods of didactic work, its main function - prompting, but it successfully performs other functions. The essence of the conversation is that with the help of targeted and skillful issues to encourage students to actualization of already acquired knowledge, independent reasoning and generalizations. The conversation forces the student to follow the footsteps for the idea of \u200b\u200bthe teacher, as a result of what he step by step moves to the development of new knowledge. This method activates thinking, is an effective means of diagnosing learned knowledge and skills, promotes the development of students' cognitive abilities, as well as its educational role.

In their goals and structure of the conversation there are introductory (organizing), heuristic, systematizing (fixing), control and correctional. For effective conduct Conversations need professional training of a teacher, since it must correctly formulate the topic and ask questions, naturally related and corresponding to the age-related student development. The question is asked to the whole class and only after a small pause for thinking is called a student for an answer. Faithful answers are approved, incorrectly either incomplete - commented, refineed. In case no one can answer, it is necessary to reformulate, split into parts, put a leading question. An important condition for a full-fledged conversation is a clear discipline in the lesson and establishing close contact of the teacher with students, which allows working in an atmosphere of understanding, goodwill, openness. It should be noted that the conversation is a very laborious method of learning, as it requires a large number of time, voltage of forces, professional skills.

Discussion as a learning method has the goal of stimulating cognitive interest, drawing students in an intensive discussion of various scientific points of view on a particular problem, encouraging to understand the information and argumentation of their own position. But for this it is necessary to have at least two different views on the question discussed. Without the existing knowledge, the discussion becomes a free, empty and inaccurate, and without the ability to express an idea - confusing and contradictory. In addition, there are special rules of discussion, among which: a limited time of the performance of each student, discipline and mutual respect, restraint, decent adoption of someone else's position, etc.

Lecture

Lecture from other verbal methods is different:

1. more rigid structure;
2. logic presentation of educational material;
3. abundance of reported information;
4. the systemic nature of the lighting of the material.

The subject of the school lecture is preferably a description of difficult systems, phenomena, objects, processes between them caused and investigative relations. It follows from this that the lecture is applicable exclusively in high schools when students are already achieved to perceive and understand the material lectures of the level of preparation. By duration, the lecture occupies a whole lesson or even two.

Pedagogical requirements for lectures are as follows: the creation of a teacher of a detailed project lecture; acquaintance of students with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture; logically sequential presentation of all paragraphs of the plan; short summarizing conclusions after the illumination of each item; regular relationships in the transition from one part of the lecture to another; Problem and emotionality of presentation; timely connection of examples, comparisons, facts; contact with the audience; Suitable pace of presentation, allowing students to record the main provisions.

Working with a book

Working with the textbook and book has become one of the main methods of training. In the textbook, the material is set out unmistakably and in a systematic form. The student has the ability to repeatedly process the training information in the pace affordable for it and at a convenient time. The training books successfully perform a training, educational, educational, encouraging, control and correctional functions.

The purpose of independent work with the book can be familiar with its structure, a quick viewing, reading individual chapters, search for answers to specific questions, research material, the referencing of individual passages, the solution of examples and tasks, learning the material by heart. To teach children to work with the word textbook and book, to form them the need for reading is the most important task of the teacher.

As a rule, two types of work with a book are used: at a lesson under the guidance of the teacher and independent work at home. At the same time, the following techniques are used: output, creating a plan, disinfection, quoting, reviewing, creating a reference, thematic ausaurus. The teacher must constantly exercise children in reading, teach the analysis of read, search for answers to questions, work with schemes and tables, use reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias.

Training methods are ways joint activity Teacher and students aimed at achieving them educational purposes.

Classification of learning methods in terms of students' activity. This is one of the early classifications of learning methods. According to this classification, training methods are divided into passive and active depending on the degree of student inclusion in training activities. Passive includes methods in which students only listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observation), to active - methods that organize independent work of students (laboratory method, practical method, work with a book).

Story. This is a monologic, consistent presentation of the material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to report actual information requiring image and sequence. The story is applied at all stages of training, only tasks of presentation, style and scope of the story are changing. The greatest developing effect gives a story when teaching junior schoolchildren, prone to figurative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it leads to a state of activity mental processes: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. Impacting a sense of man, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior prisoners in it.

For purposes allocate: the story-joining, the purpose of which is to prepare students for the study of a new material; story story - used to present the intended content; Story-conclusion - sums up according to the material studied.

To the story as a learning method, certain requirements are imposed: the story should ensure the achievement of didactic purposes; contain reliable facts; have a clear logic; The presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the student. In its pure form, the story is applied relatively rarely. It is often used in combination with other learning methods - illustration, discussion, conversation. If with the help of the story fails to provide a clear and clear understanding of certain provisions, then the explanation method is applied.

Explanation is the interpretation of patterns, the essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidential form of presentation, based on the use of logically related conclusions that establish the foundations of the truth of this judgment. The explanation is most often resorted by studying theoretical material of various sciences. As a learning method, the explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups. Definished requirements are imposed on the explanation: accurate and clear wording of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of causal relationships, arguments and evidence; use of comparison, analogies, comparison; Impristed logic of presentation. In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked as training and trained, and can grow into a conversation.

The lecture is a monological method of presenting volumetric material. From other verbal methods of presentation of the material is characterized by a stricter structure; abundance of reported information; logic outline of material; systemic nature of knowledge lighting. Lectures are devoted to large and fundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ in their construct, applying material. The lecture can be used to summarize, repeat the material passed. The relevance of the use of lectures in modern conditions increases due to the use of block study of a new material on topics or large sections.

Demonstration as a learning method involves the showing of experiments, technical installations, telecasts, video films, diameters, codepositives, computer programs, etc. Demonstration method serves mainly to disclose the dynamics of studied phenomena, but is also used to familiarize with the appearance of the subject, its internal device. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, perform the necessary measurements, establish dependencies due to which the active cognitive process, the horizons are expanding, the sensual empirical basis of knowledge is created.

The special group consists of active learning methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills and skills. This group of methods include exercises, practical and laboratory methods.

Exercise - multiple (re-) execution of training actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality. So that the exercises were effective, they must respond to a number of requirements. These include the conscious approach of students to exercise; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in exercising; Accounting the results achieved; Distribution of repetitions in time.

The laboratory method is based on self-conducting experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e. with special equipment. Work can be carried out individually or in groups. The students takes great activity and independence than during the demonstration, where they act as passive observers, and not participants and research perforiders.

Practical methods are learning methods aimed at applying knowledge gained to solve practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activities, contribute to the formation of such qualities as economic activity, economy, organizational skills, etc.

Classification of learning methods for the source of knowledge

There are three sources of knowledge: the word, clarity, practice. Accordingly allocate verbal methods (the source of knowledge is an oral or printed word); visual methods (sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); Practical methods (knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).

The verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include a story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book. The methods of the story, explanations and lectures were already considered above.

The conversation is a dialogic method of learning, in which the teacher by setting the system of issues leads students to understanding a new material or checks the assimilation of them already studied. Conversation as a learning method can be applied to solve any didactic task. There are individual conversations (questions are addressed to one student), group conversations (questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal (questions are addressed to everyone). Conversation as a learning method has undoubted advantages: activates educational and educational activities of students; develops their speech, memory, thinking; has a big educational force; It is a good diagnostic agent, helps to control students' knowledge.

Educational discussion as a learning method is based on the exchange of views on a certain problem. Moreover, these views reflect or their own opinions of the discussion participants, or rely on other persons. The main function of the learning discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen in their own opinion, learn to defend their position, reckon with the views of others.

Working with a textbook and book is one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of this method is an opportunity for a student in the pace affordable for it and at a convenient time to repeatedly apply to educational information. When using programmed learning books, in which, except for training, also contains management information, the issues of control, correction, diagnosis of knowledge and skills are effectively solved.

The second group on this classification constitutes visual learning methods, in which the learning material assimilation is in essential dependence on visual manuals, schemes, tables, drawings, models, devices, technical means. Visual methods are conditionally divided into two groups: the demonstration method and method of illustrations.

Practical training methods are based on practical activities Pupils. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills and skills. Practical methods include exercises, practical and laboratory works.

Classification of learning methods for didactic goal

In this classification, the following teaching methods are distinguished: methods for acquiring new knowledge; methods of forming skills and skills; Methods for applying knowledge; Methods for consolidation and verification of knowledge, skills, skills. As a criterion, the methods of training in the Groups on this classification are the objectives of training. Such a criterion more reflects the activities of the teacher to achieve a learning goal. For example, if a goal is put to introduce students with something, then to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use the verbal, visual and other methods available to it, and to consolidate will offer students to perform oral or written tasks. With such a classification of methods, the gap between individual groups is eliminated; The teacher's activities are sent to the decision of the didactic tasks.

Classification of training methods in character cognitive activity Students

According to this classification, training methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students in the assimilation of the material being studied. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.

The following methods are distinguished: explanatory illustrative (informational and recipe); reproductive; problem presentation; partial search (heuristic); Research.

The essence of the explanatory and illustrative method is that the teacher is reported by various means, and the students perceive it, realize and fix in memory. Teacher's information message is carried out with the help of oral words (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), printing words (textbook, additional benefits), visual funds (tables, schemes, paintings, cinema and diamers), practical ways of activities (show experience, work On the machine, the method of solving the problem, etc.).

The reproductive method suggests that the teacher reports, explains knowledge in the finished form, and students assimilate them and can reproduce, repeat the way of activity on the task of the teacher. The criterion of assimilation is the correct playback (reproduction) of knowledge.

Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge, skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students' creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular, the method of problem presentation.

The method of problem presentation is transitional from the Performing to creative activity. The essence of the method of problem presentation is that the teacher puts the problem and decides it himself, thereby showing the course of thought in the process of knowledge. Students are followed by the logic of the presentation, assimilating the stages of solving holistic problems. At the same time, they not only perceive, realize and memorize ready-made knowledge, conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, for the movement of the thought of the teacher or replacing it with funds (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students are not participants in such a learning method, but only observers of the course of reflection, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity carries a partially search (heuristic) method. The method was called partially searching because students independently decide the complex learning problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher attracts students to perform certain search steps. Part of the knowledge reports the teacher, part of the students mined independently, responding to questions or allowing problem tasks. Training activities Develops according to the scheme: Lecturer - Students - Lecturer - Students, etc.

The research method of training provides for creative learning students. The essence of it is as follows: the teacher together with students formulates the problem; Students independently allow it; The teacher provides assistance only in case of difficulty in solving the problem.

Thus, the research method is used not only to summarize knowledge, but mainly for the student to learn to acquire knowledge, explore the subject or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the mined knowledge and skills in life. His essence is reduced to the organization of search engines, creative activities of students to address new problems for them.

Classification of training methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process

According to this classification, which Babansky suggested, Yu. K., training methods are divided into three groups: 1) methods of organization and implementation of educational and educational activities; 2) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity; 3) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

The first group includes the following methods: perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information through feelings); verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.); visual (demonstration, illustration); practical (experiments, exercises, tasks); logical, i.e., the organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.); Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive); self-government learning actions (independent work with a book, devices, etc.).

The second group of methods includes: methods of formation of interest in teaching (educational games, teaching discussionsCreation problem situations and etc.); methods of formation of debt and responsibility in teaching (promotion, approval, censure, etc.).

The third group includes various methods of oral, written and machine check of knowledge, skills and skills, as well as methods of self-control for the effectiveness of their own educational and cognitive activity.

Binary and polymeric classifications. The basis of binary and polymeric classifications of training methods is laid two or more general trait. Binary classification of Makhmutov training methods M.I. includes two groups of methods: teaching methods (information and reporting; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-prompting; prompting); Teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive-practical; partial search; search).

Development and education

The effect of heredity and medium is adjusted by upbringing. It is the main force that is able to give society a full-fledged personality. The effectiveness of the educational impact is a targeted, systematic and qualified manual. The weakness of education is that it is based on a person's consciousness and requires his participation, while heredity and environment act unconsciously and subconsciously. This is determined by the role, place, opportunities for education in the formation of a person. The role of the upbringing is estimated in different ways, and the range of these estimates is very wide, on the approval of its complete powerlessness and meaninglessness (with adverse heredity and poor environmental impact) before recognizing the only means of changing human nature. Truth, as usual, is between extremes. The slogan "Education can all!", With which pedagogy repeatedly performed, did not justify himself. Education can be achieved a lot, but it is impossible to completely change the person. In the fate of people, education makes a different contribution - from the most insignificant to the maximum possible.

Education subordinates human development planned target. The purposeful and systematic influence of educators leads to the formation of new, pre-planned conditionally reflex connections, which can not be created any other ways. Education is filling the gaps in the program human Development. One of the most important tasks of properly organized upbringing is to identify the inconsistencies and giving, development in accordance with the individual characteristics of a person, its abilities and opportunities. Special studies have shown that education can ensure the development of certain qualities, only relying on the deposited by nature of the deposit. The upbringing of a young monkey in the same conditions with a child showed that the young monkey, having the same contacts with people, receiving good food and care, nevertheless they do not acquire a single mental quality inherent to person (research N. I. Ladygin-cat). Impacting the development of a person, education itself depends on development, it is constantly based on the achieved level of development. This is the complex dialectic of the relationship between development and education as a goal and funds. Effectiveness of education is determined by the level of human preparedness to the perception of the educational impact due to the influence of heredity and medium. People are amenable to upbringing unenocomy, the range of "fattyness" is very wide - from the complete rejection of educational demands to absolute subordination of the will of the educators. The existing "resistance to upbringing" as opposition to the external force emanating from the educators determines the final result. Therefore, the defining role is played specific situations and the relationship between people in the educational process.

The strength of the educational impact depends on a number of conditions and circumstances. Domestic teacher and psychologist L. S. Vygotsky substantiated the pattern, according to which the goals and methods of education should correspond, firstly, the level of "actual development", the child already reached, and, secondly, the "zone of its nearest development". At the first level, the child performs tasks on its own, on the second - cannot cope with them, and therefore permits the problem with adults. Only that the upbringing is recognized as good, which is ahead of development. The task of education is to create a "zone of the nearest development", which would continue to move in the "zone of actual development". Forms the identity of education, leading the development, which is focused on processes, not yet matured, which are in the formation stage.

In psychology there are various classifications of research methods. Consider the classification, the criterion of which is research task.

1) Task detection and descriptions of psychological facts surveillance, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), method of studying activities (study of documents, content analysis).

2) more complex task studying patterns, that is, the identification of the presence of a steady repeating connection Solves experiment (laboratory and natural).

3) task detecting mechanisms, i.e. causal relationships Psychology solves the forming experiment (transforming experiment, experimental genetic method).

Observation - systematic, targeted and definitely fixed perception of mental phenomena in natural conditions of everyday life. This method is one of the most affordable and widely used in psychology. When conducting observation, it is necessary to observe certain conditions.

1. Before any observation, the goal is formulated: what a mental manifestation will be studied.

2. Depending on the purpose of the study, the object is selected (man of the appropriate gender and age) and the situations in which observation will be monitored.

3. When observed, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the object of the study. To do this, you should first get acquainted with the group where observation will be conducted, adapt in this environment in 2-3 days. Then observed behave relaxed and naturally.

4. In order to preserve natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the work of an object of study, which does not know what is observed.

5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes may affect the objectivity of fixing and data processing. If a positive installation was formed in relation to the object of observation, the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if they fix them, then, most likely, will explain as random. And vice versa, with a negative installation, the researcher may not notice positive sidesAnd to concentrate your attention on negative facts and to interpret the data to explain them as natural and constant.

6. Observation gives objective data if it is carried out sequentially and systematically, i.e. The object of study is observed at least 2-3 times in the same types of activities. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many passing phenomena.

7. It is necessary to develop and master the methods for fixing the data in the protocol. The "photographic" record of all psychological facts, not distorting and without changing them. The protocol sheet is usually divided into two parts. In the first part, observed facts are recorded, and in the second - their possible interpretation (i.e. interpretation).

The observation method has the following positive features:

· Not knowing that he is an object of study, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestation of his psyche is not distorted;

· The researcher can see the person of the observed overall, each fact perceives it as part of it;

· Observation is not limited to age: leading for all activities and human behavior of any age.

At the same time, the observation has a number disadvantages:

· The observed facts are merged with many passing phenomena;

· The researcher occupies an expectant position without being able to interfere with the activities of observation objects. The mental phenomenon may not appear if the corresponding situation does not accidentally occur;

· With the help of observation it is impossible to quickly collect big Material By virtue of two reasons: First, one person needs to be observed repeatedly, secondly, the researcher cannot cause his phenomenon that interests, but should wait when it occurs;

· In the process of re-observation, absolutely identical psychological facts cannot be obtained, and therefore, and check the initially obtained data;

· When observing and processing data, some subjectivity is possible. The observer in the spirit of his expectations can attribute to man unusual thoughts and feelings;

· Without the use of special records, it is difficult to accurately and correctly fix the observed facts. Recording the facts, the researcher fixes them in a descriptive form, which significantly complicates their processing and interpretation. This method is limited to the use of mathematical data processing.

Conversation - method for obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e., in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of the research researcher of the research). The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the following requirements:

1. Preparation and conducting a conversation includes the purpose of the purpose, the choice of material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, brief, concrete, not too common, should not tell a person answer.

2. The researcher teaches questions by heart and asks them to all respondents in a strictly defined order, seeking expanded answers. It is possible to use clarifying issues if the need arises in the course of the conversation.

3. The conversation is carried out individually in a separate, carefully selected room.

4. Before conducting a conversation, you must select an object of study and establish trust relationships with it. To do this, you can first talk to him on the topic of interest to it and only then begin in advance issues. The conversation must be carried out relaxed, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case can not be the character of "ask." It is very important that the researcher will show a person who is interested in conversation with him, listen to his answers.

5. Pre-develop data fixation methods. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, voice recorder). It is allowed to separate the functions of the researcher and the protocolist. The responses of the respondent, its behavior, the emotional manifestations are fixed in detail in the protocol.

Advantagesconversations are:

· The ability to simultaneously explore many parties of human psyche;

· The ability to quickly collect quite large material both about one person and about the group;

· The researcher is more active than in observation, as asks questions;

· The possibility of re-conducting in order to determine the changes (for example, age-related);

· Ability to use at different stages of the study.

Conversation method has limitations:

· Manifestations of subjectivism, since the selection of the material, drawing up issues, entry into contact with the respondent, fixation and interpretation of answers depend on the skills of the researcher;

· age restrictions in applying conversation. The child can not always give a report on his experiences, feelings, explain its preferences and actions, because it only seizes the speech as a means of communication.

Interview - conversation with a standard set of questions. The survey can be performed in oral and writing:

1) Interview -the method of obtaining psychological information using an oral survey;

2) Questioning(Fr. enquête - a list of questions) – receiving information in the form of written responses of respondents to the pre-formulated issues.

Method for analyzing activities. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works etc.

Dignity This method:

· The possibility in a short time to collect quite large actual material both in one person and the group of persons;

· With constant use the ability to get high-quality and quantitative characteristics of the features of the psyche under study;

· The possibility of repeated repetition to find out how natural the fact is natural;

· Since the result of mental activity is embodied in the material product, this subject can evaluate the infinite number of people (expert assessment);

· The material product can be stored for a long time;

· Preservation of the naturalness in manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that it is conducted with it.

disadvantages Method of product analysis:

· It can be used only when the child has already begun to master a certain activity;

· Processing of the data obtained is sometimes extremely difficult because it requires specially developed analysis schemes, which depends on the ability of the researcher to allocate all psychological peculiarities Product received. Then there is a violation of objectivity and the manifestation of subjectivism, for example, when evaluating the degree of originality of the picture.

When studying documents, a special receipt is used, called "Content analysis"(literally - "Content Analysis") . This is a fairly formalized method of analyzing the document when special "units" stand out in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. This method makes sense to apply only in cases where the researcher deals with a large array of information, analyzes numerous texts. In practice, the content analysis in psychology is applied in research in the field of mass communications.

Experiment (from lat. experimentum - Sample, experience) - this is the active intervention of the researcher in the vital activity of the subject in order to create conditions under which any psychological pattern is found.. In psychology distinguish two main types of experiment:

· laboratory experimentit is carried out under specially equipped premises, which ensures particularly strict control of independent and dependent variables;

· natural Experiment -in this case, the test does not know, does not guessthat he participates in the study (the subject performs the usual activities, and the experimenter for him is a familiar person).

For both species there are some general rules: Experimentator systematically manipulates one or more independent variables (This is the reason) and registers the associated changes in the behavior of the object being studied, i.e. Watch out for change dependent variables (This is a consequence). The organization of the experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:

1. An experiment, like all research methods, needs a preliminary setting of the goal and choosing an object.

2. It is necessary to carefully develop a methodology for conducting an experiment, prepare material for research. Material must be manufactured in accurately compliant with the recommendations contained in the methodology.

3. Pre-prepare the conditions in which the study will be conducted.

4. It is necessary to make a predetermination and learn by heart the instructions and description of the procedure for conducting the experiment. And you need to remember that the instruction should be understood by the subject.

5. Before conducting an experiment, you must select the subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with it. The researcher must arrange the test to himself, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, approving gestures. It is impossible to emphasize the unusual, the exclusiveness of the situation, occupy the position of the verifier. It is advisable to give the experiment procedure the nature of ordinary friendly communication. Materials Methods cannot be used to establish contact.

6. On the successes and failures of the test during the experiment, it is necessary to react restrained and evenly, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.

7. The rate of research must comply with the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.

8. The experiment conducted with the child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15-20 minutes, if another time is not provided for by the research methodology. Moreover, than the younger child, the shorter there should be a study.

9. The experiment always assumes a standard procedure, so you cannot make any changes to it, for example, to change the instruction. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and adopted the instructions. It can be repeated 2-3 times unchanged, but it is impossible to explain, if this is not provided for by the research methodology. All subjects of the tasks must be concluded strictly uniformly, with the same intonation, power of voice, without focusing any words, except for special cases.

10. The experiment is usually carried out experimenter and protocol. It is important that the latter is out of sight of the test, but he himself could see him well and hear. In the protocol, he records the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria under study by the research methodology. We emphasize that the speech of children is recorded with the preservation of all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The functions of the protocolist, thus, are to accurately fix the psychological facts, the functions of the experimenter - to conduct a study.

The experiment has a number advantages:

· The active position of the researcher (it does not exist when the subject has a mental phenomenon that he studies. He himself causes it by creating relevant conditions);

· Experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again cause a learned mental phenomenon, which means to check and clarify the initially obtained data;

· Experiment allows you to quickly collect a large actual material;

· Experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for fixing and data processing;

· The method of fixing data is significantly facilitated, since the phenomenon studied is separated from a variety of life circumstances;

· An analysis of the experiment protocol is built in accordance with a sequence specified by the method. Analysis of the obtained facts can be expressed in numerical indicators subjected to quantitative processing.

TO disadvantages The experiment includes the following:

· Experiment requires long and thorough preparation. The accuracy of the data obtained depends on the experimental skill to put a goal, choose the material, to accurately use the instructions, follow the time and sequence of the task, for the features of the test response, as well as in the ability to enter with it in contact, on the knowledge of the methods of statistical processing of the facts received;

· The researcher is included in communication with the subject and may involuntarily affect its behavior. A mental model may affect the facts received;

· The holistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe psyche of the subject is not created;

· When conducting a laboratory experiment, the naturalness in mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.

Forming experiment – method of tracking changes in the human psyche in the process of active exposure to the researcher on the subject. After studying the mechanisms, we are able to simulate the phenomenon and actively control them.

Stages of the forming experiment:

1) standing stage (in it is participating a control and experimental group of subjects);

2) formingstage (only experimental group of subjects participates);

3) controlstage (expert tests and experimental groups participate).

The same research methods are used on the stating and control stages, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages among themselves, on the basis of which drawing conclusions about changes in the characteristics under study as a result of formative influences.

The visual research method is the most important of the methods used in TKED to search for informative features.

Microscopic method - a method for studying material evidence with the help of special devices - microscopes, allowing to obtain increased images of the external structure of objects and their smallest parts, invisible to the naked eye.

The method of study in the refined light is a method for increasing the visibility of object parts when it is illuminated by a directional beam of light with an angle of light drops significantly less than 90 °: optimally 10 ° * 35 °. In TKED, this method is used to identify a minor relief of pressure tracks, tracks from writing devices, damage to the surface layer of paper in the form of raising the fibers, pasted areas that are not in the same plane with the surface of the document, as well as to detect strokes on the background of the paper or among other fragments Images on the difference of their brilliance (mirror reflection). To eliminate the interfering effect of outsiders, observation under reference lighting is carried out in a darkened room.

The study method in the transmitted light (per lumen) is used to detect object parts with different optical density. Such a study is used to detect sections of the document submitted, etching, washing, as well as to study paper structure, watermarks (or milligrants), to read the missed texts, filled, stamped, crossed records, as well as to read texts on the copy paper.

Spectral methods - allow us to study the results of the interaction of the selected narrow range of the light spectrum with a substance or with the material of the object. The radiant energy, passing through the substance (material) or from one medium to another, changes under the action of the object of the object. At the same time, indicators of reflection, absorption, light transmittance change. The dependence of the reflection coefficient (relations reflected from the radiation object to the entire falling flow) from the radiation wavelength is characteristic of any substance. This characteristic can be registered visually, photographically, using electronic and optical equipment.

Color seduction method - reveals the differences in color and in the shades of objects. In the study of documents, it happens that one color object is invisible or weakly distinguish between the surrounding background either among other painted objects. It is possible to strengthen the contrast between them by converting spectral differences in the distinction difference, such a conversion is referred to as color separation).

In TKED, the flowheeling method is used to detect flooded, stubborn, crossed texts, to establish the verification fact by differentiating dyes, strokes having a different degree of spectral absorption. Use this method and to enhance the contrast between the weakly visible records and the background of the document by studying in the range of the spectrum where the strokes has a maximum absorption (determined by the experimental way).

In flowering, it is important to choose the right filter correctly, following the rule of extra color and using the color circle, known to all with school benches.

For example (Fig. 1.1), to enhance the contrast of the blue stroke on paper white color Find an additional color in the opposite circle sector - orange and consider a document through an orange light filter. At the same time, the strokes look with darker and contrast, since the light filter of the additional color passes the maximum of the rays of the part of the light spectrum, which correspond to the maximum absorption of the strokes of the strokes, and paper rays reflects. It is extremely purple and blue to yellow and orange colors.

Fig. 1.1. Interdependence of colors in colors

Research methods in reflected UV and IR rays. These methods for studying documents are based on selective absorption, passing and reflection by the material of the document of the document of affecting electromagnetic radiation in ultraviolet and infrared spectrum ranges (on the different abilities of the stroke material to reflect, absorb and skip these rays).

It is known that UFL occupy the range of spectrum from 10 * 400 nm: the nearby zone of the spectrum (400 - 315 nm), the average (315-225 nm), long (280-10 nm). In the practice of TKED, the UV region of the spectrum from 250 nm to 385 nm is most often used, the selection of the desired zone is provided by UV light filters (UFS-1, ... UFS-4).

Mercut-welded high and ultra-high pressure lamps are used as sources of UFL (Fig. 1.2): in devices of various modifications, as well as lasers generating UV radiation. UV illuminators, OI-18, highlighting special microscopes, for example, MLL-1, lumam and other brands are also widely used.

Fig. 1.2. Photographing diagram in reflected UFLs, where: 1 - UV illuminator;

2 - Document; 3 - UV light filter; 4 - camera lens

The study method in reflected IR rays (ICEL) is based on the ability of some materials of the letter containing carbon substances as components (mascara, graphite pencil, typographic paint, copy paper, machine-visiting tape, electric toner, black ink, inkjet printers) and metals salts absorb Infrared radiation, in contrast to other carbon-free, coloring substances (pastes ballproof handles, ink, stamped paint, etc.). It is used to differentiate monochrome, but different materials in the composition of the letter of materials when identifying the checks and printers, flooded and crushed texts.

Sources of IR radiation (Fig. 1.3) is mainly incandescent lamps and special pulse lamps. Cutting off the IR spectrum is carried out by Filters of KS-17, KS-18, KS-19, X-1, X-2, X-3, which are placed in front of the radiation receiver. To visualize the invisible picture in the infrared range of the spectrum, there are ESOs that display a visible image on the screen, and also provide its photo scope in the "Photographing" mode.

Fig. 1.3. Photographing diagram of a document in reflected ILC, where: 1 - IR illuminator; 2 - Document; 3 - il light filter;

4 - camera lens; 5-eop.

The method of fluorescent analysis is based on the ability of some substances to fluorescence when exposed to UV or blue-green rays in a darkened room.

With fluorescence, the glow almost instantly falls after stopping the excitation.

In accordance with the Stokes Law, the luminescence spectrum is always shifted to the side large lengths Waves compared with the spectrum of exciting radiation (the wavelength of the exciting wave is always shorter than the luminescence wavelength).

Depending on the spectral composition of the excitation radiation, the luminescence may be observed in visible, in the far red and in the near infrared areas of the light spectrum. When exposed to the stroke substance and on the basis of the UV document, the visible luminescence appears, which can be fixed by photographing. To do this, the lens is placed a light filter that transmits the visible rays of the luminescence color (if orange, then OS-12) and the delaying UV rays (see Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4. Scheme of photography of visible luminescence excited by UFL, where: 1 - UV illuminator; 2 - Document; 3 - UV Light filter; 4 - Luminescence light filter, 5- camera

For the excitation of red and IR luminescence in the materials of the documents, a blue-green radiation is used using a SZS-21 light filter that skips blue-green rays. When photographing the luminescence in front of the lens, the shops are placed, delaying blue-green rays and transmitting either red (C / F COP-17 and KS-18 with luminescence in the far-red region), or IR rays (C / F COP 19 and X-ray filters With luminescence in the IR region) (Fig. 1.5). Luminescence can also be fixed using ESA and other more modern technology.

Fig. 1.5. Photographing diagram of red and infrared luminescence, excited SZ Rays, where: 1 -Thero; 2 - Document;

3 - SZ Light filter; 4 - Luminous Filter Filter,

5- camera, 6 - eop

Fluorescent methods are used to identify invisible and low-wing records, traces of etching, flushing, cleaning, adding, sequences of application of intersecting strokes, as well as for differentiation of materials of the letter of one color.

The study method in the high frequency current field. The method is based on obtaining under the action of a high-frequency electrostatic discharge of photographing the surfaces and internal structure of the object. A condenser is used for this purpose, between the plates of which the document and the film (photo paper) is placed. The capacitor is placed in the circuit of the high frequency current generator, when the spark discharge occurs when the corresponding sections of the film appears.

Photographing in the high frequency current field (TVY) allows you to:

Identify downstream strokes and climbing records;

Establish the content of flooded, smeared and crossed texts;

Determine the traces of the replacement of the photo card on the document;

Identify new ones that do not have visible defects, writing machines on relief trails on paper from shock timing machine.

Thus, the physical methods of TKED listed above have one common, combining their feature - they are non-kind, do not destroy the document, do not change its appearance and content. Therefore, in the production of TKED, these methods find priority.

Methods of forensic photo. Special place in TKED occupy photographic methods of research that are not destroying. The advantage of photographic processes to ordinary visual perception is explained by three factors:

1) an extremely wide spectral sensitivity, which allows you to register images not only in the visible part of the light spectrum, but also in UV, IR spectrum, as well as in X-ray rays;

2) the ability to get an optical image with a higher contrast rather than in reality;

3) the ability of phot-resemoring material to accumulate light energy, which makes it possible to obtain an image of normal quality with weak illumination of the shooting object.

The methods of forensic photographs are divided into types: a) large-scale photography with a significant increase; b) strengthening the contrast of a weak image; c) photography in invisible spectrum zones; d) photography of luminescence (visible and invisible).

A large-scale photographing with a significant increase is divided into subspecies: macro and microfotography (up to 20 x and more than 20 hours).

Under the strengthening of contrast photographic means, the methods used to change the ratio of the brightness of the object on the black and white F / material (flowering) or color tones are on color (coloration).

Contrast strengthening methods are divided into three subspecies: enhancing contrast in the shooting process; in the process of manifestation; Ready negative photo image.

Photographing methods in reflected invisible rays of the spectrum are divided into four subspecies: photography in the IR and UV spectrum zones; In X-ray and gamma rays.

Luminescence photography methods: photography of visible luminescence excited by UV and blue-green rays; Photographing of IR luminescence, invisible eye.

Method of wet copy (Fig. 1.6). The basis of this method is the phenomenon of adhesion (adhesion) or diffusion on the contact material, moistened by the simplest organic solvent - water.

The method of wet copying detects differences in the letter of the letter according to the degree of copies of the wet sticky surface. Upon contact with the moistened surface of the unfixed photo paper part of the coloring substances of some of the materials of the letter sticks to it, leaving on this new carrier mirror strokes of written signs, other images.

The method is used to identify bombarded, stamped, curved texts, setting the checks, determine the sequence of the intersecting strokes (documents details).

Fig. 1.6. Waste copying pattern, where: 1 is a fixed photographic paper; 2 - a layer of organic solvent - water; 3 - strokes of strokes based on the document; 4 - the basis of the document (paper, etc.); 5 - stroke strokes, opened on a fixed photo paper

To copy water-soluble coloring substances, a gelatin layer of a fixed photo material (sometimes filtering paper) is used to copy water-soluble water. The photo paper is pre-treated with non-active light in fixing, washed thoroughly in running water and dried. The surface of the segment of the photographic paper is moisturized with water for 30-60 seconds. The resulting mirror copy is photographed on the desired scale.

Adsorption and luminescent method (ALM). The method is based on an increase in the intensity of the luminescence of coloring substances in the adsorption of them treated with an organic solvent with a polymer film. ALM is used to differentiate the materials of the letter in order to establish the preparations, identifying flooded, crossed, mashed texts, determining the sequence of the intersecting strokes.

Copying the strokes is made by PVC film with a solvent (dimethylformamide, cyclohexanone, tetrahydrofuran, etc.) The imprint is irradiated with ultraviolet light and study its luminescence in a darkened room.

The method is most effective for differentiating dyes close to color. When determining the sequence of crossing the intersecting strokes, observing and fixing the luminescence of the heated strokes in the visible and in the far-red spectrum zones is effective.

It is recommended to use a PVC film of white color for white products. PVC film is dissolved in many organic solvents (cyclohexanone, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, ethyl alcohol). Solvents actively act on many letter materials.

1-3 drops of solvent are applied to the film in advance of the selected size, they are evenly distributed over the surface for 4-10 seconds, so that the solvent is absorbed, and then the film is driven into dense contact with the studied area of \u200b\u200bthe document for 1-3 seconds.

The contact time and pressure force depend on the solubility of the test substance, solved the task and on the properties of the paper paper, so they are selected experimentally. About the copy ability of the stroke substance are judged by the results of experiments, i.e. preliminary tests on peripheral sections of the document. It should be borne in mind that with the wrong time-long-lasting contact, it is possible to peel the surface of the paper paper, its damage. In addition, in any case, ALM leads to irreversible changes in document props of the document: decreases the amount of coloring substance, the paper structure in the contact site changes.

Diffuse-copy method (DKM). The basis of this method is the phenomenon of diffusion - the surface penetration of molecules and the ions of the studied substance into the moistened either the dry gelatin layer of the unknown black and white (necological) photographic paper (the phenomenon was open and experimentally tested in 1903-1907).

When identifying invisible and weakly, texts are often managed to achieve good results by applying highly sensitive DKM. The technology of DKM will use the property of some organic water-soluble dyes to change when exposed to the photoemulsion layer its initial light sensitivity (sensitization).

As is known, colorless halogen silver, which is part of a photographic emulsion, has a property to collapse with the formation of black granular metallic silver under the action of light and chemical reducing agents contained in manifested solutions. At the same time, only short-wave radiation of the blue-violet region of the spectrum is valid for the emulsion. The sensitivity of the unsensitized photographic layer to short-wave synefiolet radiation is the natural photosensitivity of the photo material.

Upon contact, the studied document with a moistened gelatin photoemulsion layer of dye particles that penetrate the diffusion in the photoemulsia, cause a change in the photosensitivity of the photographic material in the areas of their introduction. In some cases, the dye causes an increase in the sensitivity of the photoemulsion to the radiation of the long-wavelength part of the spectrum (yellow, orange, the red rays, to which the non-densitated photographic material is not clear): The effect is called optical sensitization. In other cases, under the influence of the dye, the photoemult becomes insensitive or very little sensitive to short-wave blue-violet radiation, to which the photo material has a natural sensitivity: the phenomenon is called desessibization. In addition, the dyes of the letter materials in one way or another increase the photographic veil, increasing the ability of halogen silver to collapse under the action of the developer without the preliminary illumination of the photographic layer.

Depending on the concentration of the dye, diffusing into the emulsion, is observed either sensitizing or a desensitizing effect. Typically, the photoemulsion sensitization causes a small amount of dye, i.e. When the strokes of the text to be detected almost invisible or underdeveloped. The dye in a higher concentration causes the reverse, desensitizing effect.

The action of the dye to the photosensitive photographic layer largely depends on the properties of the photographic emulsion. Since the essence of the method is to change the natural sensitivity under the action of dyes, only unsensitized photographic (photo paper) is suitable for diffuse copying.

The use of DKM to identify invisible and weak-eyed texts, as well as records performed by water-soluble dyes and then smeared, filled with dye insoluble in water, consists in a sequential execution in the photo laboratory in the non-active red light of the following actions (Fig. 1.7):

The photo material is swollen in water (preferably distilled) to swelling of the gelatin photoemulsion layer (from 1 to 20 minutes);

Excess water from the emulsion layer is removed by shaking the photographic material (applying filter paper without pressing it, since the fibers can stick to the photoemulsion when the diffusion of the dye);

The swollen emulsion layer is applied to the surface of the document, on the plot of which is to identify the text or printing (the contact time is determined experimentally);

Photographic materials with diffusted dye molecules placed in a black and white contrasting developer in a cuvette under the lens of the photo ventilator, and is evolving through the CS-2 or OS-18 or ZHS-8: red, orange or yellow light until the appearance of a contrast images (or veils);

The resulting mirror image is reproduced and direct image of the identified details of the document is printed.

Fig. 1.7. DCM scheme, where:

1 - Diffusion of strokes painting in emulsion

layer of photographic paper:

2 - Towing Towers:

3 - document substrate:

4 - Source of non -actic lighting:

5.8 - source of filtered light (C / F OS. COP FS)

6 - photoemulsion layer of photographic paper with hidden image

7 - cuvette with developer;

9 - photoemulsion layer of photographic paper with visible image:

10 - Cuvette with fixing mortar

Due to the high sensitivity of DKM, its use often gives good results in cases where the dye in the strokes is almost absent. At the same time, copying can be produced repeatedly with the same success, since the penetration into the photoemulsion layer of even an insignificant amount of the dye causes a noticeable effect.

DKM is widely used to identify fastened, cleaned, washed texts, "pale" printed prints of seals and stamps, texts, lacquered by a graphite pencil, black ink, as well as underdeveloped texts on dark substrates.

The traditional DKM technique involves using a moistened photo material, thereby not the danger of damage to some details or fragments of the document or its significant change, damage. The use of modifications of DKM avoids this disadvantage.

Modification number 1: "Dry" DKM. The details of the document with an inactive light imposes a segment of dry unknown glossy photobumagues with an emulsion layer to the object. The photo paper is tightly pressed to the document and for 2-7 minutes they carry out intensive friction of its backside by the flap of wool tissue to obtain an electrostatic charge that promotes the diffusion of the dye into the photoemulsion layer. The subsequent processing of the photo material is made in accordance with the traditional method of DKM outlined above.

Modification number 2: "Dactyloscopic" DKM. On the studied fragment of the document with a weak-visual record, the segment of a transparent dactylocopic film is imposed and it is tightly pressed, the duration of the contact is 15-30 seconds. Then, in relation to the film applies traditional technology DKM: With dutboxes on the photo paper, its illumination in the developer before the appearance of strokes, etc.