Graphic work in the Russian language. The concept of graphics

The writing system includes a historically established set of descriptive signs, the rules for their use, therefore, two sections are distinguished in the science of writing - graphics and spelling.

Graphics- describes the composition of the signs used in this letter, their origin, style and possible variants. In modern writing, graphemes of different nature and purpose are used, which were created over thousands of years.

The main descriptive characters in phonographic writing are letters. The set of letters arranged in a certain order, used to convey a given language in writing, is called the alphabet. Letters are signs of phonemes. Along with letters, syllabograms are often used - signs of syllables. Such, for example, are the Russian graphemes e, e, u, i after a vowel, after dividing b, b. In syllabographic writing (Indian, Ethiopian, Japanese), such graphemes are the main ones.

Sometimes we also use morphemograms - signs of morphemes. For example:%, №, §.

Modern writing cannot do without the widespread use of logograms (ideograms). Such, for example, are numbers and various scientific signs and symbols.

Sometimes we also resort to pictography (i.e. a pictogram). These include, for example, drawings on the signboards of ateliers, shops, workshops, and some road signs.

A special group is punctuation marks. For a long time, letters are gradually being used to denote large and small phrases. In the VIII - IX centuries, other punctuation marks also appear. Only from the XII century, the point is fixed in its modern meaning. The emergence of typography gave rise to an urgent need to streamline the system of punctuation marks.

Nowadays, in the Latinized and Russified (Cyrillic) writing system, ten punctuation marks are used: six of them reflect the articulation of speech and highlight the elements of the statement (period, comma, ;, :, -, brackets), four characters (?, !, "", ... ) reflect the articulation and emotional-semantic nature of the statement. Spaces, paragraphs, capital letters (as an indicator of the beginning of a sentence) adjoin these signs.

For complete mastery of the literary language, it is necessary to know and observe the language norms; observe spelling rules; pronunciation, lexical and grammatical norms.

Spelling is a historically established system of rules for practical writing. It establishes the uniformity of the ways of transmitting speech and its basic units in writing.

Spelling is the costume that language is in, and it can be comfortable or uncomfortable.

Russian spelling, as a system of rules, is divided into five sections:

1. The rule for the transmission of sounds (phonemes) by letters as part of words and morphemes.
2. The rule about fused, semi-fused (hyphenated) and separate spellings of words.
3. The rule for the use of uppercase (large) and lowercase (small) letters.
4. The rule of transferring words from one line to another.
5. Rule of graphic abbreviation of words.

Each of these sections is a system of rules that have certain principles.

There are several principles of spelling:

1. The phonetic principle requires that all actually pronounced sounds be reflected in the letter. In its pure form, phonetic writing (transcription) is used only in highly specialized linguistic fields.

However, the phonetic principle can play an important role. So, in the Serbo-Croatian language and writing, phonetic spellings are the main ones. For example: vrabats - sparrow pl. wraps, bodybeats, sign. In Belarusian writing, this principle is maintained when writing vowels: house - ladies, forest - lyasy, sister - syastry.

In our spelling, according to the phonetic principle, for example, prefixes with “z” are written: comfortable, free, break, drink.

1. According to the phonetic principle, the same phoneme is transmitted by the same letter in any position, regardless of the specific sound embodiment: bob - bobok, forest - forester - arborist, hour - hour - watchmaker. This is the basic principle of Russian spelling.

The morphological principle proceeds from the fact that each morpheme should be written the same in all positions. At first glance, it may seem that this principle is the leading one in Russian spelling; morphological spelling coincides with phonetic: house - house - brownie, garden - garden - gardener. In fact, many morphemes in different signs are written far differently: go - go - you will go, knead - mnu - mnesh, etc.

39Main differences between Russian and English.

Graphics is a science that studies and describes the relationship between letters and phonemes. A set of graphic signs arranged in a certain order - letters that are used when writing in a particular language, is called alphabetically.

Sometimes the term "graphics" is given a broader meaning. Then graphics is understood as the totality of all descriptive means of a particular letter. In this case, the following non-alphabetic graphic means of written speech are included in the graphics: punctuation marks, apostrophe ( Joan of Arc), paragraph signs, spaces between words, chapters, paragraphs, as well as italics, spacing, underlining, the difference between letters and words by color.

Russian language around 14-15 centuries. stood out as a separate (independent) language from the East Slavic linguistic unity, which, in turn, stood out from the Proto-Slavic language, which was spoken by our ancestors until about the 7th century AD. The Proto-Slavic language had only an oral form, the ancient Slavs did not have their own written language. In addition, the ancient Slavs were pagans. In 988, during the reign of Prince Vladimir - the Red Sun, the process of adopting Christianity in Russia was begun, which was necessary to strengthen the grand ducal power and contributed to strengthening the international authority of Russia. For the spread of Christianity in Russia, it was necessary to translate the Greek liturgical books into the Slavic language. And since the ancient Slavs did not have their own written language, it was first necessary to create a Slavic alphabet, an alphabet whose letters would reflect the phonetic system of the language of our ancestors. The Greek missionaries brothers Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius were engaged in compiling the Slavic alphabet and translating the Greek liturgical books into the Slavic language. After the name of one of them, the Slavic alphabet was called "Cyrillic". Thus, in Bulgaria at the end of the 9th century, the Cyrillic alphabet was compiled on the basis of the Greek alphabet, on the basis of which the Bulgarian, Old Russian and Serbian letters developed.

Since the end of the 10th century, this alphabet has been widely used in Russia. Later, the Old Russian language broke up into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, and all three peoples use alphabets based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

When compiling the Cyrillic alphabet, as already shown, the letters of the Greek script were used, which, in turn, was created on the basis of the Phoenician alphabet (see Table 1).

Table 1

The Cyrillic alphabet was based on Greek uncial writing (uncial writing - writing in large large letters, was used mainly in early sacred texts). The Cyrillic alphabet consisted of 43 letters, of which only 24 letters (this is the entire Greek alphabet) were borrowed from the Greek alphabet. Where did the other 19 letters come from? The fact is that in the Greek language there were not many sounds available in the Slavic language, and, consequently, there were no letters denoting these sounds. Therefore, in relation to the special sound composition of the Old Slavonic language, 19 new ones were introduced into Cyrillic, partially borrowed from other alphabets ( w, c- from the Phoenician alphabet), and partially and specially created for this purpose letters (see table 2).

Table 2.

Cyrillic

1) In the Old Church Slavonic language, letters Kommersant And b denoted sounds: Kommersant- a dull vowel sound. close to [o], but b- a short vowel close to [e]. With the disappearance of weak voiceless vowels, letters Kommersant And b received a different meaning.

2) The letters and (yus large and yus small), as well as (their iotized variants) denoted Slavic nasal vowels, which later disappeared from the language, and with them the letters.

3) The disadvantages of the Cyrillic alphabet include the fact that it included seven Greek letters, which were already initially unnecessary for transmitting the sounds of the Slavic language:

a) a letter ω (omega) denoted in the Greek letter a long sound [o], in contrast to the short [o], which was indicated by the letter about. But since the Russian language does not know the longitude and brevity of class letters, in Russian writing these letters coincided in sound value.

b) Letters ξ ( xi) and ψ (psi) in the Greek letter denoted the sound combinations [ks] and [ps], which in the Russian letter were transmitted by the combination of the letters “ks” and “ps”.

c) Letter Θ (fita) denoted in the Greek letter a sound that is absent in the Russian language, and gradually the letters Θ And F coincided in sound value and the letter Θ disappeared.

d) Letter Ζ (earth) in the Greek letter denoted the sound [dz], the letter Ѕ (green) was absent in the Greek alphabet and was introduced into the Cyrillic alphabet to convey the Slavic sound [з]. In Russian, letters Ζ And Ѕ coincided in sound value, and one became superfluous.

e) To convey the sound [and] there were three letters: І (And), H(similar) and V(Izhitsa). Remained H, which has changed into AND, and the letter Ν (our) changed into H.

f) Over time, the letter denoting the combination [ye] was lost, and the letter began to perform its function Є , transformed into E. After that, there was a need for the appearance of a letter that would convey the sound [e] without the preceding iota. This is how the letter E(was legalized by Peter I).

g) In the 18th century, 2 more letters were introduced into the Russian alphabet: the letter th was introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735, the letter Yo first applied in 1797 by N. M. Karamzin.

In addition, the Cyrillic alphabet consisted only of capital letters of a single font. In 1710, Peter I introduced for the first time two types of letters - uppercase and lowercase.

The modern Russian alphabet has 33 letters (10 vowels, 21 consonants, ъ, ь). In the process of developing our writing, the names of the letters also changed. The old Cyrillic names (az, beeches, lead, dobro, verb) were eliminated in the 18th century and the names “a”, “be”, “ve” and so on were adopted instead. The Romans gave these names to letters. Borrowing the Greek alphabet, they abandoned the long Greek names: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and instead introduced their own, trying to call the letters as short as possible. The old names of Russian letters were used along with the new ones also in the 19th - early 20th centuries. Now they remain only in stable expressions: start with the basics, stand firm.

A different writing system, as well as their style; a system of relationships between graphemes and the phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words they designate;

2) a section of linguistics that studies these relationships.

The concept of "graphics" is usually used in relation to the sound-letter type of writing, in which, in addition to graphics, two more sides are distinguished - the alphabet and spelling. The main means of graphics here are graphemes (letters), as well as punctuation marks. In addition, the accent mark, various methods of abbreviating words, spaces between words, uppercase or lowercase letters, indents (see Paragraph), all kinds of underlining, and in printed reproduction of text - font highlights (for example, italics) are used. In a special form of writing - transcription - other graphic signs (softness, longitude, brevity, and so on) can be used.

In the modern world, the most common writing systems are based on the Latin alphabet (see Latin script), Cyrillic and Arabic script. The degree of perfection of the graphic system is determined by how accurate the correspondence between the systems of graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of a particular language is. There is no ideal graphics in which each grapheme (letter) would convey only one phoneme. Relatively economical (in terms of the ratio of the number of letters and phonemes) are graphic writing systems that are a continuation of the Cyrillic alphabet. When the Slavic alphabets (Cyrillic and Glagolitic) were invented, the Greek alphabet was specially redesigned in order to maximally correspond to the phonemic composition of the Slavic languages. Of the modern graphics systems, which are the development of the Cyrillic alphabet, one of the most advanced is Russian. Most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unambiguous; in it, 33 letters are used to designate 41 [according to the Leningrad (Petersburg) phonological school] phonemes. The alphabets for many peoples of the former USSR, created on the basis of Russian, are quite economical.

In many modern writing systems based on the Latin alphabet, the discrepancy between the number of graphemes (letters) and phonemes is quite large - 23 Latin letters (25 in late Latin) are used to represent from 36 to 46 (for example, in English) phonemes. This is explained by the fact that historically the Latin alphabet was adapted (without its fundamental changes) to the languages ​​​​that adopted it. The gap in the ratio of graphemes (letters) and phonemes also increased due to the phonetic changes that took place in the languages, if their spelling remained traditional. As an additional means of expressing phonemes, letter combinations (complex graphemes) are used: digraphs (for example, English ck for [k], German ch for [h], Polish sz for [s]), trigraphs (for example, English oeu for), polygraphs ( English augh for [:e]). So, in English there are 118 such graphemes; together with monographs (of type m for [m]) it has a total of 144 graphemes. Some graphic systems introduced additional letters (for example, French ç, Polish ł), letters with superscripts (Czech š, č, z, German ä, ö, ü).

The graphics of many modern languages, according to the way they are reproduced and according to the pattern of letters, are usually divided into written and printed. For example, the modern styles of the letters of the written graphics of the Russian language were formed on the basis of the styles of the letters of the Old Russian script. The foundations of the graphics of the modern Russian printed type were laid by the reform of Peter I (see Reforms of the alphabet and spelling), who introduced civil type for printing books.

Lit .: Baudouin de Courtenay I. A. On the relationship of Russian writing to the Russian language. SPb., 1912; Gvozdev A.N. Fundamentals of Russian spelling // Gvozdev A.N. Selected works on spelling and phonetics. M., 1963; Balinskaya V. I. Graphics of the modern English language. M., 1964; Vachek G. Written language. General problems and problems of English. The Hague; R., 1973; Amirova T. A. On the history and theory of graphemics. M., 1977 (bibl.); she is. Functional relationship between written and spoken language. M., 1985; Shcherba L. V. Theory of Russian writing. L., 1983; New trends in graphemics and orthography. N.Y., 1986; Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987 (bibl.); Derrida G. De la grammatologie. . R., 1997.

GRAPHIC WORK

in teaching, visual design by the teacher and students. information: a simplified sketch of the details of the objects under study, their symbol; drawing up diagrams, graphs, cartograms, nomograms, decomp. tables, etc.; graphic-analytical data processing; signaling marks and arrangement of text fragments. G.'s purpose r. teacher - to give students a visible support in understanding what is being demonstrated and verbally stated, as well as to contribute to the rationalization of their cognition. activities. G.'s purpose r. students - activate uch. by making your own, for example. mnemonic, methods of work. G. r. - , in contrast to a strictly standardized account. work, according to the drawing program or other technical. disciplines.

The basis of G. p. is conditional, schematic. graphics, which conveys the principle of the device or functioning of the object under study and is focused on the transfer of relationships between facts, phenomena, objects, the disclosure of spatio-temporal relationships, causal, functional dependencies, etc. The possibilities are schematic. graphics led to its broad in various areas of human activity, primarily in the field of nature. Sciences.

The combination in the schematic graphics of two principles - abstract-logical and visual-figurative led to its use in accounting. process. Uch. material, including non-pictorial (fragments of text, figures, etc.), but graphically organized, orderly placed on a visible plane, is perceived as a whole and its parts and in their interconnections. Using GR, the teacher introduces the audience not only to a certain amount of information, but also to the way they are streamlined and systematized. Following the implementation of G. p. students, the teacher can timely evaluate the effectiveness of the organization of their teaching. activities, the degree of clarity and intelligibility of their explanations.

G. r. contributes to a more durable preservation in the visual memory of "reference traces" (V. F. Shatalov) - from the color and shape of the graphic. elements, their location, orientation, magnitude, etc., - laying auxiliary. basis for reproducing what has been learned. G. r. in the learning process, it not only helps to solve the problems of visual display, but also contributes to the rational organization, systematization of knowledge, instills in students a harmonious design of the material, and prepares them for independent learning. intellectual labor. Sometimes G. r. allows you to detect an error made in measurement, calculation, etc., not noticed in conventional digital recording.

G.'s character r. varies depending on the subject. For precise and technical The sciences are characterized by the construction of graphs that reflect functional relationships and dependencies: when teaching physics, G. p. illustrates the principles of devices and machines; in chemistry lessons displays the transition of quantities, changes into qualitative ones. The idea of ​​a graphic expression of functions and structural relationships, given in the lessons of physics, mathematics, drawing, can be fixed in other classes. In the subjects of the humanitarian cycle, synchronistic. tables, cartograms and diagrams that help students develop the ability to consider social phenomena in their development and interdependence.

When performing G. r. It must be taken into account that all elements are schematic. graphics (shape, color, size, location, etc.) carry a certain semantic load and, due to decomp. reasons can be interpreted differently by you students. Therefore, in order to avoid distortion information, choosing cements schematically. graphics, one should strive to ensure that they, if possible, correspond to the signs, characteristic features of graphically designated objects.

G. r. implies obligation. combination with other teaching aids and method. tricks.

Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia. - M: "Great Russian Encyclopedia". Ed. V. G. Panova. 1993 .

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GRAPHICS AND SPELLING(from the Greek orthos "correct" and grafo "I write"). Graphics - a set of signs used in a given writing system, along with rules that establish a correspondence between signs (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes); spelling is a system of rules that prescribe the choice of one of the spelling options provided by the graphics of a given language, as well as a branch of the science of language that deals with spelling norms The term "graphics" is close in meaning to the term "writing" (but differs somewhat in its use ). On the other hand, the term "spelling" is sometimes used in an extended sense to include graphics, such as when talking about spelling reforms. In the same broad sense, the term "writing" can be used.

Writing is a way of fixing the language with descriptive signs for the purpose of communication between people in case of impossibility of their direct communication. With the advent of writing, the language had two forms of existence - oral speech (sounding, accessible to hearing) and written speech (available to sight). It is impossible to imagine our world without writing. Newspapers, magazines, books that we read; the letters we write are all our writing and our life. It is hard to imagine that once there was no written language and people could only communicate through direct contact. If they were far from each other, then communication ceased. In R. Kipling's fairy tale How was the first letter written? a little girl (the action takes place in prehistoric times) suddenly realized how good it would be if she could tell her mother, who was very far from her, that her father had broken a spear and he needed another, the very one that was in their cave. She tried to express all this in a picture scrawled on the bark. It was the first letter, although it was very imperfect: the mother did not understand the girl at all, and because of this, a lot of trouble came out.

It was the need for communication at a distance that led to the emergence of writing, the appearance of which significantly expanded the circle of our communication, because writing unites people not only in space, but also in time. 21st century man can learn about how people lived in ancient Egypt; thanks to the finds of birch bark letters, we got acquainted with the concerns of the Novgorodians who lived in the 11th-15th centuries. The cultural and historical role of writing is enormous. Without writing, it was extremely difficult for people to pass on their experience, their thoughts and feelings to other generations, develop science, and create fiction. The emergence of writing is an important moment in the history and culture of any nation.

Our writing, like all European writing systems, is sound-letter. It is called so because its main units - letters - correspond with the units of the sound (phonetic) system of the language, and not directly with words or their significant parts (morphemes), as is the case in hieroglyphic writing. For example, the word for “sun” is transmitted in Russian with six letter characters, and in Chinese with one hieroglyph.

To understand the structure of our writing, we must first understand its relationship with the units of the sound system of the language. What sound units are transmitted by letters in Russian writing? The first answer that suggests itself is sounds. And this assumption is confirmed by the following examples: ball, throne, waves, fight, culture, tornado, top, fog. However, other examples cast doubt on this answer. How to deal with words b e gu, pl I sat, sa d , lo well ka, mid astier, pos d but? After all, we are actually talking b And gu, pl And sat, sa T , lo w ka, SCH but camping tie, on h n but . Maybe the letter conveys no sound at all? It is clear, at least, that the sound is not always denoted by a letter in Russian letters. The clue must be sought in the sound system of the Russian language.

The sound system of the Russian language.

How many sounds are there in Russian? This question cannot be answered precisely. The better a person's hearing, the more different shades of sound he will hear. And if you use instruments, it is clear that the more accurate the instrument, the more different sounds it will detect. However, one can say for sure how many basic, independent sounds are in the language, i.e. which can be used to distinguish between words. Linguists call such semantic sounds phonemes.

Russian has five vowel phonemes ( but, about, uh, And, at) and 34 consonants. How were they counted? It's very simple: if there are words that differ only in two sounds, then these sounds are semantic distinguishers, phonemes. For example, words catfish And myself differ only in vowels about And but. They are different phonemes. Words there And myself differ in consonant phonemes from And T etc.

But in the composition of words, sounds undergo changes. What does it mean? What are they compared to? In the word pain pronounced sound under stress about. Without stress in the same root, the sound is just as clearly pronounced but: b but fly. The phonetic position has changed: the stressed syllable became unstressed - and instead of one sound, another sound appeared, instead of about – but. And such a change, such an alternation of sounds always happens, no matter what word we take ( from about eh – from but pour, st about l – st but la, in about l – in but la). After soft consonants, stressed sounds but, about, uh in an unstressed position alternate with And (etc I mo - pr And mine, m I co - m And sleep, l yo gky - l And gko, l yo g - l And gla, t yo many - t And crumple, with e m - with And shit etc.). Due to this change of sounds, four sound units that differ under stress ( but, about, uh, And), without stress cease to differ, coincide in one sound And.

The alternation of sounds under the influence of position also occurs with consonants. It is also subject to strict phonetic laws. For example, at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, paired voiced consonants change to voiceless: lo b ik-lo P, moro h s - moro from; layer in a - slo f, how h it - how much from co, table b ik - table P tsy... Under the influence of the position in the word - in the position before the sound c- sound T changes to c: about T ec - about c tsy, and in some positions - to zero sound: sad T it - sad.

Phonetic positions, in which sounds cease to be distinguished, are called weak positions, in contrast to strong positions, in which sounds are distinguished. For vowels, the strong position is under stress. Weak position for vowels but, about, uh, And- no accent. Such different, dissimilar sounds about, but, And. But the change of these sounds is caused by a phonetic position, and not by the need to distinguish between meanings, which means that in its function it is one and the same unit - a phoneme.

Russian graphics.

How does our writing convey the sound composition of words? How many letters are necessary and at the same time sufficient to convey all the subtleties of the language? This number is different in every language. Previously, it was thought that it was ideal for one letter to correspond to one sound, moreover, always the same letter. The Russian linguist N.F. Yakovlev proved that there should not be more letters in a language than there are basic, independent sounds.

In Russian, as we have seen, there are five vowel phonemes and 34 consonants. In total, there are 39 distinguishing sounds. And there are 33 letters in the alphabet. What explains this “shortage”? It turns out that you can "save" the number of letters. Yakovlev calculated the formula for constructing the most economical alphabet in terms of the number of letters. He showed that if there are pairs of consonants in a language that differ in the same feature (for example, hardness - softness), then each pair can be denoted by the same letter, and an additional feature can be transmitted using the adjacent, next letter. The Russian alphabet prompted him to this idea. In Russian writing, consonants paired in hardness-softness are transmitted by the same letter: for [ from] And [ from"] - one letter - from , for [ m] And [ m"] - one letter m etc. In total, there are 12 such pairs, differing only in hardness-softness, in the Russian language. Hence, instead of 24 letters, our letter uses 12 letters to convey these consonants.

But how do we distinguish a hard consonant from a soft one? Why, when reading, do we not confuse when to pronounce soft and when hard? Because the next letter indicates the hardness-softness of the consonant - the neighbor on the right. Letter pairs serve as such indicators of softness-hardness of the preceding consonant. but – I , about – yo , at – Yu , uh – e , s – And (cf. small-crumpled, they say-a piece of chalk, onion-Luke, Sir-ser, bald-fox). What if there is no vowel after the consonant? Then the “softening” role is played by the letter soft sign ( b ), which by itself does not denote any sound, but conveys the softness of the preceding consonant. So, it took 12 consonants less (12 letters were saved), but we had to introduce a soft sign plus five more letters for vowels, so that they denote not only the vowel phoneme, but also the softness of the preceding consonant.

This principle of designation of hard-soft consonants is conditionally called syllabic.

The syllabic principle also determines the transfer of the phoneme j("iot"). How are the two words different? wolves And Christmas trees- not literally, but sounds? This can be seen from the transcription: [wolf "and],. These words differ in distinguishing sounds (phonemes) in And j. Phoneme j has its own letter th , but this letter is used to convey j only after word-final vowels and before consonants ( lei, watering can), and before vowels the letter th not used: we do not write apple, southern, jozhik etc., but we write an Apple, southern, Hedgehog). So the letters I , Yu , yo , e not only vowels + softness of the preceding consonant are transmitted: “in combination” they do one more job - they convey combinations j+ but, j+at, j+ about, j+ uh. In this case, one letter corresponds to a combination of sounds.

The syllabic principle is a striking feature of Russian graphics. It developed spontaneously, in the process of the development of the Russian language, and turned out to be very convenient. It not only allows you to get by with fewer letters, but also saves paper. After all, if there were no double set of letters for vowels, and the softness of consonants would always be indicated by a soft sign (for example, thiotya, lublue- instead of aunt, love), then the words would be much longer in writing.

So far, we have been talking about the use of letters, regardless of what words they are part of, when the choice of a letter is determined only by the environment of the transmitted sounds, the sound context. Such rules are called graphic rules as opposed to spelling rules in the narrow sense of the word. About them and will be discussed further.

Russian spelling.

Now let's move on to the rules of another type, designed to convey sounds in writing in weak positions, i.e. in those in which two or more phonemes coincide in one sound. In order to correctly convey such a sound, you must first of all "free" it from the influence of the position, and to do this, correlate it with the sound in a strong position (in the same significant part of the word), and then select the desired letter. This is exactly what we did at school when we tested "dubious sounds."

The secret of Russian spelling turns out to be simple: the letter does not convey the changes in sounds that occur under the influence of the position. Sounds in weak positions are indicated in the same way as if they were in a strong position. This is not a whim, but the principle of our spelling. Our spelling is reasonable, it refuses to convey random, due to phonetic position.

It turns out that our spelling is not a heap of many different rules. There is one general rule applicable in the most different cases at first glance: we write letters according to the same rule about And w in the word l about woo w ka(we check both letters by the position of distinguishing sounds: l about vit, fishing w ek). By the same rule, we write the letter from in place of the sound h] at the beginning of a word from quit(examination: from tear), and the letter d to denote [ c] in the word molo d ca (check: molo d ec), and the letter d in place of the position of the sound in the word that “missed” on demand poses d but(examination: opoz d at).

But it is necessary to check - to correlate with a strong position - not only the sounds “injured” from the position, but also those sounds of weak positions that have not changed in their sound: the unstressed vowel needs to be checked but in the word tr but wa(not to write a letter about ), consonant f in the word scale f (not to write a letter at the end of a word in ).

So, in the spelling rules, the choice of a letter for a sound in a weak position is determined by what sound it alternates with in a strong position.

And what is this unit that we convey with a letter? Now we know that the sounds whose change is caused by a phonetic position form one and the same sound unit - a phoneme. We convey it in writing, no matter what sound it is presented in a weak position. We always designate a phoneme by its strong position. Therefore, the main principle of our orthography - the principle of ignoring positional alternations of sounds in writing - is called phonemic, or phonemic. This is a very handy principle. It works when writing both vowels and consonants, and in all parts of the word - not only in roots, but also in suffixes and endings. It provides a uniform transmission of morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of a language), and this helps us to easily recognize words when reading.

Why do we still often find it difficult what letter to write? There are several reasons. First of all, the language does not always have a word in which the sound being tested would correspond to a sound in a strong position. Then you have to remember which letter to write, for example, in words about laziness, to but empty, vit I sz, uh tazh, se from tra, ve h de. In addition, in our spelling there are deviations from the main principle. For example, at the root - height/growth- occurs only under stress about, and without stress we write the letter about (R about if, hydrogen about if), then but : R but style, exp but whelping, prod but become. Same with the root zor/zar-: write h but rya, h but rnitsa, although under stress about: h about ri, h about rka. And at the root - melt- on the contrary, it is written under stress only but – pl but vat, without stress - about : swimmer. Such spellings, which contradict the main principle of our orthography, are called conditional or traditional; as a rule, they reflect the facts of the history of the Russian language.

We examined the basic principles of the rules for the literal transmission of the sound composition of words. In addition to these rules, spelling in the broad sense of the word includes the rules for continuous and hyphenated spelling, as well as the rules for using uppercase and lowercase letters. A collection of rules for the use of punctuation marks is called punctuation. These rules have their own laws and their own scope - not a word, but a sentence and a text. The name itself - "punctuation marks" - suggests that our writing takes care of "stammers" in the perception and pronunciation of the text. “Stuttering” when reading about punctuation marks, our eye gives a signal to the voice to make stops - pauses, to highlight some parts of the sentence with intonation. And this helps the listener to understand what we read aloud. Punctuation separates and highlights certain syntactic units in the text.

From the history of Russian graphics and spelling.

The basis of modern Russian writing is the Cyrillic alphabet - an alphabet compiled in 863 (this year is considered the date of birth of Slavic writing) by the Greek philosopher and the first Slavic educator Cyril (Konstantin) to translate Greek liturgical books into Slavonic. Thus, the history of writing in Russia is inextricably linked with the history of Christianity, the millennium of which was celebrated in 1988. The Cyrillic alphabet was based on the Greek alphabet in its “ceremonial” form (the so-called charter), which was supplemented with missing letters to convey phonemes that are absent in Greek; including the letters

Books written on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet came to Russia at the end of the 10th century, i.e. almost one hundred and fifty years after the first translations of Cyril and his brother Methodius. These books, brought from Bulgaria, were written not in Old Russian, but in Old Slavonic, which was understandable in that era throughout the Slavic world.

It is no coincidence that the outstanding Russian and Polish linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay called the Russian letter "a dress from someone else's shoulder." Naturally, this dress had to be customized, sutured in some places.

Some letters of the Old Slavonic script turned out to be superfluous for the Old Russian language. So, the Old Russian language has already lost the nasal vowels transmitted by the so-called yus - big and small, since the nasal vowels coincided in pronunciation with the sounds indicated in the letter by letters at, Yu, I, the letters large and small yus turned out to be unnecessary, and they gradually ceased to be written. Some letters of the Old Slavonic language were useful to Old Russian, although over time they changed their function. So, the letter "er" ( b) at the end of words after solid consonants conveyed a very short vowel sound (middle between [a] and [s] in sound). Since about the 13th century. this vowel sound at the end of words ceased to be pronounced, but the letter b traditionally continued to write.

Some endings were written differently, for example, was in, but went to the floor e , became, but morning. Should have known what was written , , but before e ,vsu e ,extreme e .

What tricks were not resorted to in order to memorize where to write: they remembered that after the letter b the letter is written in four roots, after in - at fifteen, after d - in three, etc. For better memorization, they came up with stories, rhymes consisting of words with, for example:, etc.

The letters Izhitsa were very rarely used in pre-revolutionary writing. It was written, moreover, very loosely, only in some Greek words:, , ; in practice, it has already been excluded from Russian writing. There were two more letters denoting the sound And: And And i . The first of these letters is And - was called "and octal", and the letter i called "and decimal". Where do these names come from? The fact is that a thousand years ago, borrowing the Greek alphabet, our ancestors also borrowed the designation of numbers by letters characteristic of Greek writing: the letter but stood for 1, letter in – 2, G – 3, d -4 etc. (Letter in corresponds to the 2nd letter of the Greek alphabet b"beta", which in the Middle Ages was pronounced as "in"; letters corresponding to b , was not in the Greek alphabet, it was “invented” for the Old Slavonic language and therefore had no digital meaning.) So, the letter And denoted the number 8, i - the number 10 (hence their names), but there were no differences in sound between these two letters. Letter i written before vowels and before th (for example spelling, ,July,biologist,influence, friend, history, dislike, biography, library, neighbor); in all other cases it was necessary to write And Moreover, the difference And – i used to distinguish between two words in writing that sound the same, but mean different concepts, cf .: world in the meaning of "universe" and peace meaning "absence of war". Therefore, the title of the novel by L.N. Tolstoy was written War and Peace, and the poems of V.V. Mayakovsky - War and Peace.

F(fert) and (fita). Both of these letters conveyed the same sound: it was written only in words of Greek origin containing this letter:,

The commission met on April 12, 1904 under the chairmanship of the President of the Academy of Sciences, Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanov. The outstanding Russian linguist Filipp Fedorovich Fortunatov was elected his comrade (deputy, as we would say now). The commission included linguists, writers, journalists, teachers of higher, secondary and primary educational institutions - a total of 50 people. The Commission was in favor of the desirability of simplifying spelling.

As early as May 1904, preliminary reports were published in which, in addition to the abolition of superfluous letters, it was proposed to abandon the hard sign after consonants at the end of words (before the reform, they wrote son, husband, reeds; counter-admiral), from distinguishing the endings of masculine-neuter and feminine adjectives ( good boys, but kind girls And kind children); from writing in the endings of adjectives -ago/-yago(instead of good, third was asked to write good, third); Some other changes have also been proposed. The purpose of these changes was to free Russian orthography from conditional spellings that were not based on actual pronunciation.

But the work of the commission ran into fierce resistance. The reform was supported by teachers, the entire democratically minded public. But society as a whole was opposed to her. The desire for stability, the protection of the familiar is natural for a person. The tradition of writing in culture (and writing is an important component of culture) really has a special meaning. Of course, for literate people, the reform meant breaking the existing mechanism of reading and writing, and this inevitably had to be perceived negatively. At the same time, the rejection of any changes in spelling was largely due to a misunderstanding of the relationship between language and writing, often simply the identification of language and writing: it seemed to people that changes in the spelling of words would damage the language and harm the culture. This is a common misconception.

The onslaught of opponents of the writing reform was so great that the linguists F.F. Fortunatov and A.A. .e. to give the reform in a truncated form, we decided to postpone its discussion for a while. These were years filled with dramatic events in the life of Russia: the war with Japan, the revolution of 1905, cholera. And yet the issue of simplification of spelling was so relevant that it was constantly returned to.

Only in 1912 did the final draft of the Commission come out. At the same time, some of the previously proposed changes, which seemed too revolutionary, had to be abandoned. For example, the sentence did not pass after all hissing write only about (shol, acorn, black), as well as a proposal to abandon the soft sign where it does not indicate softness (write mouse, rye, go). But even in a truncated form, the project caused a new explosion of fierce persecution. And again the case was adjourned. May 17, 1917 The Ministry of Public Education of the Provisional Government issues a circular on the introduction of a new spelling (in accordance with the draft 1912) without delay, from the beginning of the new academic year. This transition began to be carried out, but gradually, slowly, overcoming the fierce resistance of opponents. The reform was carried out only in 1917-1918, and the decrees of the Soviet government adopted not the draft 1904, developed with the participation of F.F. Fortunatov, but a more cautious, truncated version, adopted in May 1917.

After the reform.

Further history of Russian writing in the 20th century. is a history of attempts to further improve it. In the 1930s, the development of a universally binding set of rules for Russian spelling became an urgent task. Diversity reigns in the press: each publishing house has its own rules, its own spelling. Here are some examples from the press prior to the adoption of the 1956 rules: on the alert And on the lookout for something like this And like this, under a row And row, prehistoric And prehistoric And , tirelessly And tirelessly, the day after tomorrow And the day after tomorrow, damn And damn, shit And lattice etc. 11 drafts of the code were prepared before the final version was adopted in 1956 - Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation operating up to the present.

However, seven years after the release Rules, in 1963 the Spelling Commission was created, before which the task of streamlining Russian spelling was again set. The fact is that in 1956 only a partial regulation of Russian spelling was carried out, and in orthography there were still a lot of exceptions, difficult to explain and illogical rules. The composition of this commission included prominent linguists, such as V.V. Vinogradov (chairman), R.I. Avanesov, A.A. Reformatsky, S.I. Ozhegov, M.V. Panov, as well as methodologists, psychologists, school teachers, university specialists, writers (for example, K.I. Chukovsky). The commission proceeded from the fact that Russian writing does not need a revolutionary transformation, it is only necessary to rid it of everything contradictory, ambiguous, outdated, unnecessarily burdening the memory of the writer. The main goal is to facilitate the assimilation of spelling by students.

As in the project of the beginning of the century, instead of the unreasonably difficult spelling rule about/yo under stress after hissing (we write silk, but rustle, heck, but clink glasses) a simple and clear rule was proposed: after all hissing under stress, write about , without stress - e : acorn, but acorns, silk, but silky. This is the rule that now applies to writing about /e after the letter c . It was also proposed (as in previous projects) to write mouse, rye, remember, eat, bake, cut your hair, wide open no soft sign. In all these cases, the soft sign is superfluous - it does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant. A great relief for the writer (primarily for the student of writing) would be the consistent writing proposed by the commission after c letters And : the circus, gypsy, lisitsin, chicks.

But this project was not implemented either, and, as in the early 20th century, teachers of the Russian language welcomed the changes, but society as a whole did not support the project and very emotionally expressed its protest in letters and articles. Someone wrote that he refuses to eat cucumbers written through And , as in its time - at the beginning of the 20th century. - didn't want to eat bread, written not in yat: it is supposedly not so fragrant and tasty. Especially sharp was the reaction of writers - people for whom the graphics of the word, its style has an independent aesthetic value.

20th century ended, as it began, with the work of the Spelling Commission, whose task is to consider and approve the draft of a new edition of the set of rules for Russian spelling, prepared at the Institute of the Russian Language. VV Vinogradov of the Russian Academy of Sciences. This time, the authors of the project were tasked with taking into account the changes that had taken place in the language: the rules approved in 1956 were being prepared back in the 1930s and, naturally, needed to be clarified and supplemented. First of all, it was important to correct the rules regularly violated by spelling practice. Such a situation of disobedience to the rules has developed, for example, in the continuous-hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives. Thus, on the agenda is not a reform of writing, and even less a reform of the language, as opponents of any changes in spelling fear, but only editing and streamlining the existing rules.

Literature:

Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. On the relation of Russian writing to the Russian language. St. Petersburg, 1912
Panov M.V. And yet she is good. A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages. M., 1964
Overview of proposals for improving Russian spelling (XVIII–XX centuries). M., 1965
Kuzmina S.M. Theory of Russian spelling. Orthography in its relation to phonetics and phonology. M., 1981
Panov M.V. Entertaining spelling. M., 1984
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian orthography. M., 1991