Language groups in the world. Major language families of the world
All languages change over time. A comparison of the Russian language of the period of the “Tale of Bygone Years”, the times of A.S. Pushkin and the modern one shows us how language changes for centuries.
If two people speaking the same language are resettled in different places, then over time their languages will change in many directions. Firstly, they will have a different accent, then the vocabulary of the language will change (either under the influence of other languages, or due to natural processes). When this happens, different dialects emerge; but still people speaking different dialects, will be able to understand each other. If dialects continue to develop on their own, there will come a time when spoken language will be impossible to understand. At this stage, people will begin to speak different languages.
There is a striking example in the history of Western civilization emergence different languages
from one. Latin language was the language of the Roman Empire, AD. With the collapse of the empire in the 4th century, different parts of Europe: Italian Peninsula, Gaul, Iberian Peninsula, Carpathians became isolated from each other along with the peoples who inhabited them and spoke Latin (folk Latin). The languages of these peoples began to develop independently and modern languages were formed: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian, etc..
Modern languages India: Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Bengal come from Sanskrit language spoken in North India.
Old Persian gave rise to languages such as Farsi, Kurdish And Pashto.
Over time, in the context of various migrations of peoples, one language can develop into a whole family languages.
A group of related languages with one common ancestor is called a language family. Languages of one groups are closely related languages that split in the last 1000 - 2000 years ( Latin, for example, gave rise to Romanesque group languages Indo-European family).
Languages different groups the same family can be considered as related languages. In most families, the separation of such languages occurred more than 2000 years ago. The timeline is different for every family.
Within the same family, languages have many common grammatical features and a large number of keywords, especially words of earlier origin that indicate a common origin. The table below gives an example of a word comparison "month" in various Indo-European languages:
Comparisons can be made of this word month in languages of other language families (non-Indo-European).
Languages. Dialects.
The difference between the concept " language" And "dialect" may be more political than linguistic. For example, linguistically Croatian And Serbian dialects of the same language that are very close to each other. However, they use different scripts; and people speaking these languages belong to different religions: Catholic Christianity in Croatia and Orthodox Christianity in Serbia. By political reasons these languages are considered separate.
Bulgarians consider Macedonian language dialect of their language, while they themselves Macedonians they call it a separate language. Since Bulgaria for a long time claimed Macedonia as part of its own territory, then the motives of each side become quite understandable!
Low German(which is spoken in Northern Germany) And Dutch (Netherlands) from a linguistic point of view are dialects of the same language, but politically they are different languages. Low German And Swiss German languages differ so much that speakers of these languages may not understand each other, but both are considered German. Between languages spoken in different cities Italy, much more differences than between Dutch, Norwegian And Swedish.
Main language Iraq And Morocco counts Arab, which is different here and there. Official language of China counts m Andarinsky
– other languages of the republic are considered as dialects (for example Cantonese And at), while they are sometimes very different from each other.
By studying languages and their relationships, we gain insight into the migration of peoples over the course of history. We can also trace when the domestication of plants, the domestication of animals, and the appearance of tools occurred. Every language is unique image thinking. Those peoples who live in isolated parts of the world and are not technologically developed have a less perfect language than those peoples who live in modern cities. Every language has simple and complex parts. But the complexity of a language does not depend on the lifestyle of the people who speak it (compare the grammar of Latin and French, Old Russian and Russian).
Most of the world's languages are grouped into families. A language family is a genetic linguistic association.
But there are isolated languages, i.e. those that do not belong to any known language family.
There are also unclassified languages, of which there are more than 100.
Language family
There are about 420 language families in total. Sometimes families are united into macro-families. But at present, only theories about the existence of the Nostratic and Afrasian macrofamilies have received reliable substantiation.
Nostratic languages- a hypothetical macrofamily of languages, uniting several language families and languages of Europe, Asia and Africa, including Altaic, Kartvelian, Dravidian, Indo-European, Uralic, and sometimes also Afroasiatic and Eskimo-Aleutian languages. All Nostratic languages go back to a single Nostratic parent language.
Afroasiatic languages- a macrofamily of languages distributed in northern Africa from the Atlantic coast and the Canary Islands to the Red Sea coast, as well as in Western Asia and on the island of Malta. Groups of speakers Afroasiatic languages(mostly different dialects Arabic) are found in many countries outside their main range. The total number of speakers is about 253 million people.
The existence of other macrofamilies remains only scientific hypothesis, requiring confirmation.
Family– this is a group of definitely, but quite distantly related languages that have at least 15% matches in the base list.
The language family can be figuratively represented as a tree with branches. Branches are groups of closely related languages. They do not have to be of the same level of depth, only their relative order within the same family is important. Let us consider this question using the example of the Indo-European family of languages.
Indo-European family
This is the most widespread language family in the world. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth. The number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. The Indo-European family of languages is considered part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.
The term “Indo-European languages” was introduced by the English scientist Thomas Young in 1813.
Thomas Young
The languages of the Indo-European family descend from a single Proto-Indo-European language, whose speakers lived about 5-6 thousand years ago.
But it is impossible to name exactly where the Proto-Indo-European language originated; there are only hypotheses: regions such as Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia are named. Most likely archaeological culture ancient Indo-Europeans can be considered the so-called “Pit culture”, the bearers of which in the 3rd millennium BC. e. lived in the east of modern Ukraine and the south of Russia. This is a hypothesis, but it is supported by genetic studies indicating that the source of at least part of the Indo-European languages in Western and Central Europe was a wave of migration of speakers of the Yamnaya culture from the territory of the Black Sea and Volga steppes approximately 4,500 years ago.
The Indo-European family includes the following branches and groups: Albanian, Armenian languages, as well as Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Romance, Illyrian, Greek, Anatolian (Hittite-Luvian), Iranian, Dardic, Indo-Aryan, Nuristan and Tocharian language groups (Italic, Illyrian, Anatolian and Tocharian groups are represented only by dead languages ).
If we consider the place of the Russian language in the taxonomy of the Indo-European language family by level, it will look something like this:
Indo-European family
↓
Branch: Balto-Slavic
↓
Group: Slavic
↓
Subgroup: East Slavic
↓
Language: Russian
Slavic
Isolated languages (isolates)
There are more than 100 of them. In fact, each isolated language forms separate family, consisting only of this language. For example, Basque (northern regions of Spain and adjacent southern regions of France); Burushaski (this language is spoken by the Burish people living in the mountainous regions of Hunza (Kanjut) and Nagar in northern Kashmir); Sumerian (the language of the ancient Sumerians, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia in the 4th-3rd millennia BC); Nivkh (the language of the Nivkhs, widespread in the northern part of Sakhalin Island and in the basin of the Amguni River, a tributary of the Amur); Elamite (Elam is a historical region and ancient state (III millennium - mid-VI century BC) in the southwest of modern Iran); Hadza (in Tanzania) languages are isolated. Only those languages are called isolated for which there is sufficient data and inclusion in the language family has not been proven for them, even after intensive attempts to do so.
There are a large number of language families and a wide variety of languages in the world. There are more than 6,000 of the latter on the planet. Most of them belong to the world's largest language families, which are distinguished by their lexical and grammatical composition, related origins, and the common geographic location of their speakers. However, it should be noted that community of residence is not always an integral factor.
In turn, the world's language families are divided into groups. They are distinguished according to a similar principle. There are also languages that do not belong to any of the identified families, as well as so-called isolated languages. It is also common for scientists to distinguish macrofamilies, i.e. groups of language families.
Indo-European family
The most fully studied is the Indo-European language family. It began to be distinguished in ancient times. However, relatively recently, work began to study the Proto-Indo-European language.
The Indo-European language family consists of groups of languages whose speakers live across vast areas of Europe and Asia. So, the German group belongs to them. Its main languages are English and German. Also a large group is Romance, which includes French, Spanish, Italian and other languages. In addition, Eastern European peoples who speak languages of the Slavic group also belong to the Indo-European family. These are Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, etc.
This language family is not the largest in terms of the number of languages it includes. However, these languages are spoken by almost half of the world's population.
Afro-Asian family
Languages representing the Afro-Asiatic language family are spoken by more than a quarter of a million people. It includes Arabic, Egyptian, Hebrew, and many others, including extinct languages.
This family is usually divided into five (six) branches. These include the Semitic branch, the Egyptian, Chadian, Cushitic, Berber-Libyan and Omotian. In general, the Afro-Asiatic family includes more than 300 languages of the African continent and parts of Asia.
However, this family is not the only one on the continent. IN large quantities, especially to the south, there are other unrelated languages in Africa. There are at least 500 of them. Almost all of them were not presented in writing until the 20th century. and were used only orally. Some of them are purely oral to this day.
Nilo-Saharan family
The language families of Africa also include the Nilo-Saharan family. The Nilo-Saharan languages are represented by six language families. One of them is Songhai Zarma. The languages and dialects of the other family, the Saharan family, are common in Central Sudan. There is also a family of mamba, whose carriers inhabit Chad. Another family, the Fur, is also common in Sudan.
The most complex is the Shari-Nile language family. It, in turn, is divided into four branches, which consist of language groups. The last family - coma - is widespread in Ethiopia and Sudan.
The language families represented by the Nilo-Saharan macrofamily have significant differences among themselves. Accordingly, they represent great difficulty for linguistic researchers. The languages of this macrofamily were greatly influenced by the Afro-Asian macrofamily.
Sino-Tibetan family
The Sino-Tibetan language family has more than a million speakers of its languages. First of all, this became possible due to the large Chinese population speaking Chinese, which is part of one of the branches of this language family. In addition to it, this branch includes the Dungan language. It is they who form a separate branch (Chinese) in the Sino-Tibetan family.
The other branch includes more than three hundred languages, which are classified as the Tibeto-Burman branch. There are approximately 60 million native speakers of its languages.
Unlike Chinese, Burmese and Tibetan, most languages of the Sino-Tibetan family do not have a written tradition and are passed down from generation to generation exclusively orally. Despite the fact that this family has been studied deeply and for a long time, it still remains insufficiently studied and hides many as yet unrevealed secrets.
North and South American languages
Currently, as we know, the vast majority of North and South American languages belong to the Indo-European or Romance families. When settling the New World, European colonists brought their own languages with them. However, the dialects of the indigenous population of the American continent did not disappear completely. Many monks and missionaries who arrived from Europe to America recorded and systematized the languages and dialects of the local population.
Thus, the languages of the North American continent north of present-day Mexico were represented in the form of 25 language families. Later, some experts revised this division. Unfortunately, South America has not been studied as well linguistically.
Language families of Russia
All the peoples of Russia speak languages belonging to 14 language families. In total, there are 150 different languages and dialects in Russia. The basis of the country's linguistic wealth is made up of four main language families: Indo-European, North Caucasian, Altai, Uralic. Moreover, most of the country's population speaks languages belonging to the Indo-European family. This part makes up 87 percent of the total population of Russia. Moreover Slavic group takes up 85 percent. It includes Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian, which make up the East Slavic group. These languages are very close to each other. Their speakers can understand each other almost without difficulty. This is especially true for the Belarusian and Russian languages.
Altaic language family
The Altai language family consists of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchu and Mongolian language groups. The difference in the number of representatives of their speakers in the country is great. For example, Mongolian is represented in Russia exclusively by Buryats and Kalmyks. And here's to Turkic group There are several dozen languages listed. These include Khakass, Chuvash, Nogai, Bashkir, Azerbaijani, Yakut and many others.
The group of Tungus-Manchu languages includes Nanai, Udege, Even and others. This group is in danger of extinction due to the preference of their native peoples to use Russian on the one hand and Chinese on the other. Despite the extensive and long-term study of the Altai language family, it is extremely difficult for specialists to decide on the reproduction of the Altai proto-language. This is explained big amount borrowings by its speakers from other languages due to close contact with their representatives.
Ural family
The Uralic languages are represented by two large families - Finno-Ugric and Samoyed. The first of them includes Karelians, Mari, Komi, Udmurts, Mordovians and others. The languages of the second family are spoken by the Enets, Nenets, Selkups, and Nganasans. The bearers of the Ural macrofamily are to a large extent Hungarians (more than 50 percent) and Finns (20 percent).
The name of this family comes from the name of the Ural ridge, where the formation of the Uralic proto-language is believed to have taken place. The languages of the Uralic family had some influence on their neighboring Slavic and Baltic languages. In total, there are more than twenty languages of the Uralic family both on the territory of Russia and abroad.
North Caucasian family
Languages of peoples North Caucasus represent a huge difficulty for linguists in terms of their structuring and study. The concept of a North Caucasian family itself is rather arbitrary. The fact is that the languages of the local population are too little studied. However, thanks to the painstaking and in-depth work of many linguists studying this issue, it became clear how disjointed and complex many of the North Caucasian dialects are.
Difficulties concern not only the actual grammar, structure and rules of the language, for example, as in the Tabasaran language - one of the most complex languages on the planet, but also pronunciation, which is sometimes simply inaccessible to people who do not speak these languages.
A significant obstacle for specialists studying them is the inaccessibility of many mountainous regions of the Caucasus. However, this language family, despite all the contradictions, is usually divided into two groups - Nakh-Dagestan and Abkhaz-Adyghe.
Representatives of the first group inhabit mainly the regions of Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia. These include Avars, Lezgins, Laks, Dargins, Chechens, Ingush, etc. The second group consists of representatives of related peoples - Kabardians, Circassians, Adygeis, Abkhazians, etc.
Other language families
The language families of the peoples of Russia are not always extensive, uniting many languages into one family. Many of them are very small, and some are even isolated. Such nationalities primarily live in Siberia and Far East. Thus, the Chukchi-Kamchatka family unites the Chukchi, Itelmen, and Koryaks. Aleuts and Eskimos speak Aleut-Eskimo.
A large number of nationalities scattered across the vast territory of Russia, being extremely few in number (several thousand people or even less), have their own languages that are not included in any known language family. Like, for example, the Nivkhs, who inhabit the banks of the Amur and Sakhalin, and the Kets, located near the Yenisei.
However, the problem of linguistic extinction in the country continues to threaten Russia's cultural and linguistic diversity. Not only individual languages, but also entire language families are under threat of extinction.
Language family
Language family
A language family is the largest unit of classification of peoples (ethnic groups) based on their linguistic kinship - the common origin of their languages from the presumed base language. Language families are divided into language groups.
The largest in number is the Indo-European language family, which includes the following language groups:
- Romanesque: French, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Moldovans, Romanians, etc.;
- Germanic: Germans, English, Scandinavians, etc.;
- Slavic: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.
The second largest is the Sino-Tibetan language family, with the Chinese language group being the largest.
The Altai language family includes a large Turkic language group: Turks, Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Kazakhs, Turkmen, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Yakuts, etc.
The Uralic language family includes the Finno-Ugric group: Finns, Estonians, Hungarians, Komi, etc.
The Semitic group belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic language family: Arabs, Jews, Ethiopians, etc.
Synonyms: Family of Nations
See also: Ethnicities Languages
Finam Financial Dictionary.
See what a “Language family” is in other dictionaries:
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See language family... Handbook of Etymology and Historical Lexicology
Language family- a set of languages going back to a single, reconstructible proto-language... Physical Anthropology. Illustrated explanatory dictionary.
The largest unit of classification of peoples based on linguistic proximity. The biggest I" p. Indo-European, the languages of this family are used by 2.5 billion people. It includes Romance, Germanic, Slavic and other language groups. In the second... ... Geographical encyclopedia
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Caucasian languages are the conventional name for the languages of the Caucasus that are not included in any of the known language families widespread outside the Caucasus (Indo-European, Altaic or Semitic). Contents 1 Classification 2 External relations 3 ... Wikipedia
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The listing of languages is accompanied by minimal geographical, historical and philological commentary.
I. INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
1. Indian group 1
(over 96 living languages in total)
1) Hindi and Urdu(sometimes united under the common name Hindustani 2) - two varieties of one modern Indian literary language: Urdu is the state language of Pakistan, written on the basis of the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (the official language of India) - based on the Old Indian Devanagari script.
2) Bengali.
3)
Punjabi.
4) Lahnda (lendi).
5) Sindhi.
6)
Rajasthani.
7) Gujarati.
8) Mrathi.
9)
Sinhalese.
10) Nepali(eastern Pahari, in Nepal)
11)
Bihari.
12) Oriya.(otherwise: audrey, utkali, in eastern India)
13) Assamese.
14) Gypsy, emerged as a result of resettlement and migrations in the V - X centuries. AD
15) Kashmiri and others Dardic languages
Dead:
16) Vedic- the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, formed in the first half of the second millennium BC. e. (recorded later).
17) Sanskrit. The “classical” literary language of the Indians from the 3rd century. BC. to the 7th century AD (literally samskrta means "processed", as opposed to prakrta "not normalized" spoken language); There remains a rich literature in Sanskrit, religious and secular (epic, drama); The first Sanskrit grammar of the 4th century. BC. Panini was redesigned in the 13th century. AD Vopadeva.
18) Pali- Central Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era.
19) Prakrits- various colloquial Central Indian dialects, from which modern Indian languages originated; replicas of minor persons in Sanskrit drama are written in Prakrits.
1 About Indian languages, see: 3grapher G.A. Languages of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal. M., I960.
2 See, for example, the title of the book by A.P. Barannikov "Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi)". D., 1934.
2. Iranian group 1
(more than 10 languages; finds the greatest affinity with the Indian group, with which it unites into a common Indo-Iranian, or Aryan, group;
Arya is a tribal self-name in the most ancient monuments, from which Iran, and Alan is the self-name of the Scythians)
1) Persian(Farsi) - writing based on the Arabic alphabet; for Old Persian and Middle Persian, see below.
2) Dari(Farsi-Kabuli) - literary language Afghanistan, along with Pashto.
3) Pashto(Pashto, Afghan) - literary language, since the 30s. the official language of Afghanistan.
4) Balochi (Baluchi).
5) Tajik.
6)
Kurdish.
7) Ossetian; adverbs: Iron (eastern) Digor (western). Ossetians are descendants of the Alans-Scythians
8) Talyshsky.
10) Caspian(Gilan, Mazanderan) dialects.
11)
Pamir languages(Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Capykol, Khuf, Oroshor, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Wakhan) are the unwritten languages of the Pamirs.
12) Yagnobsky.
Dead:
13) Old Persian- the language of cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenid era (Darius, Xerxes, etc.) VI - IV centuries. BC e.
14)
Avestan- another ancient Iranian language, which came down in the Middle Persian copies of the sacred book "Avesta", which contains religious texts of the cult of the Zoroastrians, followers of Zoroaster (in Greek: Zoroaster).
15)
Pahlavi- Middle Persian language III- IX centuries n. e., preserved in the translation of the “Avesta” (this translation is called “Zend”, from which for a long time the Avestan language itself was incorrectly called Zend).
16) Median- a genus of northwestern Iranian dialects; no written monuments have survived.
17) Parthian- one of the Middle Persian languages of the 3rd century. BC e. - III century n. e., distributed in Parthia to the southeast of the Caspian Sea.
18)
Sogdian- the language of Sogdiana in the Zeravshan valley, first millennium AD. e.; ancestor of the Yaghnobi language.
19) Khorezmian- the language of Khorezm along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya; the first - the beginning of the second millennium AD.
20)
Scythian- the language of the Scythians (Alans), who lived in the steppes along the northern shore of the Black Sea and east to the borders of China in the first millennium BC. e. and the first millennium AD e.; preserved in proper names in Greek transmission; ancestor of the Ossetian language.
21) Bactrian(Kushan) - the language of ancient Bakt along the upper reaches of the Amu Darya, as well as the language of Kushan at the beginning of the first millennium AD.
22) Saki(Khotanese) - in Central Asia and Chinese Turkestan; from V - X centuries. AD texts written in the Indian Brahmi script remained.
Note. Most modern Iranian scholars divide the living and dead Iranian languages into the following groups:A. Western
1) Southwestern: ancient and middle Persian, modern Persian, Tajik, Tat and some others.
2) Northwestern: Median, Parthian, Baluchi (Baluchi), Kurdish, Talysh and other Caspian.
B. Eastern
1) Southeast: Saka (Khotanese), Pashto (Pashto), Pamir.
2) Northeast: Scythian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Ossetian, Yaghnobi.
1 About Iranian languages, see: Oransky I.M. Iranian languages. M, 1963. - Tatsky - Tats are divided into Muslim Tats and “Mountain Jews”
3. Slavic group
A. Eastern subgroup
1) Russian; adverbs: northern (Veliko) Russian - “oozing” and southern (Veliko) Russian - “accharging”; The Russian literary language developed on the basis of the transitional dialects of Moscow and its environs, where from the south and southeast the Tula, Kursk, Oryol and Ryazan dialects spread features that were alien to the northern dialects, which were the dialectal basis of the Moscow dialect, and displaced some of the features of the latter, as well as by mastering elements of the Church Slavonic literary language; in addition, into the Russian literary language in the 16th-18th centuries. various foreign language elements were included; writing based on the Russian alphabet, processed from the Slavic - “Cyrillic” under Peter the Great; the most ancient monuments of the 11th century. (they also apply to the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages); official language Russian Federation, an interethnic language for communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation and adjacent territories former USSR, one of the world languages.
2) Ukrainian or Ukrainian A Insky; before the revolution of 1917 - Little Russian or Little Russian; three main dialects: northern, southeastern, southwestern; The literary language began to take shape in the 14th century; the modern literary language has existed since the end of the 18th century. on the basis of the Dnieper dialects of the south-eastern dialect; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet in its post-Petrine variety.
3) Belorussian; writing since the 14th century. based on the Cyrillic alphabet Dialects northeastern and southwestern; the literary language is based on Central Belarusian dialects.
B. Southern subgroup
4) Bulgarian- formed in the process of contact of Slavic dialects with the language of the Kama Bulgars, from which it received its name; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 10th century. AD
5) Macedonian.
6)
Serbo-Croatian; The Serbs have a letter based on the Cyrillic alphabet, the Croats have a letter based on Latin; the most ancient monuments from the 12th century.
7) Slovenian;- writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the X - XI centuries.
Dead:
8) Old Church Slavonic(or Old Church Slavic) - the common literary language of the Slavs of the medieval period, which arose on the basis of Thessalonica dialects of the Old Bulgarian language in connection with the introduction of writing for the Slavs (two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic) and the translation of church books to promote Christianity among the Slavs in the 9th-10th centuries . n. e.. Among the Western Slavs it was supplanted by Latin due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism; in the form of Church Slavonic - compound element Russian literary language.
IN. Western subgroup
9) Czech; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 13th century.
10) Slovak; Polish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; ancient monuments from the 14th century,
12)
Kashubian; lost its independence and became a dialect of the Polish language.
13) Lusatian(abroad: Sorabian, Vendian); two variants: Upper Sorbian (or eastern) and Lower Sorbian (or western); writing based on the Latin alphabet.
Dead:
14) Polabsky- became extinct in the 18th century, was distributed along both banks of the river. Labs (Elbe) in Germany.
15) Pomeranian dialects- became extinct in the medieval period due to forced Germanization; were distributed along the south coast Baltic Sea in Pomerania (Pomerania).
4. Baltic group
1) Lithuanian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century Latvian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century
3) Latgalian 1 .
Dead:
4) Prussian- became extinct in the 17th century. in connection with forced Germanization; territory of former East Prussia; monuments of the XIV-XVII centuries.
5) Yatvingian, Curonian and other languages on the territory of Lithuania and Latvia, extinct by the 17th-18th centuries.
1 There is an opinion that this is only a dialect of the Latvian language.
5. German group
A. North Germanic (Scandinavian) subgroup1) Danish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; served as a literary language for Norway until late XIX V.
2) Swedish; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Norwegian; writing based on the Latin alphabet, originally Danish, since the literary language of the Norwegians until the end of the 19th century. was Danish. In modern Norway there are two forms of the literary language: Riksmål (otherwise: Bokmål) - bookish, closer to Danish, Ilansmål (otherwise: Nynorsk), closer to the Norwegian dialects.
4) Icelandic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; written monuments from the 13th century. ("sagas").
5) Faroese.
B. West German subgroup
6) English; literary English developed in the 16th century. AD based on the London dialect; V-XI centuries - Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), XI-XVI centuries. - Middle English and from the 16th century. - New English; writing based on the Latin alphabet (unchanged); written monuments from the 7th century; language of international significance.
7)
Dutch (Dutch) with Flemish; writing on a Latin basis; In the Republic of South Africa live the Boers, immigrants from Holland, who speak a variety of the Dutch language, the Boer language (otherwise: Afrikaans).
8) Frisian; monuments from the 14th century
9) German; two dialects: Low German (northern, Niederdeutsch or Plattdeutsch) and High German (southern, Hochdeutsch); the literary language was formed on the basis of southern German dialects, but with many northern features (especially in pronunciation), but still does not represent unity; in the VIII-XI centuries. - Old High German, in the XII-XV centuries. -Middle High German, from the 16th century. - New High German, developed in the Saxon offices and translations of Luther and his associates; writing based on the Latin alphabet in two varieties: Gothic and Antiqua; one of the largest languages in the world.
10)
Yiddish(or Yiddish, New Hebrew) - various High German dialects mixed with elements of Hebrew, Slavic and other languages.
IN. East German subgroup
Dead:
11)
Gothic, existed in two dialects. Visigothic - served the medieval Gothic state in Spain and Northern Italy; had a writing system based on the Gothic alphabet, compiled by Bishop Wulfila in the 4th century. n. e. for the translation of the Gospel, which is the most ancient monument of the Germanic languages. Ostrogothic is the language of the eastern Goths, who lived in the early Middle Ages on the Black Sea coast and in the southern Dnieper region; existed until the 16th century. in Crimea, thanks to which a small dictionary compiled by the Dutch traveler Busbeck has been preserved.
12) Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Herulian- languages of ancient Germanic tribes in East Germany.
6. Roman group
(before the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of Romance 1 languages - Italic)
1) French; the literary language had developed by the 16th century. based on the dialect of Ile-de-France centered in Paris; French dialects developed at the beginning of the Middle Ages as a result of crossing the folk (vulgar) Latin of the conquerors of the Romans and the language of the conquered native Gauls - Gallic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 9th century. AD; Middle French period from the 9th to the 15th centuries, New French - from the 16th century. The French language acquired international significance.
2) Provençal (Occitan); national minority language southeast France (Provence); as a literary one existed in the Middle Ages (lyrics of the troubadours) and survived until the end of the 19th century.
3) Italian; the literary language developed on the basis of Tuscan dialects, and in particular the dialect of Florence, which arose due to the crossing of vulgar Latin with the languages of the mixed population of medieval Italy; written in the Latin alphabet, historically the first national language in Europe 3.
4) Sardinian(or Sardinian). Spanish; developed in Europe as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin with the languages of the native population of the Roman province of Iberia; writing based on the Latin alphabet (the same applies to Catalan and Portuguese).
6) Galician.
7) Catalan.
8)
Portuguese.
9) Romanian; developed as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin and the languages of the natives of the Roman province of Dacia; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
10) Moldavian(a variety of Romanian); writing based on the Russian alphabet.
11)
Macedonian-Romanian(Aromunian).
12) Romansh- language of a national minority; Since 1938 it has been recognized as one of the four official languages of Switzerland.
13) Creole languages- crossed Romance languages with local languages (Haitian, Mauritian, Seychelles, Senegalese, Papiamento, etc.).
Dead (Italian):
14) Latin- literary state language of Rome in the republican and imperial era (III century BC - first centuries of the Middle Ages); the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, historical prose, legal documents and oratory; the most ancient monuments from the 6th century. BC.; first description Latin language at Varro. I century BC.; classical grammar of Donatus - 4th century. AD; the literary language of the Western European Middle Ages and the language of the Catholic Church; along with ancient Greek, it is a source of international terminology.
15) Medieval Vulgar Latin- folk Latin dialects of the early Middle Ages, which, when crossed with the native languages of the Roman provinces of Gaul, Iberia, Dacia, etc., gave rise to the Romance languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.
16) Oscian, Umbrian, Sabelian and other Italian dialects were preserved in fragmentary written monuments of the last centuries BC.
1 The name “Romanesque” comes from the word Roma, as Rome was called by the Latins and currently by the Italians.
2 See chap. VII, § 89 - on education national languages.
3 See ibid.
7. Celtic group
A. Goidelic subgroup1) Irish; written monuments from the 4th century. n. e. (Ogham writing) and from the 7th century. (Latin based); is still literary today.
2) Scottish (Gaelic).
Dead:
3) Manx- the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea).
B. Brythonic subgroup
4) Breton; Bretons (formerly Britons) moved after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons from the British Isles to the continent of Europe.
5) Welsh (Welsh).
Dead:
6) Cornish; in Cornwall, a peninsula in southwestern England.
B. Gallic subgroup
7) Gallic; extinct since the era of education French; was widespread in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and even Asia Minor.
8. Greek group
1) Modern Greek, from the 12th centuryDead:
2) Ancient Greek, X century BC. - V century AD;
Ionic-Attic dialects from the 7th-6th centuries. BC.;
Achaean (Arcado-Cypriot) dialects from the 5th century. BC.;
northeastern (Boeotian, Thessalian, Lesbian, Aeolian) dialects from the 7th century. BC.
and Western (Dorian, Epirus, Cretan) dialects; - the most ancient monuments from the 9th century. BC. (Homer's poems, epigraphy); from the 4th century BC. a common literary language, Koine, based on the Attic dialect, centered in Athens; the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, philosophical and historical prose; from III-II centuries. BC. works of Alexandrian grammarians; along with Latin, it is a source of international terminology.
3) Middle Greek, or Byzantine,- the state literary language of Byzantium from the first centuries AD. until the 15th century; the language of monuments - historical, religious and artistic.
9. Albanian group
Albanian, written monuments based on the Latin alphabet from the 15th century.10. Armenian group
Armenian; literary from the 5th century AD; contains some elements dating back to Caucasian languages; The ancient Armenian language - Grabar - is very different from the modern living Ashkharabar.11. Hittite-Luwian (Anatolian) group
Dead:1) Hittite (Hittite-Nessite, known from cuneiform monuments of the 18th-13th centuries. BC.; language of the Hittite state in Asia Minor.
2) Luwian in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
3) Palayskiy in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
4) Carian
5) Lydian- Anatolian languages of ancient times.
6) Lycian
12. Tocharian group
Dead:1) Tocharian A (Turfan, Karashar)- in Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang).
2) Tocharian B (Kuchansky)- in the same place; in Kucha until the 7th century. AD Known from manuscripts around the 5th-8th centuries. n. e. based on the Indian Brahmi script discovered during excavations in the 20th century.
Note 1. For a number of reasons, the following groups of Indo-European languages are closer together: Indo-Iranian (Aryan), Slavic - Baltic and Italo-Celtic.
Note 2. Indo-Iranian and Slavic-Baltic languages can be combined into the section of satem languages, as opposed to others belonging to kentom languages; this division is carried out according to the fate of the Indo-European *g and */с midpalatals, which in the first gave anterior lingual fricatives (catam, simtas, съто - “one hundred”), and in the second remained posterior lingual plosives; in Germanic, due to the movement of consonants - fricatives (hekaton, kentom (later centum), hundert, etc. - “one hundred”).
Note 3. The question of whether Venetian, Messapian, obviously, the Illyrian group (in Italy), Phrygian, Thracian (in the Balkans) belongs to the Indo-European languages can generally be considered resolved; the languages Pelasgian (Peloponnese before the Greeks), Etruscan (in Italy before the Romans), Ligurian (in Gaul) have not yet been clarified in their relationship to the Indo-European languages.
II. CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES 1
A. Western group: Abkhaz-Adyghe languages
1. Abkhazian subgroupAbkhazian; dialects: Bzybsky- northern and Abzhui(or Kadbrsky) - southern; writing until 1954 was based on the Georgian alphabet, now it is based on the Russian alphabet.
Abaza; writing based on the Russian alphabet.
2. Circassian subgroup
Adyghe.
Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian).
Ubykh(The Ubykhs emigrated to Turkey under tsarism).
B. Eastern group: Nakh-Dagestan languages
1. Nakh subgroupChechen; have a written language based on Russian.
Ingush
Batsbiysky (Tsova-Tushinsky).
2. Dagestan subgroup
Avarsky.
Darginsky.
Laksky.
Lezginsky.
Tabasaran.
These five languages are written on Russian basis. The remaining languages are unwritten:
Andean.
Karatinsky.
Tindinsky.
Chamalinsky.
Bagvalinsky.
Akhvakhsky.
Botlikhsky.
Godoberinsky.
Tsezsky.
Betinsky.
Khvarshinsky.
Gunzibsky.
Ginukhsky.
Tsakhursky.
Rutulsky.
Agulsky.
Archinsky.
Buduheky.
Kryzsky.
Udinsky.
Khinalugsky.
3. Southern group: Kartvelian (Iberian) languages
1)
Megrelian.
2) Lazsky (Chansky).
3) Georgian: writing in the Georgian alphabet from the 5th century. AD, rich literary monuments of the Middle Ages; dialects: Khevsur, Kartli, Imeretian, Gurian, Kakheti, Adjarian, etc.
4) Svansky.
Note. All languages that have a written language (except Georgian and Ubykh) are based on the Russian alphabet, and in the previous period, for several years, on the Latin alphabet.1 The question of whether these groups represent one family of languages has not yet been resolved by science; rather, one might think that there are no family ties between them; the term "Caucasian languages" refers to their geographical distribution.
III. OUTSIDE THE GROUP - BASQUE LANGUAGE
IV. URAL LANGUAGES
1. FINNO-UGRIAN (UGRO-FINNISH) LANGUAGES
A. Ugric branch
1) Hungarian, writing on a Latin basis.2) Mansi (Vogul); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
3) Khanty (Ostyak); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
B. Baltic-Finnish branch
1) Finnish (Suomi); writing based on the Latin alphabet.2) Estonian; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Izhora.
4) Karelian.
5) Vepsian.
6) Vodsky.
7) Livsky.
8) Sami (Sami, Lapp).
B. Perm branch
1) Komi-Zyriansky.2) Komi-Permyak.
3) Udmurt.
G. Volga branch
1) Mari (Mari, Cheremissky), dialects: Nagornoe on the right bank of the Volga and Meadow - on the left.2) Mordovian: two independent language: Erzya and Moksha.
Note. Finnish and Estonian languages are written using the Latin alphabet; among the Mari and Mordovians - has long been based on the Russian alphabet; in Komi-Zyryan, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak - on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the 20th century).
2. SAMODYAN LANGUAGES
1) Nenets (Yurako-Samoyed).2) Nganasan (Tavgian).
3) Enets (Yenisei-Samoyed).
4) Selkup (Ostyak - Samoyed).
Note. Modern science considers the Samoyed languages to be related to the Finno-Ugric languages, which were previously considered as an isolated family and with which the Samoyed languages form a larger association - the Uralic languages.
V. ALTAI LANGUAGES 1
1. TURKIC LANGUAGES 2
1) Turkish(earlier Ottoman); writing since 1929 based on the Latin alphabet; until then, for several centuries - based on the Arabic alphabet.2) Azerbaijani.
3) Turkmen.
4) Gagauzian.
5) Crimean Tatar.
6) Karachay-Balkarian.
7) Kumyk- used as a common language for the Caucasian peoples of Dagestan.
8) Nogaisky.
9) Karaite.
10) Tatar, with three dialects - middle, western (Mishar) and eastern (Siberian).
11) Bashkir.
12) Altai (Oirot).
13) Shorsky with the Kondoma and Mrass dialects 3.
14) Khakassian(with dialects Sogai, Beltir, Kachin, Koibal, Kyzyl, Shor).
15) Tuvinsky.
16) Yakut.
17) Dolgansky.
18) Kazakh.
19) Kyrgyz.
20) Uzbek.
21) Karakalpak.
22) Uyghur (New Uyghur).
23) Chuvash, a descendant of the language of the Kama Bulgars, written from the very beginning based on the Russian alphabet.
Dead:
24) Orkhon- according to the Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions, the language (or languages) of the powerful state of the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. in Northern Mongolia on the river. Orkhon. The name is conditional.
25)
Pechenezhsky- the language of the steppe nomads of the 9th-11th centuries. AD
26)
Polovtsian (Cuman)- according to the Polovtsian-Latin dictionary compiled by Italians, the language of the steppe nomads of the 11th-14th centuries.
27)
Old Uyghur- the language of a huge state in Central Asia IX-XI centuries n. e. with writing based on a modified Aramaic alphabet.
28) Chagatai- literary language of the 15th-16th centuries. AD in Central Asia; Arabic graphics.
29) Bulgarian- the language of the Bulgarian kingdom at the mouth of the Kama; The Bulgar language formed the basis of the Chuvash language, part of the Bulgars moved to the Balkan Peninsula and, mixing with the Slavs, became a component (superstrate) of the Bulgarian language.
30) Khazar- the language of a large state of the 7th-10th centuries. AD, in the region of the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, close to the Bulgarian.
Note 1. All living Turkic languages, except Turkish, have been written since 1938-1939. based on the Russian alphabet, until then for several years - based on Latin, and many even earlier - based on Arabic (Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Tatar and all Central Asian, and foreign Uyghurs to this day). In sovereign Azerbaijan, the question of switching to the Latin alphabet has been raised again.
Note 2. The question of the grouping of Turkic-Tatar languages has not yet been finally resolved by science; according to F.E. Korshu (see: Korsh F.E. Classification of Turkish tribes by languages, 1910.) - three groups: Northern, Southeastern and Southwestern; according to V.A. Bogoroditsky (see: Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics in connection with other Turkic languages, 1934.) - eight groups: North-Eastern, Abakan, Altai, West Siberian, Volga-Ural, Central Asian, South-Western ( Turkish) and Chuvash; according to W. Schmidt (See: Schmidt W. Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde, 1932.) - three groups: Southern, Western, Eastern, while W. Schmidt classifies Yakut as Mongolian. Other classifications were also proposed - V.V. Radlova, A.N. Samoilovich, G.I. Ramstedt, S.E. Malova, M. Ryasyanen and others. In 1952 N.A. Baskakov proposed a new scheme for the classification of Turkic languages, which the author thinks of as “periodization of the history of the development of peoples and Turkic languages” (see: “Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of Literature and Language,” vol. XI, issue 2), where ancient divisions intersect with new and historical with geographical (see also: Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. - M., 1969).1 A number of scientists are of the opinion about the possible distant relationship of three language families - Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, forming the Altai macrofamily. However, in accepted usage, the term “Altaic languages” denotes a conditional association rather than a proven genetic grouping (V.V.).
2 Due to the fact that in Turkology there is no single point of view on the grouping of Turkic languages, we give them a list; At the end, various points of view on their grouping are given.
3 Currently, the Altai and Shor languages use the same literary language based on Altai.
2. MONGOLIAN LANGUAGES
1) Mongolian; the writing was based on the Mongolian alphabet, derived from the ancient Uyghurs; since 1945 - based on the Russian alphabet.2) Buryat; since the 30s XX century writing based on the Russian alphabet.
3) Kalmyk.
Note. There are also a number of smaller languages (Dagur, Dong-Xian, Mongolian, etc.), mainly in China (about 1.5 million), Manchuria and Afghanistan; No. 2 and 3 have been around since the 30s. XX century writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
3. TUNGU-MANCHUR LANGUAGES
A. Siberian group
1) Evenki (Tungus), with Negidal and Solonsky.2) Evensky (Lamutsky).
B. Manchu group
1) Manchurian, is dying out, had rich monuments of medieval writing in the Manchu alphabet.2) Jurchen- a dead language, known from monuments of the 12th-16th centuries. (hieroglyphic writing modeled on Chinese)
B. Amur group
1) Nanaisky (Goldian), with Ulch.2) Udeysky (Udege), with Orochi.
Note. No. 1 and 2 have been since 1938-1939. writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
4. SEPARATE LANGUAGES OF THE FAR EAST, NOT PART OF ANY GROUPS
(presumably close to Altai)
1) Japanese; writing based on Chinese characters in the 8th century. AD; new phonetic-syllabic writing - katakana and hiragana.
2)
Ryukyu, obviously related to Japanese.
3) Korean; the first monuments based on Chinese hieroglyphs from the 4th century. AD, modified in the 7th century. AD; from the 15th century - Korean folk script "onmun" - alphabetic syllabic graphics system.
4) Ainsky, mainly on the Japanese Islands, also on Sakhalin Island; has now fallen out of use and been replaced by Japanese.
VI. AFRASIAN (SEMITO-HAMITIC) LANGUAGES
1. Semitic branch
1) Arab; international cult language of Islam; There are, in addition to classical Arabic, regional varieties (Sudanese, Egyptian, Syrian, etc.); writing in the Arabic alphabet (on the island of Malta - based on the Latin alphabet).2) Amharic, official language Ethiopia.
3) Tigre, Tigrai, Gurage, Harari and other languages of Ethiopia.
4) Assyrian (Isorian), the language of isolated ethnic groups in the countries of the Middle East and some others.
Dead:
5) Akkadian (Assyrian - Babylonian); known from cuneiform monuments of the ancient East.
6) Ugaritic.
7)
Hebrew- the language of the most ancient parts of the Bible, the cult language of the Jewish church; existed as a colloquial language before the beginning of our era; from the 19th century on its basis, Hebrew was developed, now the official language of the state of Israel (along with Arabic); writing based on the Hebrew alphabet.
8) Aramaic- the language of the later books of the Bible and the common language of the Near East in the era of the 3rd century. BC. - IV century AD
9) Phoenician- language of Phenicia, Carthage (Punic); dead BC; writing in the Phoenician alphabet, from which subsequent types of alphabetic writing originated.
10) Geez- former literary language of Abyssinia IV-XV centuries. AD; is now an iconic language in Ethiopia.
2. Egyptian branch
Dead:1) Ancient Egyptian- language ancient egypt, known from hieroglyphic monuments and documents of demotic writing (from the end of the 4th millennium BC to the 5th century AD).
2) Coptic- a descendant of the ancient Egyptian language in the medieval period from the 3rd to the 17th centuries. AD; cult language Orthodox Church in Egypt; Coptic writing, alphabet based on the Greek alphabet.
3. Berber-Libyan branch
(North Africa and West Central Africa)
1) Ghadames, Siua.
2) Tuareg(tamahak, ghat, taneslemt, etc.).
3) 3enaga.
4) Kabyle.
5) Tashelhit.
6) Zenetian(reef, shauya, etc.).
7) Tamazight.
Dead:
8) Western Numidian.
9) Eastern Numidian (Libyan).
10) Guanche, existed before the 18th century. languages (dialects?) of the aborigines of the Canary Islands.
4. Kushitic branch
(Northeast and East Africa)
1) Bedauye (beja).
2) Agavian(aungi, bilin, etc.).
3) Somalia.
4) Sidamo.
5) Afar, Saho.
6)
Oromo (Galla).
7) Irakw, Ngomwia and etc.
5. Chadian branch
(Central Africa and West-Central Sub-Saharan Africa)
1) Hausa(belongs to the Western Chadic group) the largest language of the branch.
2) Other Western Chadians: gwandara, ngizim, bole, karekare, angas, sura and etc.
3) Central Chadian: tera, margi, mandara, kotoko and etc.
4) Eastern Chadian: mubi, sokoro and etc.
VII. NIGERO-CONGO LANGUAGES
(territory of sub-Saharan Africa)
1. Mande languages
1) Bamana (bambara).2) Soninka.
3) Coco (susu).
4) Maninka.
5) Kpelle, Loma, Mende, etc.
2. Atlantic languages
1) Fula (fulfulde).2) Wolof.
3) Serer.
4) Diola. Cognac.
5) Gola, dark, bull and etc.
3. Idjoid languages
Presented in isolated language Ijaw(Nigeria).4. Kru languages
1) Seme.2) Bethe.
3) Godie.
4) Crewe.
5) Grebo.
6) Wobe and etc.
5. Kwa languages
1) Akan.2) Baule.
3) Adele.
4) Adangme.
5) Ewe.
6) Background and etc.
6. Dogon language
7. Gur languages
1) Bariba.2) Senari.
3) Suppire.
4) Gurenne.
5) Gourmet.
b) Kasem, cabre, kirma and etc.
8. Adamauan-Ubangian languages
1) Longuda.2) Tula.
3) Chamba.
4) Mumuye.
5) Mboom.
b) Gbaya.
7) Ngbaka.
8) Sere, mundu, zande and etc.
9. Benue-Congo languages
The largest family in the Niger-Congo macrofamily, it covers the territory from Nigeria to the east coast of Africa, including South Africa. It is divided into 4 branches and many groups, among which the largest is the Bantu languages, which in turn are divided into 16 zones (according to M. Ghasri).
1) Nupe.
2) Yoruba.
3) Ygbo.
4) Edo.
5) Jukun.
6) Efik, ibibio.
7) Kambari, birom.
8) Tiv.
9) Bamileke.
10) Com, lamnso, tikar.
11) Bantu(Duala, Ewondo, Teke, Bobangi, Lingala, Kikuyu, Nyamwezi, Togo, Swahili, Congo, Luganda, Kinyarwanda, Chokwe, Luba, Nyakyusa, Nyanja, Yao, Mbundu, Herero, Shona, Sotho, Zulu, etc.).
10. Kordofanian languages
1) Kanga, miri, tumtum.2) Katla.
3) Rere.
4) Morning
5) Tegem.
6) Tegali, tagbi and etc.
VIII. NILO-SAHARAN LANGUAGES
(Central Africa, zone of geographical Sudan)
1) Songhai.
2) Saharan: kanuri, tuba, zaghava.
3)
Fur.
4) Mimi, mabang.
5) Eastern Sudanese: wilds, mahas, bale, suri, nera, ronge, tama and etc.
6) Nilotic: Shilluk, Luo, Alur, Acholi, Nuer Bari, Teso, Nandi, Pakot and etc.
7) Central Sudanese: kresh, sinyar, capa, bagirmi, moru, madi, logbara, mangbetu.
8)
Kunama.
9) Bertha.
10) Kuama, Como, etc.
IX. KHOISAN LANGUAGES
(in South Africa, Namibia, Angola)
1) Bushman languages(Kung, Auni, Hadza, etc.).
2) Hottentot languages(Nama, Koran, San-Dave, etc.).
X. Sino-TIBETAN LANGUAGES
A. Chinese branch
1) Chinese- first in number speaking the language in the world. Folk Chinese speech is divided into a number of dialect groups, which differ greatly, primarily phonetically; Chinese dialects are usually defined geographically. A literary language based on the northern (Mandarin) dialect, which is also a dialect of the capital of China - Beijing. For thousands of years, the literary language of China was Wenyan, which was formed in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and existed as a developing, but inaudibly incomprehensible bookish language until the 20th century, along with the literary language of Baihua, which is closer to the colloquial language. The latter became the basis of the modern unified literary Chinese language - Putonghua (based on Northern Baihua). The Chinese language is rich in written monuments from the 15th century. BC, but their hieroglyphic nature makes it difficult to study the history of the Chinese language. Since 1913, along with hieroglyphic writing, a special syllabic-phonetic letter “zhu-an izimu” was used on a national graphic basis for pronunciation identification of the reading of hieroglyphs by dialect. More than 100 were later developed various projects reforms of the Chinese letter, of which the most promising project is a phonetic letter on a Latin graphic basis.2) Dungan; The Dungans of the People's Republic of China have Arabic writing, the Dungans of Central Asia and Kazakhstan initially have Chinese (hieroglyphic), and later Arabic; from 1927 - on a Latin basis, and from 1950 - on a Russian basis.
B. Tibeto-Burman branch
1) Tibetan.2) Burmese.
XI. THAI LANGUAGES
1) Thai- the official language of Thailand (until 1939, the Siamese language of the state of Siam).2) Laotian.
3) Zhuangsky.
4) Kadai (Li, Lakua, Lati, Gelao)- a group within the Thai or an independent link between the Thai and Austronesian.
Note. Some scholars consider the Thai languages to be related to Austronesian; in previous classifications they were included in the Sino-Tibetan family.
XII. MIAO-YAO LANGUAGES
1) Miao, with dialects Hmong, Hmu and etc.2) Yao, with dialects mien, kimmun and etc.
3) Well.
Note. These little-studied languages of Central and Southern China were previously included in the Sino-Tibetan family without sufficient grounds.
XIII. DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES
(languages ancient population Indian subcontinent, presumably related to the Uralic languages)
1) Tamil.
2) Telugu.
3) Malayalam.
4)
Kannada.
For all four there is a script based on (or type of) the Indian Brahmi script.
5) Tulu.
6) Gondi.
7)
Brahui and etc.
XIV. OUTSIDE THE FAMILY - BURUSHASDI LANGUAGE (VERSHIKIAN)
(mountainous regions of North-West India)
XV. AUSTROASIATIC LANGUAGES
1) Languages munda: santal i, mundari, ho, birkhor, juang, sora, etc.2) Khmer.
3) Palaung (rumai) and etc.
4) Nicobarsky.
5) Vietnamese.
6) Khasi.
7) Malacca group(semang, semai, sakayi, etc.).
8) Naali.
XVI. AUSTRONESIAN (MALAYAN-POLYNESIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Indonesian branch
1.Western group1) Indonesian, got its name from the 30s. XX century, currently the official language of Indonesia.
2) Bataksky.
3) Cham(Cham, Jarai, etc.).
2. Javanese group
1) Javanese.
2) Sundanese.
3) Madura.
4) Balinese.
3. Dayak or Kalimantan group
Dayak and etc.
4. South Sulawesi group
1) Saddansky.
2)
Buginese.
3) Makassar and etc.
5. Filipino group
1) Tagalog(Tagalog).
2)
Ilocano.
3) Bikolsky and etc.
6. Madagascar group
Malagasy (formerly Malagasy).
Dead:
Kavi- Old Javanese literary language; monuments from the 9th century n. e.; By origin, the Javanese language of the Indonesian branch was formed under the influence of the languages of India (Sanskrit).
B. Polynesian branch
1) Tonga and Niue.2) Maori, Hawaiian, Tahiti and etc.
3)Sam6a, uvea and etc.
B. Micronesian branch
1) Nauru.2) Marshallese.
3) Ponape.
4) Truk and etc.
Note. The classification of the Austronesian macrofamily is given in an extremely simplified form. In reality it covers huge number languages with an extremely complex multi-stage division, regarding which there is no consensus (V.V.)
XVII. AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
Many minor indigenous languages of central and northern Australia, the best known arant. Apparently they form a separate family Tasmanian languages on o. Tasmania.XVIII. PAPUA LANGUAGES
Languages of the central part of the island. New Guinea and some smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean. A very complex and not definitively established classification.XIX. PALEOASIAN LANGUAGES 1
A. Chukotka-Kamchatka languages
1) Chukotka(Luorawetlanian).2) Koryak(Nymylansky).
3) Itelmensky(Kamchadal).
4) Alyutorsky.
5) Kereksky.
B. Eskimo-Aleut languages
1) Eskimo(Yuitian).2) Aleutian(Unanganese).
B. Yenisei languages
1) Ketsky. This language shows similarities with the Nakh-Dagestan and Tibetan-Chinese languages. Its bearers were not natives of the Yenisei, but came from the south and were assimilated by the surrounding people.2) Kottsky, Arinsky, Pumpokolsky and other extinct languages.
G. Nivkh (Gilyak) language
D. Yukagir-Chuvan languages
Extinct languages (dialects?): Yukaghir(previously - Odulsky), Chuvansky, Omoksky. Two dialects have been preserved: Tundra and Kolyma (Sakha-Yakutia, Magadan, region).1 Paleo-Asian languages - the name is conditional: Chukchi-Kamchatka represent a community of related languages; other languages are included in Paleo-Asian languages rather on a geographical basis.
XX. INDIAN (AMERINDIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Language families of North America
1) Algonquian(Menominee, Delaware, Yurok, Mi'kmaq, Fox, Cree, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Illinois, Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Arapaho, etc., as well as the extinct ones - Massachusetts, Mohican, etc.).2) Iroquois(Cherokee, Tuscarora, Seneca, Oneida, Huron, etc.).
3) Sioux(Crow, Hidatsa, Dakota, etc., along with several extinct ones - Ofo, Biloxi, Tutelo, Catawba).
4) Gulf(Natchez, Tunica, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muskogee, etc.).
5) Na-den(Haida, Tlingit, Eyak; Athapaskan: Nava-ho, Tanana, Tolowa, Hupa, Mattole, etc.).
6) Mosanskie, including Wakash (Kwakiutl, Nootka) and Salish (Chehalis, Skomish, Kalispell, Bella Coola).
7) Penutian(Tsimshian, Chinook, Takelma, Klamath, Miubk, Zuni, etc., as well as many extinct ones).
8) Jocaltec(Karok, Shasta, Yana, Chimariko, Pomo, Salinai, etc.).
B. Language families of Central America
1) Uto-Aztecan(Nahuatl, Shoshone, Hopi, Luiseño, Papago, Cora, etc.). This family is sometimes combined with the Iowa-Tano languages (Kiowa, Piro, Tewa, etc.) within the Tano-Aztecan phylum.2) Maya-Quiche(Mam, Qeqchi, Quiche, Yucatec Maya, Ixil, Tzeltal, Tojolabal, Chol, Huastec, etc.). Before the arrival of Europeans, the Mayans reached a high level of culture and had their own hieroglyphic writing, partially deciphered.
3) Otomanga(Pame, Otomi, Popoloc, Mixtec, Trik, Zapotec, etc.).
4) Miskito - Matagalpa (Miskito, Sumo, Matagalpa, etc.). These languages are sometimes included in the Chibchan languages.
5) Chibchansky (karake, frame, getar, guaimi, chibcha, etc.). Chibchan languages are also common in South America.
B. Language families of South America
1) Tupi-Guarani(Tupi, Guarani, Yuruna, Tuparia, etc.).2) Kechumara(Quechua is the language of the ancient Inca state in Peru, currently in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador; Aymara).
3) Arawak(chamikuro, chipaya, itene, huanyam, guana, etc.).
4) Araucanian(Mapuche, Pikunche, Pehueich, etc.) -
5) Pano-takana(Chacobo, Kashibo, Pano, Takana, Chama, etc.).
6) Same(canela, suya, xavante, kaingang, botocuda, etc.).
7) Caribbean(wayana, pemon, chaima, yaruma, etc.).
8) Language alakaluf and other isolated languages.
