Language as a social phenomenon. Language and linguistics

Thought that language not a biological organism, but a social phenomenon, expressed earlier among representatives of "sociological schools" both under the flag of idealism (F. de Saussure, J. Vandries, A. Meillet) and under the flag of materialism (L. Noiret, N. Ya. Marr), but the stumbling block was lack of understanding of the structure of society and the specifics of social phenomena.

In social phenomena, Marxist science distinguishes basis(the economic system of society at this stage of its development) and superstructure(political, legal, religious, artistic views of society and the institutions corresponding to them). Each basis has its own superstructure.

Language is not an individual or biological phenomenon. The most popular opinion was to classify the language as an "ideology", i.e. to the area of ​​superstructures and the identification of language with culture.

However, the language is not a superstructure. Language is not a product of a given basis, it is a means of communication of a human collective, which develops and persists for centuries, despite the fact that during this time the basis and corresponding superstructures change.

* A person cannot be isolated from society. Language is all the more connected with society, its history.

An essential feature of language as a social phenomenon is its ability to reflect and express public consciousness.

2) Language and race are not related to each other.

3) the social nature of the language is manifested primarily in its connections with the people- a native speaker of the given language. The sociality of the language is also manifested in the social differentiation of the language, in the presence of dialects - territorial and social.

* Local dialect- a set of phonetic, lexical and grammatical features common in a particular territory.

* jargons - a set of some specific words and expressions that have a narrow scope - social and territorial.

The sociality of the language is manifested in the presence of professional vocabulary and terminology that characterizes not only the speech of social groups, but also becomes an integral component of the common language.

The language is national in its essence. The independence of language as a social phenomenon is manifested in the discrepancy between the state and the linguistic association of people, the division according to religious and linguistic grounds. (in Canada there are two official languages ​​- English and French, India - Hindi and English.

• Reflection in language of demographic changes;
• Reflection in the language of the peculiarities of the social organization of society (the dependence of the linguistic state on the nature of economic formations and the form of the state. For example, for the era of feudalism, the disintegration of countries into many small cells was characteristic. the structure of society contributed to the emergence of small territorial dialects. Local territorial dialects were the main form of the existence of language in feudal society.)
• society creates a language, controls what has been created and fixes it in the system of communicative means.

Language is not a culture. It is associated with culture and is inconceivable without culture, just as culture is inconceivable without language. But language is not an ideology, which is the basis of culture.

Language is not an instrument of production. It does not produce material goods and is only a means of communication between people.

The relationship of language and thinking

As a tool for exchanging thoughts and fixing them for posterity, language as a form national culture associated with consciousness and thinking.

Consciousness- the totality of mental activity, including intellect, feelings. And also the result of theoretical and practical activities, the awareness of a person and society of their being. Thinking- the ability to think and reason.

Language is a means and a tool for all types of thinking. Words are addressed to the world of things and the world of concepts.

• The role of language as a tool of thinking is manifested in the formation and expression of thoughts - the results of thinking, cognitive activity. "Thought only then becomes thought when it is expressed in speech, when it came out through the language" (Kalinin)
• Language expresses feelings, emotions and expressions of will.

Differences:

By the meaning and structure of their units.

1) the purpose of thinking is to acquire new knowledge, to systematize it. Language - serves cognitive activity. (we think to learn, we speak to convey thoughts)

2) the basis of thinking - the logical structure of thought, the rules for operating with concepts to achieve truth. The basis of the language is its grammatical structure, the rules of inflection, word formation and construction of sentences.

Unity is manifested in the fact that thought is directly related to language.

Just like communication, thinking can be verbal and non-verbal.

Non-verbal thinking is carried out with the help of visual-sensory images that arise as a result of the perception of impressions of reality and then retained by memory and recreated by the imagination.

Verbal thinking operates with concepts fixed in words, judgments, inferences, analyzes and generalizes, builds hypotheses and theories.

As a tool for fixing, transmitting and storing information, language is closely related to

thinking. Ferdinand de Saussure, Wilhelm Humboldt count. lang. formative

organ of thought. But some scientists believe that thinking, especially creative thinking, is quite

possible without verbal expression (Albert Einstein): isp. not words in thinking

or mat. signs, and vague images, a play of associations and then embody

result in words.

Language and speech:

Language call a specific code, a system of signs and rules for their use. This system includes units different levels: phonetic (sounds, intonation), morphological (parts of a word: root, suffix, etc.), lexical (words and their meanings) and syntactic (sentences).

Speech is understood as the activity of people in the use of the language code, the use of the sign system, speech is language in action... In speech, units of a language enter into various relationships, forming countless sets of combinations. Speech always unfolds in time, it reflects the characteristics of the speaker, depends on the context and situation of communication.

* The product of speech activity is specific texts created by speakers in oral or written form. If a language exists regardless of who speaks it, then speech is always tied to the speaker.

* Speech is a type of activity that always has two subjects. The first of them is the speaker or writer, and the second is the listener or reader. There is no speech without the addressee, and the variant of speech activity of speaking in the absence of another person is defined as a person's communication with himself.

• Speech and language can be compared to pen and text. Language is a pen, and speech is the text that is written with that pen.
• Each individual uses language to express his own unique identity ”; language, however, "is a means of transforming the subjective into the objective," therefore, language "should be considered not as a dead product, but as a creative process."
• Language comes alive in speech. But speech does not exist without language.

If we compare language and speech:

An object of ideal and material nature	Material
Socio-cultural heritage. Is a sign system regulated by norms	Functional system(implementation of the language system); allows in speech actions elements of accidental and sometimes deliberate violation of norms
System signs are a means of cognition	Signs are a means of communication
Static	Dynamic
versatile	individual
abstract	specific
systemic	consistent

Language and speech are a complex dialectical unity. Well, imagine an hourglass, how one flows into the other. Language becomes a means of communication, verbal communication and at the same time a means, an instrument of thinking only in the process of performing speech activity; “Language is created in speech and is constantly reproduced in it.” Language is not the only, but the most perfect means of communication. One of the most important functions of the language is communicative. But only through speech does the language realize its communicative purpose. On the other hand, it is language that allows a person to establish contact with another person, influence him, convey emotions, describe and perform other complex functions. Here is the hourglass, everything is interconnected. No language - no speech. No speech - no language. The basic unit of language is the word. The main unit of speech is utterance

Language as a social phenomenon

"Language is a special human and non-intensive way of conveying ideas, feelings and desires through a system of freely pronounced symbols." A person masters speech in the collective in which he grows up and is brought up, the ability of articulate speech, which appeared in the process of assimilating the historically established system of a particular human environment in the first years of life. Modern people, regardless of ethnicity, from childhood have the makings necessary to master any language.

Language is always the property of the collective. In the vast majority of cases, the collective of people speaking the same language is an ethnic collective. The languages ​​of some ethnic groups are also used as a means of interethnic communication. So, the Russian language is national language Russian and at the same time the language of interethnic communication of a number of other nations and nationalities.

The relationship of language and thinking

As a tool for consolidating, transmitting and storing information, language is closely related to thinking, with all the spiritual activities of people, aimed at cognizing the objectively existing world, at its display (modeling) in human consciousness. At the same time, forming the closest dialectical unity, language and thinking do not, however, constitute an identity: they are different, although interrelated phenomena, their areas intersect, but do not completely coincide.

Just like communication, thinking can be verbal and non-verbal.

Non-verbal thinking is carried out with the help of visual-sensory images that arise as a result of the perception of impressions of reality and then retained by memory and recreated by the imagination. So, non-verbal is mental activity when solving creative tasks of a technical nature (for example, those related to spatial coordination and movement of parts of a mechanism). The solution of such problems usually does not take place in the forms of internal (and even more so external) speech. This is a special "technical" or "engineering" thinking. The thinking of a chess player is close to this. A special type of visual-figurative thinking is characteristic of the work of a painter, sculptor, composer.

Verbal thinking operates with concepts fixed in words, judgments, inferences, analyzes and generalizes, builds hypotheses and theories. It takes place in the forms established in the language, that is, it is carried out in the processes of internal or (with "thinking aloud") external speech. We can say that language in a certain way organizes human knowledge about the world, dismembers and consolidates this knowledge and transfers it to subsequent generations. Conceptual thinking can also rely on secondary, artificial languages, on special communication systems built by man. So, a mathematician or physicist operates with concepts fixed in conventional symbols, thinks not in words, but in formulas, and with the help of formulas, he obtains new knowledge.

Language functions

1. Communicative (communication): reflects the purpose of the language, serves as an instrument of communication (the function of exchanging thoughts of transmitting information).

2. The function of providing the possibility of specific human thinking. Immediate reality of thoughts.

3. Cognitive (objective), associated with consciousness.

4. Emotional (helps to express emotions, feelings, experiences, mood).

5. Specific (the use of language as a means of figurative reflection of reality).

6. Pedagogical (language as a means of teaching).

7. Accumulative (function of accumulation and preservation of knowledge).

The structure of the language. Basic language units

The main levels and units of the language system:

The main "tiers" of the language system: phonemes, morphemes, words (lexemes), word combinations (tagmemes). These are objects scientific research language in phonology Background, morphology, lexicology, with syntax, determined by the properties of units that stand out during the sequential division of the language stream.

Relationship between units of the language system:

The properties of all language units are manifested in their relationship with other language units. The relationship of language units with each other in the most general view(abstracting from specific types of relations) can be reduced to three types: syntagmatic, paradigmatic and hierarchical.

Syntagmatic - these are the ratios of ones in a linear sequence (otherwise they are called combinatorial); For example, a sentence breaks down into words, words into morphemes, morphemes into phonemes. Syntagmatic relations can be characterized by the relation of real (actual) interaction. In an abstract form, they can be represented as relations of some classes.

Paradigmatic - these are, in the terminology of F. de Saussure, associative relations (groupings of units into classes based on generality or similarity, some of their essential properties). Paradigmatic relations are never characterized by the relation of real interaction, since they are relations of relatively homogeneous units formed, in the words of F. de Saussure, by mental association.

Hierarchical relationships - these are relations according to the degree of complexity, or relations of "entry" (componentness) of less complex units into more complex ones. Hierarchical relationships can be defined in terms of "is included in ..." or "consists of ...". Hierarchical relations are relations of entry of a simpler unit into a more complex one. These are the relations of the whole and the part, i.e., relations that characterize the structure of various units (both linguistic and speech, formed in the process of using linguistic means).

Units of language and speech:

Morpheme level : language unit - lexeme - a word taken in the aggregate of all its lexical meanings. Lexemes are stored in memory. Learn lexemes from dictionaries (English dictionary). Units of speech - lexa - a word used in speech in one of its meanings.

Syntactic level : Language unit - sentence:

structural diagram, model of minimal speech utterance

specific implementation of this scheme

Utterance, built according to some model, is a unit of speech.

Language as a system of signs

F. de Saussure's concept of a linguistic sign (signified and signifier)

Language is a system of interrelated and interdependent signs.

Saussure:“This opinion is erroneous, since it presupposes the presence of ready-made concepts preceding words. Such an idea does not say anything about the nature of the name (sound or psychic), and allows one to think that the connection connecting names and things is something simple, and this is very far from the truth. Nevertheless, this point of view brings you closer to the truth, as it points to the duality of language, to the fact that it is formed by the union of two components. "

“A linguistic sign connects not a thing and its name, concept and acoustic image. At the same time, the acoustic image is not a material sound, a purely physical thing, but a psychic imprint of sound, an idea obtained about it through our senses. "

Language sign properties

1. Arbitrariness: the connection through which the signifier is connected with the signified is arbitrary, that is, it is in no way conditioned by anything. Thus, the concept of "sister" is not related to the sequence of sounds soeur or sister, it could be expressed by any other sound shell. Arbitrary - that is, unmotivated, there is no logical connection. There are words associated with the concept (onomatopoeic factor). There are languages ​​with more or less motivation.

2. The linear character of the signifier: the signifier is perceived by ear, therefore it has an extension, one-dimensionality, that is, it is linear. "This is a very significant sign, and the consequences are incalculable." Auditory signs are very different from visual signs, which can have multiple dimensions.

3. Variability / immutability of the sign. Speakers cannot make changes to the language. The sign resists change, since its character is determined by tradition. In particular, due to:

* arbitrariness of the sign - protection from attempts to change it;

* plurality of signs;

* complex nature of the system;

* resistance to collective inertia to innovation.

The language provides few opportunities for initiative, revolutionary changes in the language are impossible, since at any given moment the language is the business of each and every one.

However, time has an impact on the language, so from this point of view, the language sign is changeable.

Changes in the signifier often lead to changes in the signified.

Language and speech

The distinction between the concepts of "language" and "speech" for the first time in a clear form was put forward and substantiated by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. By speech, modern linguistics understands not only oral speech, but also written speech. In a broad sense, the concept of "speech" also includes the so-called "inner speech", that is, thinking with the help of linguistic means, carried out "to oneself", without saying it aloud. When communicating, there is a "text exchange". If we restrict ourselves only to oral speech, then the exchange of texts is, for each text, on the one hand, an act of speaking, or "generating" a given text, on the other hand, an act of understanding or perceiving the text by the interlocutor. Acts of speaking and acts of understanding are called otherwise speech actions. The system of speech actions is speech activity.

Distinctive Holy Islands of language and speech according to Saussure:

Language is a social product, speech is always individual. Each act of speech is generated by a separate individual, and the language is perceived in the form in which it was bequeathed to us by previous generations, therefore, language is finished product, and speech is an individual act of will and reason;

Language potentially exists in every brain in the form of a gram system. The realization of these potentialities is speech;

Language differs from speech as essential from collateral and accidental. Essential in language is the normative facts of language (the language norm) fixed by linguistic practice, and all kinds of fluctuations and individual deviations in speech belong to collateral and accidental phenomena. Language is a system of signs in which the only essential phenomenon. connection of meaning and acoustic image.

Moreover, both of these components are equally mental.

The theory of the origin of language

Since antiquity, there have been many theories of the origin.

1) Onomatopoeia theory- received support in the 19th century. The essence of the theory is that people tried to imitate the sounds of nature with their speech apparatus. Contradicts practice. There are few sounding words, one can only sound onomatopoeic, as then to call the voiceless. The sound-podr of words is more in the developed I than in the primitive, because in order to imitate you need to master the speech device perfectly, which a primitive person with an undeveloped larynx could not do.

2) Interjection theory- XVIII century. I came from interjections - modif animal screams, accompanied by emotions.

3) Theory labor cries - XIX century. I arose from shouts, resistance to collective labor, however, these shouts are a means of rhythmizing labor, they are external to those medium during work. They are not communicative, not nominative, not expressive.

4) Social contract theory(Ser XVIII) And Smith proclaimed it as the first possible arr. Ya. I arr in rez-those agreements on certain words. This theory does not give anything to explain the primitive I, because in order to come to an agreement one more I is needed. The reason for the inferiority of all the above theories is that what? about the origin of I are conducted in isolation from the origin of man and the formation of primary people of collectives.

5) Gesture theory- it is also untenable, since gestures are always secondary for people having the sound I. Among gestures there are no words and gestures are not connected with concepts. Everything is similar to the theory of ignoring the I as a society. Of Engels' main propositions about the origin of the self: the origin of the self cannot be scientifically proven, one can only construct hypotheses, only linguistic data are not enough to solve this issue.

Albanian

Greek: modern greek, ancient greek.

Iranian: Farsi (New Persian), Pashto (Afghani), Dari, Tajik, Kurdish, Ossetian

Indo-Aryan: Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Gypsy

Armenian language

Afrasian (semioto-Hamitic) family:

Semitic: Arabic, Amharic (in Ethiopia), Hebrew

Kushite: Somali

Berber: (lang. in North Africa) zenaga

Chadian:(lang. in West Africa, south of the Sahara) Hausa, Chansk, Svan

Egyptian: Coptic, Ancient Egyptian

Cart family : Grazin, Chansk, Svan

Abkhazian - Adyghe family :

Abkhazian subgroup - Abkhazian, Abaza

Circassian subgroup - Adyghe, Kabardian

Nakhsko-Dagestan family :

Nakh subgroup - Chechen, Ingush, Batsby

Dagestan subgroup - Avar, Lak, Lezghin

Dravidian family: (South India) Telugu, Tamil

Uralic family of languages:

Finno-Ugric:

Ob-Ugric subgroup - Hungarian, Khanty, Mansi

Baltic-Finnish subgroup - Finnish (Suomi), Estonian, Karelian, Vepsian, Izhora

Volga subgroup - Mordovian

Permian subgroup - Udmurt

Samoyed: Nenets, Enets

Turkic family : Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Altai, Pechenegs, Polovtsy

Mongolian family : Mongolian, Buryat, Kalmyk

23 families in total

Genealogical classification of languages - is set based on comparative historical method... Most of the languages ​​are divided into so-called language families, each of which, in turn, consists of different subgroups, or branches, and these latter - from separate languages.

Reasons:

1) By how many people speak some l. language can be distinguished by numerous and small languages. Numerous - languages ​​spoken by several tens of millions of people (Chinese, English, Russian). Small in number - languages ​​spoken by several thousand or hundreds of people (languages ​​in the Caucasus, Kamchatka, Siberia). In total, about 2.5 thousand languages. The 26 common languages ​​are spoken by 96% of people.

2) Division of languages ​​into "living" and "dead". Living - the languages ​​spoken by the cat now. Dead - the cat was spoken before (Latin, Greek).

3) Written, non-written and young-written. Written languages ​​are rich in writing. Non-Written (Africa ...) Written - Having a young writing tradition.

Characteristics of the Indo-European family of languages:

the most widespread language family in the world. Its distribution area includes almost all of Europe, both Americas and mainland Australia, as well as a significant part of Africa and Asia. More than 2.5 billion people - i.e. about half of the total population the globe- speak Indo-European languages. All major languages ​​of Western civilization are Indo-European. All languages ​​of modern Europe belong to this family of languages, with the exception of Basque, Hungarian, Sami, Finnish, Estonian and Turkish, as well as several Altai and Uralic languages ​​of the European part of Russia. The name "Indo-European" is arbitrary. In Germany, the term "Indo-Germanic" was previously used, and in Italy - "Ario-European" to indicate that ancient people and ancient language, from which all later Indo-European languages ​​are believed to have originated. The supposed ancestral home of this hypothetical people, whose existence is not supported by any historical evidence (except linguistic), is Eastern Europe or Western Asia.

The first language family, established by means of the comparative historical method, was the so-called "Indo-European".

The largest family of languages, Indo-European, includes such different languages ​​as Russian, Lithuanian, Latin, French, Spanish, Greek, Old Indian, English, German and many others, living and dead languages, since they all belong to the same basis - the Proto-Indo-European language , which first disintegrated into as a result of divergence into different dialects, which then separated into independent languages.

The number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. According to the views of some modern linguists (Illich-Svitych), it is part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.

Within the family, languages ​​are divided into groups and branches:

1.Slavic (eastern branch - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; western - Polish, Czech, Slovak; southern - Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian (from dead languages ​​- Old Slavonic) ..

2.Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian, dead - Old Prussian)

3. Germanic (English, German, Dutch, Afrikaans (South Africa), Yiddish (New Jewish), Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Islamic, dead - Gothic).

4.Celtic (Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc.)

5.Roman (French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, Romanian, Moldavian, etc.)

6.albanian

7.greek

8.Iranian

9.Indo-Aryan

10.Armenian

Syllable. Hyphenation.

Syllable - this is one vowel sound (or syllable consonant), alone or in combination with a consonant (or consonants), pronounced with one push of exhaled air.

In Russian, the syllable is a vowel sound, therefore there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels: a-ri-ya (3 syllables), ma-yak (2 syllables), flight (1 syllable).

Syllables are open (ending in a vowel sound) and closed (ending in a consonant sound). For example, in the word ko-ro-na, all syllables are open, and in the word ar-buz, both syllables are closed.

Syllables exist because:

A syllable is an important and clearly distinguished unit in speech intuition.

The syllable is the basic unit in versification.

Hyphenation v different languages Other. In Russian, the border runs between the most contrasting sounds in terms of sonority, in less of the least adhesion: bo-chka, la-psha, brus-ski, ly-zhnya, kA-sssa, o-ttu-da. Open syllables prevail. Kor-tik, horse-ki, pal-to, kA-rman, marine (half-open, closed syllables at the end of words). In other languages, there are many closed syllables (mix-ture).

Stress. Types of stress

Intonation - the rhythmic and melodic side of speech, which serves as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional and expressive coloring.

Stress - a method of forming a phonetically integral speech segment.

1. Word stress - highlighting one syllable in a word with the help of duration, volume, pitch, including their combination.

2. Dynamic (power) - the stressed syllable is the loudest in the word (English, French)

3. Quantative (longitudinal) - the stressed syllable is the longest (New Greek)

4. Musical (tone) - the stressed syllable is highlighted by the pitch and the nature of the change in tone (Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese).

5. Bar stress - combines several words into a speech bar (syntagma).

6. Phrasal stress - combines several measures into a phrase.

Depending on the place of stress, a fixed stress is distinguished, which is assigned to a certain syllable (Finnish, Czech, French, Polish).

The impact can be mobile and motionless.

Word stress in Russian. lang. free, i.e. can be in any syllable.

With a fixed stress, its place in the word remains unchanged during the formation of grams. forms, as well as in word formation (do-do-do-do-do, etc.).

Moving stress when changing a word can move from one syllable to another and even go beyond the word (spinA - back, nAf back).

There are also weak stress, secondary stress, logical.

Phonological schools

Moscow Phonological School (MFS)

Founders Avanesov, Sidorov, Kuznetsov

Phoneme Is the shortest unit. lang., represented in speech by a number of positionally alternating sounds, serving to distinguish and identify morphemes and words.

Difference of phonemes: you need to choose 2 words where there is 1 different sound, and all the rest are the same)

и they are not simple sounds, but phonemes

Leningradskaya (Petersburg) (LFSH)

Founders Lev Vlad. Shcherba (20th century)

Phoneme Is a generalized type of sound that is derived from experiments.

Allocated 6 vowel phonemes

Prague Linguistic Circle (PLC)

Trubitskoy, Jacobson

Phonetic processes

In the flow of speech, the articulation of one sound is superimposed on the articulation of another sound, and one sound adapts to another. Such devices are called combinatorial changes sounds.

1. Accommodation - partial adaptation of the articulations of adjacent acc. and vowel. sounds.

2. Assimilation - assimilation of one sound to another, but of the same kind, i.e. vowel vowel, acc. acc. Assim. may be complete or incomplete. For example, sew [w: yt "] - full; bow [ban" t "ik] - incomplete - on the basis of softness.

3. Dissimilation - assimilation of sounds of the same kind. It can be contact and distant. For example, kolidor (dict, distribution of the solution according to the place and method of education); bonba (contact, distribution of mb in place of the image.)

4. Diareza - loss of sound or syllable (haplology), especially often in fast speech.

5. Epenthesis - insert sound. In Russian. lang. between vowels in colloquial pronunciation. (radivo, sirloin, shpiyon)

6. Prosthesis - an extension, a “prefix” of the sound before the word (eastern, eight, caterpillar)

7. Metathesis - rearrangement of sounds or syllables in a word (palm - dolong)

8. Reduction - weakening of the sonority of vowel sounds in unstressed syllables and consonants at the end before a pause.

Orthoepy

Orthoepy - studies the norms of literary pronunciation.

Morphemics. Types of morphemes.

In science, it is customary to distinguish between linguistic and speech units.

Morpheme - morpheme level unit of language

Morph - unit of speech

Types of morphs depending on the conditions of their use:

ü Allomorphs - morphs identical in meaning, the phonetic difference of which is due to the alternation of phonemes in different positions .: Russian Suffixes -Chik / -chik distributed as follows: after the morph on T or d the suffix is ​​used –Manager (barman), and in other cases the suffix is ​​used - attendant (attendant) and also when before consonants T and d there is a sonorous (pawnbroker);

Road<дорог>

Road<дорож>allomorphs

Gloom - gloomy

Catch / inf. on b, c, f

ü Variants - morphs that are identical not only in meaning, but also in position, since they are characterized by free interchangeability in any positional conditions (ending -Th / -th for nouns in tv. n. units h. f. R.: water / water).

Adjectives also have variants of morphemes. TV p. - oh / oh (f) dark-dark.

The collection of morphemes in a word is called the morpheme structure of the word. The analysis of a word by its constituent morphemes is called morpheme analysis.

There are two types of analysis:

Morphemic (no stem highlighting) and

word-formation: (the basis of the way of education)

Word-formation analysis - with t.zr. synchronicity as modern. a native speaker thinks this word is educated.

Etymological analysis - analysis of morphemic and word-formation structure, the result of which is the establishment of the origin of the word.

Historical morpheme change:

The change in the word is facilitated by a number of processes occurring in the morph. Structure of the word.

Bogoroditsky (at the end of the 19th century) described 3 of these processes,

later 4th trial

Processes:

1. Simplification - this is the transition of a word from a more complex composition of morphemes to a simpler one as a result of combining two morphemes into one. So in a word shirt ancient root rub- now not recognized, root and ancient suffix -Oh- merged into one new root morpheme shirts- .

Bag. Originally a bag ("fur"), (the bags were sewn from fur) subsequently not only from fur. In modern language there is no connection with fur "bag" - non-derivatives. Breaking the semantic link.

Box - from the Turkic "yask" (basket)

Cloud - obvlako (originally Russian from envelop)

The phonetic process - "v" was thrown out.

2. Decomposition. - the number of morphemes does not change, but the boundaries between morphemes change. So. In ancient times, in case forms of the plural rivers, rivers, rivers highlighted the basis river- and endings -Мъ, -mi, -хъ... now the basis is highlighted rec-.

To give to give (etymologist.)

Give + p - gift

3. Complication - this is the appearance of a border between morphemes in a place where it was not dividing one morpheme into two. The word Zonnedek (umbrella), borrowed from the Dutch language, was divided in Russian into umbrella-uk under the influence of Russian. house, leaf etc.

In the words academician, chemist, the suffix -ik stands out (compare: academy, chemistry); by analogy, we tend to single out the same suffix in the words of a botanist, physicist, etc., but the etymology does not provide a basis for this. Borrowed fundamentals on the basis of the Russian language are "complicated".

4. Decorrelation - a process in which a word continues to be segmented in the same way as before, but its constituent morphemes turn out to be different in meaning and in their connections with each other.

Freeze is a suffix. way of education.

k - abstract action.

Etymological analysis - not from a verb to freeze, but from the mouth. noun frosts=> to is a diminutive-caress suffix.

The meaning of the derivational suffix is ​​changing. Historical changes.

Agglutination and fusion

Varieties of affixation: fusion and agglutinativeness.

Grammatical modes are a universal concept. Either all or some of them are used.

Affixation - one of the grammatical ways.

Agglutination (mainly in the languages ​​of Asia, Africa, Oceania) - a type of affixation in which standard (unambiguous) affixes are attached to the root or stem, the boundaries between morphemes are clearly marked. Each affix has its own meaning. Always 1 affix for one value. The root does not change in the phonemic composition (the root is independent). Har-r connection of affixes - "mechanical gluing".

Fusia (mainly in Indo-European languages) - a type of affixation, but with this type of affixation, interpenetration of morphemes, fusion ("fusion") is possible. It is difficult to draw morpheme boundaries. The affixes are ambiguous. 1 affix can denote several grammatical meanings. The affixes are homosemic. 1 gram. meaning can be expressed in different affixes. The root can change in the phonemic composition (alternations caused by combinatorial, positional, historical change). The root is often not self-sufficient. Har-r connection of affixes - "alloy".

Morphology and syntax

Morphology together with syntax make up grammar.

Syntax - section of grammar, study. patterns of construction of proposals. and combinations of words in a phrase, as well as the principles of inclusion of sentences. into a superphrasal unity (syllable syntactic whole) and a text.

Monosemy and polysemy

Monosemy is the property of words to have one meaning

Polysemy - polysemy, the presence of a word (language unit) of two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings.

In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemies are distinguished. So, the shape of the 2 person unit. h. Russian verbs can be used not only in their own personal, but also in a generalized personal meaning. Wed: "Well, you will shout down everyone!" and "You cannot be shouted down." In such a case, one should speak of grammatical polysemy.

Often, when they talk about polysemy, they mean, first of all, the polysemy of words as vocabulary units. Lexical polysemy - this is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve ("part of the shirt" - "branch of the river"). The following relationships can be established between the meanings of a word:

Types of hyphenation:

By the nature of linguistic motivation:

Metaphor

For example: knight - knight ("animal" - "chess piece")

According to the frequency of use and the stylistic role of metaphors, there are:

a) dry or worn out - unremarkable and known to everyone (back lane)

b) general poetic - figurative, known to everyone, used in poetry (gray fog)

Types of metaphors:

1. Similarity of shape - gold ring- ring of roads

2. Similarity of location - bird wing - building wing

3. Similarity of functions - bird feather - steel feather

4. Color similarity - gold earrings - golden autumn

5. Similarity of assessment - clear day - clear view

6. Similarity of Impression - Warm Day - Warm Welcome

7. Similarity in the way the action is presented - embrace with hands - anxiety swept over

Metonymy

For example: dish - dish ("type of dishes" - "portion of food")

Metonymy - renaming by adjacency

Types of metonymy:

2. Material for the product (exhibition of silver)

3. Action on the result (term paper)

4. Action on the means of action (beautiful packaging)

5. Action on the scene (underground passage)

6. The object of science on the branch of knowledge (vocabulary as a science)

7. Phenomenon, sign, quality per owner ()

8. The name of the person on the subject opened by him (X-ray)

Synecdoche (a type of metonymy)

Transferring part to whole, set to single, generic to specific and vice versa (“The buyer chooses quality products.” The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of potential buyers.)

Types of synecdoches:

1. Plural instead of singular (as the Frenchman was jubilant)

2. A certain number instead of an indefinite one (thousand-headed crowd)

3. Species instead of generic (take care and save a penny)

4. The name of the attribute instead of the subject (all flags will be visiting us).

Homonymy. Types of homonyms

Homonyms - different in meaning, but identical in spelling and sounding units of the language (words, morphemes, etc.). The term was introduced by Aristotle.

Classification:

Complete - words of one part of speech are the same in all forms (club - club)

Partial - words of one or different parts of speech in all (or one) form coincide with one of the forms of another word (drop - drops - drops of medicine).

Related phenomena:

Homophony is phonetic ambiguity, phonetic homonyms are words that sound the same but are spelled differently and have different meanings.

(threshold - vice - park, meadow - onion, fruit - raft, carcass - ink, death - you will fall, ball - point, inert - bone, betray - give)

In Russian, the two main sources of homophony are the phenomenon of stunning consonants at the end of words and before another consonant sound and the reduction of vowels in an unstressed position.

Also, the infinitive and the form of the third person of the same verb are often pronounced in the same way (in writing, they differ in the presence or absence of the letter "b"): to decide - to decide, to build - to be built, to bend - to bend, to return - will return.

Homophony also includes cases of phonetic coincidence of a word and a phrase or two phrases. The letters used may completely coincide, and the difference in spelling lies only in the arrangement of spaces: in place - together, in everything - at all, from mint - crumpled, from the hatch - and angry, not mine - dumb.

Homography - words that coincide in spelling, but differ in pronunciation (in Russian, most often due to differences in stress).

(atlas - atlas, squirrels - squirrels, storms - storms, management - management, backwaters - backwaters)

Omoformia - words that sound the same only in some grammatical forms and at the same time most often belong to different parts speech. One of the varieties of homonyms.

(I fly by plane and treat my throat (in other forms - fly and heal, flew and heal, etc.); sharp saw and saw compote (in other forms - saw and drink, saws and drink, etc.))

Homomorphs are morphemes that coincide in spelling and pronunciation, but have different grammatical meanings. For example, the ending a in Russian means:

The plural of nouns of the second declension (city - cityA),

Genitive case of nouns (house - doma),

The feminine gender of the past tense verbs (saw - saw).

Synonymy. Types of synonyms

Synonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning, for example: cavalry - cavalry, courageous - brave.

Synonyms serve to increase the expressiveness of speech, their use allows you to avoid the monotony of speech.

However, synonyms can be not only words, but also phrases, phraseological turns, morphemes, constructions, etc., similar in one of the meanings with a difference in sound and stylistic coloring

Synonymous words are functionally equivalent, that is, they perform the same function, but they can differ in:

Expressive coloring (work - work - shabashka)

Attachment to a certain style (ending - inflection)

Semantic valence (brown eyes BUT brown door)

By use (lanita - cheeks)

Types of synonyms:

Lexical - words that are currently similar in meaning in the language, differently calling the same concept (famous - famous)

Phraseological (the trace is gone - it was like that)

Morphological (doors - doors)

Word formation (unknown - unknown)

Syntactic (Hector killed by Achilles - Hector killed by Achilles)

These differences allow you to set 2 main functions of synonyms:

Substitution (replacement in one sentence)

Clarification (disclosure of various properties of designated objects of reality)

In addition, there are partial synonyms that can clarify:

Intensity, quantity, property of action (need - poverty)

The way of doing the action (walk - walk)

Different sides (fast - jaunty)

-Synonymous row (Synonymous nest) - groups of semantically related words.

In the synonymous row, one word stands out (pivotal, pivotal, dominant)

Synonymous series are very diverse, especially in grammatical meaning:

Nouns (horse - nag)

Adjectives (reciprocal - reciprocal)

Pronouns (someone - someone)

Verbs (write - scribble)

Adverbs (inside out - inside out)

A common language is the most important component of the life of any society, a condition for its existence. That is why language acts as public phenomenon. Let us consider the role, functions of language in society, the forms of existence of the national language.

Definition of language

In everyday life, people do not think about what language is, what are its main features, properties, functions. What is language - everyone understands, these are the words that we pronounce and hear around. However, to give a theoretical definition of language, to reveal and determine its essence turns out to be very tricky business, and linguists disagree in many respects when they try to theoretically comprehend the phenomenon of language.

There are many definitions of language, and, as a rule, they emphasize a particular function, and also indicate some properties of the language.

For example, young grammarians, following an idealistic philosophy that interpreted language as a product of the absolute spirit (Hegel) and the psychology of their time, understood language as a means of expressing the individual soul.

K. Vossler interpreted the language as creative, aesthetic self-expression of the individual spirit ", L. Elmslev - how a clean structure of relationships, indifferent to its elements.

The naive materialistic approach was observed in the theory of naturalism, which interpreted language as natural organism, in the concept of American descriptivists who understand

Language as a social phenomenon 39

Whether the language is like form of human behavior in the struggle for existence and in a number of other concepts.

From the standpoint of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels considered language as “practical, existing for other people and only thereby existing for myself, real consciousness” and noted that language appears “in the form of moving layers of air, sounds "(K. Marx, F. Engels Works. 2nd ed., Vol. 3, p. 25). Thus, it was emphasized materiality of language and its role in shaping consciousness person.

V. I. Lenin noted that "language is the most important means of human communication" (Lenin V. I. Poli. Sobr. Soch., Vol. 25, p. 258), emphasizing communicative function language.

Linguistics of the 20th century developed an understanding of language as a system of signs.

Modern science has established that there is no language in the human genetic code. A child is born with biological prerequisites for mastering a language, but outside of a collective of speakers, he will not learn the language. Only in society speaking people it is possible to master the language, which indicates such an important feature of the language as its public character.

Anthropological studies, the study of the formation of language in a child show that language did not arise in a person at once, it was formed gradually and underwent a long evolution from primitive communication signals of a primitive person to a developed one. current state i.e. human language developed historically.

Based on the main features of the language and its main function, we can define the language as the historically formed system of material signs in society that perform a communicative function.

Language functions

40___________________________________________ Topic 2

Comrade The lack of clarity in the content of the concept of "function" leads to the fact that linguists, speaking about the functions of language, understand by them completely different things in a number of cases.

In most works, the function of language is understood as the main purpose of the language - this is how the communicative function is distinguished as its only function. This idea is developed in their works by Russian linguists-theoreticians N.I. Zhinkin, R.V. Pazukhin, G.V. Kolshansky, B.A. Serebrennikov and some others.

A number of scientists, along with the communicative one, distinguish the function of expressing thought - expressive and consider it to be completely equal with the communicative function of language (A. Chiko-bava, A. A. Reformatsky, V. 3. Panfilov, etc.).

In addition, the functions are called the spheres of language use (compare: the function of interethnic communication, the function of scientific or everyday communication, etc.), as well as the types of use language in particular situations of communication (compare poetic function, emotive function, appeal function, pointing function, directive function, magic function, accumulative function, influence function, contact function, etc.).

Understanding the function as the purpose of the object used by the subject (s), it should be recognized that one must distinguish between:

1) general functions language as a social phenomenon, different from other social phenomena;

2) the properties of language as a system of signs;

3) the private functions that the language performs in the
specific situations of communication between people.

The function of language as a social phenomenon is communicative- the function of transferring information from subject to subject. The communicative function is inherent in language, from whatever point of view we consider it - both from the point of view of the speaker and from the point of view of the listener. She implemented in any communication situation. This allows us to consider the communicative function as the main function of language as a social phenomenon.

In the future, we will proceed from the fact that the function of language as a social phenomenon is one: communicative

Language as a social phenomenon 41

naya. In order to perform this function, the language was formed as a system of signs that are combined with each other according to certain rules, due to which human thought becomes materially expressed and perceived.

The communicative function of the language in modern conditions is implemented in three forms:

Narrow communication - direct
one-on-one communication between people, oral or written dialogue;

Broadcast communication - direct
military communication of one person with a large group of people
(lesson, lecture, meeting, meeting):

Mass communication - communication of a person with nevi
dima audience through the newspaper, radio, television.

Highlighted by a number of scientists expressive the function of language (the function of expressing thoughts) concerns only the activity of the speaker, and therefore it cannot be equal with the communicative one. This is a manifestation of the essence of language, one of the main properties of language as a system of signs that performs a communicative function - the ability to carry out the expression of thought, and not a separate function of language. This property is one of the components of the essence of language as a means of communication. The manifestation of the properties of the language can also include such "functions" as nominative(naming the language of the phenomena of objective and subjective reality), accumulative(language is a means of accumulation in a verbal, textual form of knowledge and experience of mankind), cognitive(cognitive, through language people get acquainted with the results of knowledge of the world by other people, previous generations; this property of the language provides an opportunity for people to learn in educational institutions).

The same functions that are manifested in particular situations of speech communication detail the communicative function and can be considered as its particular manifestations, partial derivatives. K. Buhler wrote that a language is a tool, and it has a main function, although it can be used in other, side functions. For example, the main function of a hammer is to hammer in nails, but it can

42_________________________________________________ Topic 2

push it between the jamb and the door so that the door does not close; they can press a sheet of paper so that the wind does not carry it away; it can be placed under any object so that it stands smoother, etc. Similarly, the main function of language is communicative, but language can also be used in non-basic functions arising from the communicative, which are the concretization of the communicative function in certain communicative conditions.

These are, for example, the function emotive(expression of feelings and experiences of a person in the process of his speech), directive(she is incentive) - an expression of the will, the desire of the speaker; poetic(aesthetic) - the use of language as a means of creation literary texts; contact(she phatic)- establishing and maintaining contact with the interlocutor; in modern media, a kind of phatic monologue speech of TV presenters is developing, which does not contain information, but creates the illusion of communication; deictic(pointer) - an indication of something with words like this one, there, then, here, now etc., magical- the use of language as a tool of fortune telling and fortune telling, suggestive- using language as a means of influencing the psyche of another person (suggestion, hypnosis), instrumental- the function of direct speech impact on a person through the use of direct meanings of words, symbolic- speech impact on a person by the indirect meaning of words and phrases, subtext, etc.

French linguist Emile Benveniste pointed out a large set of tools for the so-called performative functions. This function is performed by words and expressions, the pronunciation of which at the same time is the verbal action that they call: I promise, I wish you happiness, I wish you a happy birthday, I apologize, I give the name Nikolai, I declare the meeting open.

The number of private functions of the language can be increased. It is obvious that communication situations can be infinitely varied in purpose, in the speaker's attitude, in the impact on the interlocutor, and on other grounds.

Language as a social phenomenon 43

Verbal communication

Speech activity that occurs between two or more people is communication.

The study of speech activity involves elucidating the signs, types and types of communication, understanding the specifics certain types verbal communication.

When discussing communication problems, we proceed from the concept full communication. Full communication is understood as communication in the full scope of its functions and features.

The functions of communication are based, naturally, on the functions of language, are manifested in the process of bilateral dialogical exchange of information and equally affect all participants in this process.

Full communication can be defined by listing its main features. It acts as conscious, rationally designed, purposeful information exchange between people, accompanied by the individualization of the interlocutors, the establishment of emotional contact between them and feedback.

Let's consider these signs.

Information exchange

This means that in the process of communication, information must be transmitted to each other by all participants in the communication, that is, there must be reciprocity of information - both parties transmit and receive information. TV, newspaper, SOS signal, traffic light, telephone answering machine, computer transmit information to us, but we do not communicate with them. Such situations cannot be considered natural, full-fledged communication: one is "pronounced", and the other acts only as a listener; one shouts at the other, and he is silent; people are together, but do not talk to each other ("he was silent, but I listened"). Communication is necessarily a two-way process.

44___________________________________________ Topic 2

Linguistics

(Aglyamova)

Noting the way in which the language is shaped as a general feeling, we can say that the language is not like what other science of society. In a number of essential features, language differs from all social phenomena in such features as:

a) language is a necessary condition for the existence of society throughout the history of mankind. The existence of any social phenomenon it is limited in time: it is not originally in human society and is not eternal. In contrast to the non-primordial and / or transient phenomena of social life, language is primordial and exists as long as society exists;

b) a necessary condition for material and spiritual existence in all spheres of social space is the presence of language. Being the most important and basic means of communication, language is inseparable from any manifestations of human social being;

c) the language is dependent and not dependent on society. The globality of language, its universality, its inclusion in all forms of social life and social consciousness give rise to its overgroup character. However, this does not mean that he is extrasocial;

d) language is a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of mankind, one of the forms of social consciousness (along with everyday consciousness, morality and law, religious consciousness and art, ideology, politics, science). It is a means of communication, a semantic shell of social consciousness. Through language, a specifically human form of transmission of social experience (cultural norms and traditions, natural science and technological knowledge) is carried out;

e) the development of language regardless of the social history of society, although it is conditioned and directed precisely by social history. The connection between the history of language and the history of society is obvious: there are features of language and language situations that correspond to certain stages of ethnic and social history. So, we can talk about the originality of languages ​​or linguistic situations in primitive societies, in the Middle Ages, in modern times. The language preserves the unity of the people in the historical change of generations and social formations, despite social barriers, uniting the people in time, in geographic and social space;

f) the role and position of language in human society is the source of its duality (stability and mobility, statics and dynamics). Adapting to the new needs of society, the language changes. On the other hand, all changes must be socially motivated and do not violate mutual understanding.

The essence of the language, its nature, the purpose of the the purpose of the function is in its functions. Depending on the background of what external factor the nature of the language is considered, the functions performed by it are also distinguished. We can talk about such functions as:

Communicative (the function of a means of communication), carried out in acts of communication between people, consisting in transmitting and receiving messages in the form of linguistic / verbal statements, in the exchange of information between people - communicants as participants in acts of linguistic communication. On the communicative purpose of the language in general plan guessed, of course, even in ancient times. In particular, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (c. 428-348 BC), describing the extremely general model of a speech act "someone about something by means of language" puts the language into it, indicating on its role as a medium in the transmission of information. The very need for communication in society was explained in general terms only in the 19th century, and explained in detail at the end of the 80s of the 20th century. Then it was believed that the urgent need for communication was historically caused by two circumstances: a) a rather complex work activity (Ludwig Noiret "The Origin of Language" - 1877) and b) the phenomenon of apprenticeship, involving the transfer of experience and knowledge from one creature to another. The need for communication is considered, therefore, as a factor that gave rise to life and its technical solution - language. A thorough study of language as a means of communication later showed that, in principle, language can and does satisfy a wide variety of communication goals due to cultural and historical factors. Thus, the communicative function of the language has a ramified system in which it realizes its needs.

Expressive, consisting in the expression of thoughts (according to V. Avrorin). Sometimes it is called cognitive, cognitive, epistemological, which consists in the processing and storage of knowledge in the memory of the individual and society, in the formation of a picture of the world. This function is revealed as a conceptual, or thought-forming function. This means that language is in a certain way connected with the consciousness and thinking of a person. The basic units of consciousness and thinking are such as representations, concepts, judgments and inferences. The cognitive function is directly related to such a category of consciousness as a concept, and indirectly, implicitly implies its correlation with other forms of mental operations. The largest linguist and thinker of the first half of the 19th century. Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) called language "the formative organ of thought." Therefore, in addition to the term "cognitive function", there is also another, namely, "thought-form function". Nevertheless, there is complete certainty in the definition of the cognitive function of language, which considers language as a tool of cognition, as a means of mastering knowledge and socio-historical experience and as a way of expressing the activity of consciousness. This function of language is clearly and directly related to research, the search for truth.

Constructive, consisting in the formation of thoughts. In its most general form, the constructive function of language can be imagined as a thought-forming function: linguistic units, linguistic categories, as well as the types of operations with them, "provided" by the linguistic system, are the matter and the form in which human thought itself proceeds. In order for an elementary thought about some fragment of reality to take place, it is first necessary to segment this reality into at least two "parts": what will serve as the subject of our thought, and what we think about this subject (and then we will inform) ... In this case, the segmentation of reality is carried out in parallel with the process of its naming, naming, nomination.

Accumulative, which consists in a person's reflection of the surrounding world, which occurs with the help of thinking, when information is formed, generated and stored. The entire baggage of human knowledge, as a rule, is recorded, stored and disseminated in written and book forms: scientific articles, monographs, dissertations, encyclopedias, reference books, as well as in educational and methodological literature. The ability of language to serve as a means of information is presented as its accumulative function - the function of accumulating and storing information. Without this function of language, humanity would always and in everything have to start from scratch, the cognitive activity of humanity would not be so impetuous, since the comprehension of the world presupposes an obligatory reliance on what has already been discovered, already known and experienced. Without the accumulative function of language, it would be impossible to accumulate, store, and then transmit socially important information: humanity would not have and would not know its history. Without the accumulative function of language, the formation and development of civilizations would not have taken place. LES to the two basic functions of language - communicative and cognitive (expressive - V.Kh.) - adds emotional and metalanguage, attributed by many, like others considered below, to the secondary functions of language.

Emotional or emotive (expressive) function. Linguistic means (morphological, lexical and intonational) can be and are the form in which the most diverse emotional states of a person find their expression - joy, delight, anger, surprise, annoyance, disappointment, fear, irritation, etc. So, in many languages, a special class of words has developed - the class of interjections - specializing in the expression of emotions - the expression of regret, disappointment, fatigue, surprise, doubt, distrust, as well as words with emotionally expressive connotations. It should be noted that the expression of emotions in language is historically and ethnically determined. The culture itself and the very "scenarios" of verbal experiences of emotions in different nations are different (which in one of her studies draws attention to the Polish researcher Anna Vezhbitska). Therefore, the arsenal of linguistic means intended for expressing feelings among different peoples is not the same, both in volume and in quality. Some ethnic groups experience certain emotions in verbally restrained forms (Japanese, Koreans, Chinese, Scandinavians), others - in more “relaxed” forms (Americans, Russians, Spaniards, Italians). For example, Russians have a hypertrophy of swearing as a means of expressing emotions - and not even always negative ones. Naturally, such a "tradition" cannot beautify speech and language. This problem is especially acute today. It is no accident that they write about the pejorative dominant of Russian emotionality as a serious sociolinguistic problem. There are actually lexical means focused on the presentation of emotions in speech. For example, pejorative or abusive vocabulary is one of the ways to express negative emotions; beneficial, or complimentary, enthusiastic vocabulary conveys a wide range of positive human experiences. The most powerful tool explications emotional states intonation appears. Studies have shown that phonoposodic (intonational-accentological) samples of a particular language allow a person even in an early childhood recognize the emotive type of speech addressed to him. The emotive function of language (to which the function of influence is partly "mixed") realizes itself in such speech genres as abuse, curse, censure, admiration, praise, verbal thanksgiving, and imitation.

The metalanguage function (explanatory), which is also considered secondary to the communicative function, has as its main content the speech commentary of speech - the explanation, interpretation, description of something in the language itself or in the extra-linguistic world by means of the language itself. A metalanguage is a language in which some other language is described, called in this case a subject language or an object language. So, if the grammar of the English language is written in Russian, then the object language in such a description will be English, and the metalanguage will be Russian. Of course, the object language and the metalanguage can be the same (for example, English grammar in English). Apparently, languages ​​can differ in the nature and variety of their metalanguage means. The ability to think and speak about language with the help of its own lexical and grammatical means (i.e., the reflectivity of the language) is one of the characteristics of language development, which distinguishes the language of people from the language of animals. In the ontogeny of modern man, the facts of metalinguistic reflection are possible in the third or fourth year of life and are common since the fifth or sixth. This attention to language manifests itself in comparing words, correcting someone else's and one's own speech, in language games, in a speech commentary. The use of language in the metalanguage function is usually associated with some kind of difficulties in verbal communication - for example, when talking with a child, a foreigner who does not quite know the given language or style. Hearing an unfamiliar word modem, a person may ask: What does a modem mean? Let's say his interlocutor answers: This is such a prefix to a computer that can send messages. In this case, the question about the word modem and the explanation in response are specific manifestations of the metalanguage function of the language. As a means of interpretation, language manifests itself in such speech genres as dictionary definition, commentary on a document or work fiction... This function of language is also demonstrated by literary criticism and the genre of explaining new material in educational communications. There are special programs in the media dealing with the interpretation, explanation and clarification of certain political steps, decisions, declarations, statements, etc. a wide variety of politicians, parties, organizations or governments. Such programs are called analytical or information-analytical programs.

The epistemic function of language is one of the varieties of the basic expressive (cognitive) function. When they say that language performs an epistemic function, then, first of all, they mean that the content of its units, categories, and intralingual divisions is of a reflective nature, since thinking, i.e. a person's reflection of the surrounding world is carried out mainly in linguistic form. So, the word units of the language in their content reflect all aspects of the objective world in which a person lives, as well as the most diverse aspects of his social and internal, spiritual

life: - this is the space of its habitation (compare: continents, continents, countries, plains, mountains, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, cities, villages, villages, auls, palaces, houses, huts, huts, plagues, yurts, sakli, apartments, rooms, kitchens, etc.); - these are also time slices of human existence (compare: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, modernity, yesterday, today, tomorrow, past, future, present, etc.), each of which pulls a series of words that have a historical-temporal marking (cf .: troubles, boyars, oprichnina; or: tax in kind, food appropriation, collectivization, electrification, industrialization, etc.); - these are social class, caste, ethnic, religious, etc. divisions in society (compare: elite - plebs; presidents, governments-people, citizens, subjects; boyars-noblemen - bourgeois; Muslim Christians, etc .; Africans-Europeans - Asians-Americans, etc.); - these are the forms of organization of society (tyranny, despotism, monarchy, democracy, anarchy, theocracy, etc.); - this is the world of all living things in which a person exists (all nominations related to flora and fauna); - this is the world of material life and the spiritual being of a person (compare: the names of food, drink, household items; the name of spiritual values ​​and passions that a person lives with; the name of his blood and spiritual ties with other members of the community, etc.). Grammatical categories are also reflective in nature: they reflect the relationships that exist in the objective world. For example, grammatical category numbers reflect the relationship of singularity and plurality in the world of things (compare: table - tables, tree - trees, lake - lakes, etc.), the category of degrees of comparison reflects the gradual relationship existing in the world of signs (compare: sweet - sweeter - the sweetest), etc. So, you can make sure that the content of linguistic signs, categories and various intra-linguistic divisions is of a reflective nature. In other words, the language system takes on the function of reflection. However, this is not a direct, not dispassionate reflection of reality. All linguistic reflections are "scrolled" in the mind of a person from his point of view. And when they want to say that language does not simply reflect in its content the world, a certain point of view on the world, they say that language performs an epistemic function. The reflection itself, "attached" to one or another linguistic forms , formed under one or another angle of view. "Angle of view" in linguistics is denoted by the term episteme. The world interpreted by a person is reflected by him already comprehended and interpreted. He models the external world, reflecting it by means of his psyche. The fact that a person reflects the world he interpreted finds an explanation in the fact that linguistic reflections are anthropocentric: a person assimilates and comprehends this world from a human point of view and interprets it from the point of view of his time, his culture, his knowledge. In ontogenesis, that is, individual development, a person masters knowledge about the world, about external reality - reflects external reality to a very large extent not directly, but "through" language. Let us give a textbook example: the spectrum of emission and absorption of light waves, which determines color, of course, is the same everywhere, and the physiological abilities of representatives of different ethnic groups to color perception do not differ either; however, it is known that some peoples differ, for example, three colors, while others have seven, and so on. four primary colors, no more and no less? Obviously, because in his language there are names for these four colors. Here, therefore, language acts as a ready-made tool for one or another structuring of reality when it is displayed by a person. Thus, when the question arises as to why, in general, in a given language there are so many names of flowers, types of snow, etc., the answer to it is that the Russians, French, Indians, Nenets, etc., for their In practical activity during the previous centuries (perhaps millennia), roughly speaking, it was “necessary” to distinguish precisely the varieties of the corresponding objects, which was reflected in the language. Another question is: why does each representative of the linguistic community distinguish so many colors? The answer here is that this or that way of perceiving external reality is to a certain extent "imposed" on a specific individual by his language, which in this respect is nothing more than a crystallized social experience of a given people. From this point of view, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, according to which a person's thinking is determined by the language he speaks, and cannot go beyond this language, is quite reasonable. One more example. For example, an animal such as a horse was not known to the natives of Melanesia, and when the Europeans brought a horse there, when they saw it, they called it "a pig that is ridden." In different ethnic groups, the understanding of the same pig is different. For a Russian it is an animal kept for obtaining meat, but for a Tatar, a Turk, an Uzbek it is an unclean animal and you cannot eat its meat. The above, of course, does not mean in any way that a person is generally incapable of knowing what is not indicated in his language, to which B. Whorf was inclined. The entire experience of the development of various peoples and their languages ​​shows that when the production and cognitive evolution of society creates the need for the introduction of a new concept, then the language never interferes with this - to designate a new concept, either an already existing word is used with a certain change in semantics, or a new one is formed according to the laws of the given language. Without this, in particular, it would be impossible to imagine the development of science. This is exactly what happened with the word "horse" in the neo-Melanesian Tok-Pisin language: it was borrowed from the English language and entered the Tok-Pisin dictionary as "hos" (English horse).

Contact setting or phatic function (<лат. fateri «выказывать»), заключающаяся в установлении и поддержании коммуникативного взаимодействия. Иногда общение как бы бесцельно: коммуникантам не важна та информация, которую они сообщают друг другу, они не стремятся выразить свои эмоции или воздействовать друг на друга. Пока им важен только контакт, который подготовит дальнейшее более содержательное общение. В таких случаях язык выступает в своей фатической функции (ассоциативная функция, функция контакта), как например, англичане в разговоре о погоде. Фатическая функция является основной в приветствиях, поздравлениях, в дежурных разговорах о городском транспорте и других общеизвестных вещах. При этом собеседники как бы чувствуют своего рода нормы допустимой глубины или остроты таких разговоров: например, упоминание о вчерашней телевизионной передаче не перерастает в разговор по существу содержания или художественного решения программы. Иными словами, общение идет ради общения, оно сознательно или обычно неосознанно направлено на установление или поддержание контакта. Содержание и форма контактоустанавливающего общения варьируются в зависимости от пола, возраста, социального положения, взаимоотношений говорящих, однако в целом такие речи стандартны и минимально информативны. Ср. клишированность поздравлений, начальных и конечных фраз в письмах, избыточность обращений по имени при разговоре двоих и вообще высокую предсказуемость текстов, выполняющих фатическую функцию. Однако информативная недостаточность таких разговоров отнюдь не означает, что эти разговоры не нужны или не важны людям и обществу в целом. Сама стандартность, поверхностность, легкость фатических разговоров помогает устанавливать контакты между людьми, преодолевать разобщенность и некоммуникабельность. Характерно, что детская речь в общении и с родителями и с ровесниками выполняет вначале именно фатическую функцию, т.к. дети стремятся к контакту, не зная еще что бы такое им сказать или услышать друг от друга.

The magical or "incantatory" function of language is used in religious ritual, in the practice of spellcasters, psychics, etc. The manifestations of the magical function include taboos, taboo substitutions, and vows of silence in some religious traditions; conspiracies, prayers, oaths, including God and oath; in the religions of the Scriptures - sacred texts, that is, texts that are attributed to divine origin: it can be considered, for example, that they were inspired, dictated or written by a higher power. A common feature of the attitude to a word as a magical power is an unconventional interpretation of a linguistic sign, that is, the idea that a word is not a conventional designation of some object, but a part of it, therefore, for example, pronouncing a ritual name can cause the presence of someone who it is named, and to be mistaken in a verbal ritual is to offend, anger or harm higher powers. Often the name acted as a guardian, i.e. as an amulet or a spell that protects against misfortune. In ancient times, when choosing a name for a born child, a person often seemed to play hide and seek with the spirits: then he kept the "real" name secret (and the child grew up under a different, not "secret" name); then they named children with the names of animals, fish, plants; then they gave a "bad name" - so that evil spirits would not see valuable booty in his bearer. Such a name-amulet received at birth the future prophet, the founder of Zoroastrianism Zarathushtra (Zarathustra): in the Avestan language, the word Zarathushtra meant "old-camel".

The aesthetic function of language is a function of aesthetic impact, aesthetic attitude to language. This means that speech (precisely the speech itself, and not what is reported) can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, i.e. as an aesthetic object. The aesthetic function of language is most noticeable in literary texts, but the area of ​​its manifestation is wider. An aesthetic attitude to language is possible in colloquial speech, friendly letters, in publicistic, oratory, popular science speech - to the extent that for speakers, speech ceases to be only a form, only a shell of content, but acquires an independent aesthetic value. In Chekhov's story "The Men", a woman reads the Gospel every day and does not understand much, "but the holy words moved her to tears, and she pronounced words like" asche "and" dondezhe "with a sweet sinking heart." The aesthetic function of language is usually associated with such an organization of the text, which in some way renews, transforms the usual word usage and thereby violates the automatism of everyday speech (colloquial, business, newspaper). The transformation can affect the lexical and grammatical semantics (metaphor, metonymy and other types of figurative use of words and forms); further, the syntactic structure of statements can be updated. The aesthetic function of language expands the world of human aesthetic relations. At the same time, speech transformations that can make the text aesthetically significant, violate the automatism and blurring of speech, renew it and thereby open up new expressive possibilities in the language. Sometimes the functions of the language are divided into social functions and intrastructural ones, which are a manifestation of the essence and nature of the language. The latter include the nominative function, determined by the ability of the word to serve as a means of naming objects and phenomena. The name of a thing becomes its sign, which makes it possible to operate with the thought of a thing: to deduce concepts about objects, reflect their essential properties, build judgments and inferences. There is also a division of the functions of language into two leading ones - communicative with its private representations and significative, or cognitive also with its private representations (N.V. Solonik). As can be seen from the characteristics of the functions of language, many of them are somehow connected with thinking. For example, the cognitive function connects language with the mental activity of a person; in units of language, the structure and dynamics of thought are materialized. F. de Saussure compares language to a sheet of paper, where thought is its front side, and sound is its back. You cannot cut the front side so as not to cut the back. In the same way, in language, it is impossible to separate thought from the sounds of speech, which are the natural material side of language. The study of the problem of the relationship between language and thought in science is carried out from different points of view and this problem is solved in different ways. Generally accepted to one degree or another can be considered only the provision that language and thinking do not form an identity and not a unity, but are relatively independent phenomena that are linked by complex dialectical relations. These relationships are manifested when considering this problem from the genetic, psychophysiological and epistemological points of view. So, the leading function of language - communicative (communication function) - follows from the social nature of language, cognitive, constructive and accumulative - from the connection of language with thinking, nominative - from the connection of language with the surrounding reality.

Agafonova

Linguistics Ticket number 2

Language serves society, and this allows it to be classified as a social phenomenon. Social phenomena, in addition to language, include the economic structure of society (basis), political, legal, religious, aesthetic, philosophical views of society and the institutions corresponding to them (all this is a superstructure). However, unlike the named social phenomena, language is used in all spheres of human activity - in the sphere of culture, education, production, science, etc. Language, being a product of society, at the same time turns into one of the main conditions for the existence of society itself.

The influence of language on the development of social relations is evidenced primarily by the fact that language is one of the consolidating factors in the formation of a nation. It is, on the one hand, a prerequisite and condition for its emergence, and on the other, the result of this process. In addition, this is evidenced by the role of language in the educational and educational activities of society, since language is a tool and means of transmission from generation to generation of knowledge, cultural, historical and other traditions.

The view of language as a social phenomenon has been firmly established in linguistics since the works of J. Grimm and W. Humboldt. "Language always develops in society," wrote W. Humboldt, "and a person understands himself insofar as experience has established that his words are also understandable to others." The problem of the social conditioning of language was further developed in the scientific heritage of F. Engels. So, in particular, in the work "The role of labor in the process of transformation of a monkey into a man", he substantiates the biological and social prerequisites for the formation of language, and in the work "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" he traces the connection between the evolution of language and the history of society.

This connection is clearly manifested in the forms of the existence of the language, which are directly dependent on the nature of the ethnic groups served by the language: tribal languages ​​were characteristic of the tribal system, which, with the growth and territorial distribution of tribes, broke up into groups of related dialects; with the development of private property relations and the emergence of classes, tribal languages ​​and dialects were replaced by languages ​​and dialects of a nationality; the elimination of feudal fragmentation and the establishment of capitalist relations strengthen the processes of integration in society, the development of the nationality strengthens the internal economic and state unity, which entails the need for a common language for the entire society. The languages ​​of the nationality are being replaced by national languages, which over time acquire a literary and book form. Gradually, dialects are subject to these national languages.

The influence of society on the language is indirect (for example, in the i-th language there was an adjective * patrio-s (lat. Patrius) "paternal", but there was no adjective with the meaning of "maternal", because in the ancient patriarchal society to own something or only the father could). One of the forms of such influence is the social differentiation of the language, due to the social heterogeneity of society. A vivid illustration of such a social differentiation of the language is the changes that took place in the Russian language after the October Revolution, when a huge number of new, socially colored words poured into the language, a change in the traditions of mastering the literary language, in particular, pronunciation norms, took place. So, the change in the composition of the speakers of the Russian literary language in the 1920s – 1930s influenced the pronunciation (towards its literalization: instead of the old Moscow normative bulo[wn ]and I, ty [ huh ]th began to speak bulo[chn ]and I,ti [NS "and ]th). In the 19th - early 20th century. In the aristocratic-intellectual environment, the oral tradition prevailed: the language was acquired in intra-family communication, through the transmission of pronunciation and other speech patterns from the older generation to the younger. In connection with the processes of democratization of the composition of the literary language speakers, the form of familiarizing with the literary language through a book, through a textbook began to spread and even predominate.

The influence of society on the language is also manifested in the differentiation of many languages ​​into territorial and social dialects (the language of the village is opposed to the language of the city, the language of the workers, and also the literary language). In linguistics, the following main social forms of language existence are distinguished:

idiolect- a set of features that characterize the language of an individual;

dialect- a set of idiolects, linguistically homogeneous, characteristic of a small geographically limited group of people;

dialect- a set of dialects united by a significant intrastructural linguistic unity (the sign of territorial continuity is optional);

language (nationality or nation)- a set of dialects, the linguistic differences between which can be determined by both linguistic and social factors;

literary language- the highest (supra-dialectal) form of language existence, characterized by normalization, as well as the presence of a wide range of functional styles.

The connection between language and society is also evidenced by the fact of stylistic differentiation of the language, the dependence of the use of language means on the social belonging of native speakers (their profession, level of education, age) and on the needs of society as a whole (compare the presence of various functional styles representing the language of science, office work, mass media, etc.).

The connection of language with society is objective, independent of the will of individual individuals. However, a targeted influence of society (and in particular, the state) on the language is also possible when a certain language policy is being pursued.

Language policy, a set of measures taken by the state, class, party, ethnic group to change or preserve the existing functional distribution of linguistic formations, to introduce new and preserve the used linguistic norms. The nature and methods of resolving linguistic (for example, choosing a language) and linguistic (for example, choosing a language norm) problems that make up the content of language policy are determined by the interests of certain classes, ethnic communities, political and ideological goals in the field of culture. In accordance with this, language policy can be promising (this policy is also called language construction or language planning) and retrospective (culture of language or speech). Language policy is a conscious, purposeful influence of the state on a language, designed to contribute to its effective functioning in various areas (most often this is expressed in the creation of alphabets or writing for non-literate peoples, in the development or improvement of spelling rules, special terminology, codification, and other types of activity ).

Understanding language as a social phenomenon raises the question about the functions of the language.

The term "function" in linguistics is used in several meanings:

1) the purpose, the role of language in human society, 2) the purpose of the role of language units. In the first case, they talk about the functions of the language, in the second - about the functions of linguistic units (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).

The functions of a language are a manifestation of its essence. Language researchers disagree about the number and nature of functions. However, the basic basic functions are distinguished by everyone. The main functions include communicative and cognitive.

Communicative the function is manifested in the designation of language to serve as a tool, a means for transmitting information, exchanging thoughts and communicating about experienced emotions. It reflects such a property of language as being a universal means of human communication.

The communicative function of the language, being basic, manifests itself in a number of private functions:

contacting function (formulas for greeting or goodbye, which are available in all languages);

appellate function (function of calling, prompting to action);

conative function (the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy, for example, the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts - in a modern one);

voluntary function (i.e. the function of influence associated with the expression of the will of the speaker);

epistemic function (i.e. the function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality, cultural traditions, history of the people, national identity); this function of language connects it with reality (fragments of reality, isolated and processed by human consciousness, are fixed in the units of language);

Cognitive function - epistemological, cognitive function of language to be a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality. This function of language connects it with the mental activity of a person; in units of language, the structure and dynamics of thought materialize; derivatives of this function:

axiological function (i.e. evaluation function);

nominative function (i.e. naming function); closely related to this function is the generalization function, which allows us to express the most complex concepts with the help of the language. Generalizing and highlighting the individual, the unique, the word has the ability to "replace" objects and phenomena of the external world. Learning reality, a person constructs it in different ways, which finds its expression in the language (compare in the language of the Eskimos there are more than twenty names for ice, and in the language of the Arabs there are many names for camels, in which a variety of signs are actualized);

predicative function (i.e. function of correlating information with reality), etc.

In addition to these basic functions of language, sometimes emotional or expressive function (to be a means of expressing feelings and emotions of a person), aesthetic, poetic, metalanguage(metalinguistic, to be a means of studying and describing a language in terms of the language itself) and some others.

Roman Jacobson argued that language should be studied in all the variety of its functions. To describe these functions, he first of all indicates what basic components any speech event, any act of speech communication consists of, and gives the following scheme of the act of communication.

Addressee	Context Message	Destination
Contact Code

Each of these six factors has a specific language function.

The main purpose of the communicative act is to communicate any information by means of language, the central task of many messages is to focus on the context, which means that the language in this case fulfills referential(you can call it otherwise, denotative, or cognitive) function.

So-called emotive(from the word "emotion"), or expressive, the function, focused on the addressee, has as its goal a direct expression of the speaker's attitude to what he is talking about. It is associated with the presence in the message of certain emotions, genuine or feigned; therefore, the term “emotive” (function), which was introduced and defended by A. Marty, seems to be more apt than “emotional”. The purely emotive layer of the language is represented by interjections. They differ from the means of referential language both in their sound appearance (special sound combinations or even sounds that are not found in other words) and syntactic role (they are not members, but equivalents of sentences).

An example of an emotive function: “Tts-tts-tts! - said McGinty "; (the complete utterance of the Conandoyle hero consists of repetitions of a clicking sound; the emotive function is manifested in pure interjections)

The emotive function colors, to a certain extent, all our utterances - at the sound, grammatical and lexical levels. Analyzing the language from the point of view of the information transmitted by it, one cannot limit the concept of information to the cognitive (cognitive-logical) aspect of the language. Expressive elements that express anger or irony also convey information. The distinction between (English “big”) and with an emphatically stretched vowel is a conventional language code, just like the distinction between short and long vowels in Czech: “you” and “knows”; however, the distinction between and is phonemic and the distinction between and is emotive.

Conative the function is manifested in the orientation towards the addressee and finds its purely grammatical expression in the vocative form and the imperative mood. Imperative sentences are fundamentally different from declarative sentences (these can be true or false, but imperative ones are not). When, in O'Nile's play “The Fountain”, Nano (in a sharp, imperative tone) says “Drink!”, We cannot ask the question: “Is it true or not?”, Although such a question is quite possible about the sentences “He drank”, “ He would drink ”,“ He would drink. ”In contrast to imperative sentences, declarative sentences can be turned into interrogative sentences:“ Did he drink? ”,“ Will he drink? ”,“ Would he drink? ”.

In the traditional language model, three basic functions can be distinguished - emotive, conative and referential. Accordingly, three “peaks” were distinguished in the model: the first person - the speaker, the second person - the listener, and the “third person” - actually someone or something in question. From this triad of functions, it is easy to derive some additional functions.

So, magical, the incantatory function is, in fact, a kind of transformation of an absent or inanimate “third person” into the addressee of a conative message. "Let this barley come down sooner, pah, pah, pah, pah!" (Lithuanian spell) ,. “Water-water, river-queen, dawn-dawn! Carry the anguish-grudge beyond the blue sea into the depths of the sea ... As a gray stone does not rise in the depths of the sea, so would the servant of God the name of the river the anguish-grudge to the zealous heart would not approach and fall, would recoil and fall off ”(North Russian conspiracies).

However, in the act of verbal communication, there are three more constitutive elements, and, accordingly, it is necessary to distinguish three more corresponding functions of the language.

There are messages, the main purpose of which is to establish, continue or interrupt communication, to check if the communication channel is working (“Hello, can you hear me?”), To attract the interlocutor’s attention or to make sure that he is listening attentively (“Are you listening?” the other end of the line: “Yes, yes!”). This focus on contact, or, phatic function, carried out through the exchange of ritual (established in the process of communication) formulas or even whole dialogues, the only purpose of which is to maintain communication. Dorothy Parker has some great examples:

" - Okay! - said the young man.

Okay! - she said.

Okay, so that's it, ”he said.

So, so, - she said, - why not?

So I think so, ”he said,“ this and that! So, therefore.

Okay, ”she said.

Okay, he said, okay. "

The urge to initiate and maintain communication is characteristic of talking birds; it is the phatic function of language that is the only function common to them and to people. Children are the first to learn this function; the desire to enter into communication appears in them much earlier than the ability to transmit or receive informative messages.

In modern logic, a distinction is made between two levels of language: the "object language", which is spoken about the external world, and the "metalanguage", which is spoken about the language. However, the metalanguage is not only a necessary research tool used by logicians and linguists; it plays an important role in our everyday language as well. Like Moliere's Jourdain, who spoke prose without knowing it, we use metalanguage without realizing the metalanguage nature of our operations. If the speaker or listener needs to check whether they are using the same code, then the code itself becomes the subject of speech: speech here performs a metalinguistic function (that is, a function of interpretation). "I don't quite understand you, what do you mean?" - the listener asks, or, in the words of Shakespeare: “What is" t thou say "st?" (“What are you talking about?”). And the speaker, anticipating such questions, asks himself: "Do you understand what I mean?" Imagine the following dialogue:

“- Sophomora was overwhelmed.

And what is it?

Filled up is the same thing that fell asleep.

Did you fall asleep?

Falling asleep means not passing the exam. ”

All these sentences, establishing the identity of statements, carry information only about the lexical code of the English language; their function is strictly metalanguage... In the process of language learning, especially in the assimilation of the native language by a child, such metalinguistic operations are widely used; aphasia (disruption of the work of the parts of the brain that understands and generates speech) often consists in the loss of the ability to perform metalinguistic operations.

Focusing on the message, as such, focusing on the message for its own sake is poetic language function. The poetic function is not the only function of verbal art, but only its central defining function, while in all other types of speech activity it acts as a secondary, additional component. This function, by enhancing the tangibility of signs, deepens the fundamental dichotomy between signs and objects. Therefore, dealing with the poetic function, linguists cannot confine themselves to the field of poetry.

Why do you always say Joan and Marjorie and not Marjorie and Joan? Do you love Joan more?

Not at all, it just sounds better.

If two proper names are connected by a compositional link, then the addressee, albeit unconsciously, puts the shorter name first (of course, if considerations of hierarchy do not interfere): this provides the message in a better form.

Along with the poetic function, which is dominant, other speech functions are also used in poetry, and the peculiarities of different genres of poetry determine the different degree of use of these other functions. Epic poetry centered on the third person relies heavily on the communicative function of language; lyric poetry aimed at the first person is closely related to the expressive function; “Poetry of the second person” is imbued with an appellative function: it either begs or teaches, depending on who is subordinate to whom - the first person to the second or vice versa.

However, it is hardly possible to find speech messages that perform only one of the functions presented here. The differences between messages are not in the exclusive manifestation of any one function, but in their different hierarchy. The verbal structure of the message depends primarily on the predominant function.

The functions of the language are realized in speech. General patterns of speech are universal, do not depend on the characteristics of national languages, particulars of individuals, on the social status of speakers and writers. Speech as a way of realizing the potential functions of language ensures the life of society and every person. Speech, spoken or recorded, serves as a means of organizing joint work, the unity of the people, and the connection between generations.

Control questions:

1 What are the views of linguists on the relationship between language and society?

2 What is the influence of language on society and society on language?

3 What is social differentiation of language?

4 What is stylistic differentiation of language?

5 What is the essence of language policy?

6 What are the basic functions of the language?

7 In a number of which particular functions is the essence of the communicative function of language manifested?

8 Which functions reflect the cognitive function of the language?

9 How does R. Jacobson describe the functions of the language?

10 Can communication be carried out not using language?

Practical tasks:

1 Think about how the emotive function can be expressed in the text? Give your examples of words that form a "scale of emotivity" (ie, have different degrees of expressiveness of emotive connotations).

2 Analyze the implementation of various functions of the language in these texts:

“… .Well, how are you, friend? The fat man asked, looking at his friend with enthusiasm. - Where do you serve? Completed?

I serve, my dear! Collegiate assessor for the second year and I have Stanislav. The salary is bad ... well, God bless him! My wife gives music lessons, I privately make cigarette cases from wood. ... Well, how are you? Probably already a state man? A?

No, my dear, raise it higher, said the fat man. - I have already reached the secret ... I have two stars.

Slim suddenly turned pale, petrified, but soon his face was twisted in all directions with the broadest smile; sparks seemed to shoot from his face and eyes. He himself shrank, hunched over, narrowed ... His suitcases, bundles and cardboard boxes shrank, frowned ... His long chin became even longer; Nathanael drew himself up to the ground and fastened all the buttons of his uniform ...

I, your excellency ... Very nice, sir! A friend, one might say, of childhood, and suddenly they became such noblemen! Hee-hee-s.

(A.P. Chekhov)

3 What function of the language can be realized in the statement "It's too late" depending on the context of the situation?

4 Determine what functions of the language are implemented in the following statements:

1) “Hello! Hello…"

2) "Zhi-shi write with the letter" and ""

3) I loved you, love still, maybe

In my soul it has not completely faded away.

But don't let it bother you anymore,

I do not want to sadden you with anything.

I loved you silently, hopelessly,

Now we languish with timidity, now with jealousy,

I loved you so sincerely, so tenderly,

How God bless you to be different.

(A.S. Pushkin)

4) "Sivka-burka, prophetic kaurka, stand in front of me like a leaf in front of the grass"

5) "the dog is sick, the cat is sick, and Sasha, a good boy, never has pain"

5 What type of sociolects are the following words: "fly" - an illegible place in a manuscript (in the speech of typesetters), "squirrel" (pigeon house) stealing linen while drying, "take akadem" - go on academic leave, "joke" - entertainment , "Outfit" - clothes, "brick" - a road sign prohibiting passage.

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Date the page was created: 2017-04-20