language groups in the world. Major language families of the world
All languages change over time. Comparison of the Russian language of the period of "The Tale of Bygone Years", the times of A.S. Pushkin and the modern one shows us how language changes over the centuries.
If two people speaking the same language are settled in different places, then over time their languages will change in many directions. Firstly, they will have a different accent, then the vocabulary of the language will change (either under the influence of other languages, or due to natural processes). When this happens, various dialects appear; but still people speaking different dialects will be able to understand each other. If dialects continue to develop on their own, there will come a time when spoken language cannot be understood. At this stage, people will begin to speak different languages.
There is a vivid example in the history of Western civilization occurrence different languages
from one. Latin language was the language of the Roman Empire, AD. With the collapse of the empire in the 4th century, different parts of Europe: Italian peninsula, Gaul, Iberian peninsula, Carpathians became isolated from each other along with the peoples who inhabited them spoke Latin (folk Latin). The languages of these peoples began to develop independently and modern languages were formed: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian, etc..
Modern languages India: Hindi, urdu, Punjabi, Bengal come from Sanskrit language spoken in North India.
Old Persian gave rise to such languages as Farsi, Kurdish And Pashto.
Over time, in the conditions of various migrations of peoples, one language can develop into a whole family languages.
A group of related languages with one common ancestor is called a language family. languages of one groups are closely related languages that have split in the last 1000 - 2000 years ( Latin, for example, gave rise to Romanesque group languages Indo-European family).
The languages of different groups of the same family can be considered as related languages. In most families, the separation of such languages occurred over 2,000 years ago. Every family has a different timeline.
Within the same family, languages have many common grammatical features and a large number of keywords, especially words of earlier origin that indicate a common origin. The table below gives an example of comparing the word "month" in various Indo-European languages:
It is possible to make a comparison given word month in languages of other language families (non-Indo-European).
Languages. Dialects.
The difference between the concept language" And "dialect" maybe more political than linguistic. For example, linguistically Croatian And Serbian very closely related dialects of the same language. However, they use different scripts; and the people who speak these languages belong to different religions: Catholic Christianity in Croatia and Orthodox Christianity in Serbia. By political reasons these languages are considered separate.
Bulgarians think Macedonian dialect of their language, while they themselves Macedonians call it a separate language. Since Bulgaria long time claimed Macedonia as part of its own territory, then the motives of each side become quite understandable!
Low German(which is spoken in Northern Germany) And Dutch (Netherlands) from a linguistic point of view are dialects of the same language, but politically they are different languages. Low German And Swiss German languages differ so much that speakers of these languages may not understand each other, but both are considered German. Between languages spoken in different cities Italy, much more difference than between Dutch, Norwegian And Swedish.
Main language Iraq And Morocco counts Arab, which is different here and there. Official language of China counts m Andarin
- other languages of the republic are considered as dialects (for example, Cantonese And at), while they are sometimes very different from each other.
By studying languages and their relationships, we get an idea of the migration of peoples over the course of history. We can also trace when the domestication of plants, the domestication of animals, the appearance of tools took place. Every language is a unique way of thinking. Those peoples who live in isolated parts of the world and are not technologically advanced have a less perfect language than those people who live in modern cities. Every language has simple and complex parts. But the complexity of a language does not depend on the way of life of the people who speak it (compare the grammar of Latin and French, Old Russian and Russian).
Most languages in the world are grouped into families. A language family is a genetic language association.
But there are isolated languages, i.e. those that do not belong to any known language family.
There are also unclassified languages, of which there are more than 100.
language family
In total there are about 420 language families. Sometimes families are combined into macrofamilies. But at present, only theories about the existence of Nostratic and Afroasian macrofamilies have received reliable justification.
Nostratic languages- a hypothetical macrofamily of languages that unites several language families and languages of Europe, Asia and Africa, including Altaic, Kartvelian, Dravidian, Indo-European, Uralic, sometimes also Afro-Asian and Eskimo-Aleut languages. All Nostratic languages go back to a single Nostratic parent language.
Afroasian languages- a macrofamily of languages distributed in northern Africa from the Atlantic coast and the Canary Islands to the Red Sea coast, as well as in Western Asia and on the island of Malta. There are groups of Afro-Asiatic speakers (mainly various dialects of Arabic) in many countries outside the main area. The total number of speakers is about 253 million people.
The existence of other macrofamilies remains only a scientific hypothesis that needs to be confirmed.
Family is a group of distinctly but fairly distantly related languages that have at least 15% of matches in the base list.
Figuratively, a language family can be represented as a tree with branches. Branches are groups of related languages. They do not have to be of the same level of depth, only their relative order within the same family is important. Consider this issue on the example of the Indo-European family of languages.
Indo-European family
It is the most widespread language family in the world. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth. The number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. The Indo-European family of languages is considered part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.
The term "Indo-European languages" was introduced by the English scholar Thomas Young in 1813.
Thomas Young
The languages of the Indo-European family come from a single Proto-Indo-European language, whose speakers lived about 5-6 thousand years ago.
But it is impossible to name the exact places of origin of the Proto-Indo-European language, there are only hypotheses: they name such regions as Eastern Europe, Western Asia, the steppe territories at the junction of Europe and Asia. With a high probability, the so-called "pit culture" can be considered the archaeological culture of the ancient Indo-Europeans, the carriers of which in the III millennium BC. e. lived in the east of modern Ukraine and the south of Russia. This is a hypothesis, but it is supported by genetic studies, indicating that at least part of the Indo-European languages in Western and Central Europe was the source of the migration of Yamnaya culture carriers from the territory of the Black Sea and Volga steppes approximately 4500 years ago.
The Indo-European family includes the following branches and groups: Albanian, Armenian languages, as well as Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Romanesque, Illyrian, Greek, Anatolian (Hitto-Luvian), Iranian, Dardic, Indo-Aryan, Nuristani and Tocharian language groups (Italian, Illyrian, Anatolian and Tocharian groups are represented only by dead languages ).
If we consider the place of the Russian language in the systematics of the Indo-European language family by levels, then it will look something like this:
Indo-European family
↓
Branch: Balto-Slavic
↓
Group: Slavic
↓
Subgroup: East Slavic
↓
Language: Russian
Slavic
Isolated languages (isolates)
There are more than 100 of them. In fact, each isolated language forms separate family, consisting only of this language. For example, Basque (northern regions of Spain and adjacent southern regions of France); Burushaski (this language is spoken by the Burish people living in the mountainous regions of Hunza (Kanjut) and Nagar in northern Kashmir); Sumerian (the language of the ancient Sumerians, which was spoken in the Southern Mesopotamia in the 4th-3rd millennia BC); Nivkh (the Nivkh language, spoken in the northern part of Sakhalin Island and in the basin of the Amgun River, a tributary of the Amur); Elamite (Elam - a historical region and an ancient state (III millennium - mid-VI century BC) in the south-west of modern Iran); The Hadza (in Tanzania) languages are isolated. Only those languages are said to be isolated for which there is sufficient data and entry into the language family has not been proven for them even after strenuous attempts to do so.
There are a large number of language families and a wide variety of languages in the world. There are more than 6,000 of the latter on the planet. Most of them belong to the largest language families in the world, which are distinguished by lexical and grammatical composition, kinship of origin and by the common geographical location of their speakers. However, it should be noted that community of residence is not always an integral factor.
In turn, the language families of the world are divided into groups. They are distinguished in a similar way. There are also languages that do not belong to any of the selected families, as well as the so-called isolated languages. It is also customary for scientists to single out macrofamilies, i.e. groups of language families.
Indo-European family
The most fully studied is the Indo-European language family. It has been isolated since ancient times. However, relatively recently, work began on the study of the Proto-Indo-European language.
The Indo-European language family consists of groups of languages whose speakers live in vast areas of Europe and Asia. So, the German group belongs to them. Its main languages are English and German. Also a large group is Romance, which includes French, Spanish, Italian and other languages. In addition, Eastern European peoples who speak languages of the Slavic group also belong to the Indo-European family. This is Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, etc.
This language family is not the largest in terms of the number of languages included in it. However, these languages are spoken by almost half of the world's population.
Afro-Asian family
The languages that represent the Afro-Asiatic language family are used by more than a quarter of a million people. It includes Arabic, Egyptian, Hebrew, and many others, including extinct languages.
This family is usually divided into five (six) branches. This includes the Semitic branch, Egyptian, Chadian, Cushite, Berber-Libyan and Omot. In general, the Afro-Asiatic family includes more than 300 languages of the African continent and parts of Asia.
However, this family is not the only one on the continent. In large numbers, especially to the south, there are other languages in Africa that are not related to it. There are at least 500 of them. Almost all of them were not presented in writing until the 20th century. and used only orally. Some of them are still exclusively oral.
Nilo-Saharan family
The language families of Africa also include the Nilo-Saharan family. The Nilo-Saharan languages are represented by six language families. One of them is songhai-zarma. The languages and dialects of another - the Saharan family - are common in Central Sudan. There is also a family of mamba, whose carriers inhabit Chad. Another family, Fur, is also common in Sudan.
The most complex is the Shari-Nile language family. It, in turn, is divided into four branches, which consist of language groups. The last family - coma - is common in Ethiopia and Sudan.
The language families represented by the Nilo-Saharan macrofamily have significant differences among themselves. Accordingly, they present a great challenge for linguistic researchers. The languages of this macrofamily were greatly influenced by the Afro-Asiatic macrofamily.
Sino-Tibetan family
The Sino-Tibetan language family has over a million native speakers of its languages. First of all, this became possible due to the large number of the Chinese population speaking Chinese, which is part of one of the branches of this language family. In addition to it, this branch includes the Dungan language. It is they who form a separate branch (Chinese) in the Sino-Tibetan family.
Another branch includes more than three hundred languages, which are distinguished as the Tibeto-Burmese branch. There are approximately 60 million native speakers of its languages.
Unlike Chinese, Burmese and Tibetan, most of the languages of the Sino-Tibetan family do not have a written tradition and are passed down from generation to generation exclusively orally. Despite the fact that this family has been studied deeply and for a long time, it still remains insufficiently studied and hides many secrets that have not yet been revealed.
North and South American languages
At present, as is known, the vast majority of North and South American languages belong to the Indo-European or Romance families. Settling the New World, European colonists brought with them their own languages. However, the dialects of the indigenous population of the American continent did not disappear altogether. Many monks and missionaries who came from Europe to America recorded and systematized the languages and dialects of the local population.
Thus, the languages of the North American continent north of present-day Mexico were represented in the form of 25 language families. In the future, some experts have revised this division. Unfortunately, South America has not been studied as well in terms of language.
Language families of Russia
All the peoples of Russia speak languages belonging to 14 language families. In total, there are 150 different languages and dialects in Russia. The basis of the country's linguistic wealth is made up of four main language families: Indo-European, North Caucasian, Altai, Ural. At the same time, most of the country's population speaks languages \u200b\u200bthat belong to the Indo-European family. This part makes up 87 percent of the total population of Russia. And Slavic group occupies 85 percent. It includes Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian, which make up the East Slavic group. These languages are very close to each other. Their carriers can almost easily understand each other. This is especially true for the Belarusian and Russian languages.
Altaic language family
The Altaic language family consists of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchurian and Mongolian language groups. The difference in the number of representatives of their carriers in the country is great. For example, Mongolian is represented in Russia exclusively by Buryats and Kalmyks. But the Turkic group includes several dozen languages. Among them are Khakass, Chuvash, Nogai, Bashkir, Azerbaijani, Yakut and many others.
The group of Tungus-Manchurian languages includes Nanai, Udege, Even and others. This group is under the threat of extinction due to the preference of their native peoples to use Russian on the one hand, and Chinese on the other. Despite the extensive and long study of the Altaic language family, it is extremely difficult for specialists to decide on the reproduction of the Altaic parent language. This is explained big amount borrowings of its speakers from other languages due to close contact with their representatives.
Ural family
The Uralic languages are represented by two large families - Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic. The first of them includes Karelians, Mari, Komi, Udmurts, Mordovians and others. The languages of the second family are spoken by Enets, Nenets, Selkups, Nganasans. The carriers of the Ural macrofamily are to a large extent Hungarians (more than 50 percent) and Finns (20 percent).
The name of this family comes from the name of the Ural Range, where it is believed that the formation of the Ural proto-language took place. The languages of the Uralic family had some influence on their neighboring Slavic and Baltic languages. In total, there are more than twenty languages of the Uralic family both in Russia and abroad.
North Caucasian family
Languages of peoples North Caucasus represent a huge difficulty for linguists in terms of their structuring and study. In itself, the concept of a North Caucasian family is rather arbitrary. The fact is that the languages of the local population are too little studied. However, thanks to the painstaking and deep work of many linguists studying this issue, it became clear how fragmented and complex many of the North Caucasian dialects are.
The difficulties relate not only to the actual grammar, structure and rules of the language, for example, as in the Tabasaran language - one of the most difficult languages on the planet, but also to pronunciation, which is sometimes simply inaccessible to people who do not speak these languages.
A significant obstacle for specialists studying them is the inaccessibility of many mountainous regions of the Caucasus. However, this language family, despite all the contradictions, is usually divided into two groups - Nakh-Dagestan and Abkhaz-Adyghe.
Representatives of the first group inhabit mainly the regions of Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia. These include Avars, Lezgins, Laks, Dargins, Chechens, Ingush, etc. The second group consists of representatives of kindred peoples - Kabardians, Circassians, Adyghes, Abkhazians, etc.
Other language families
The language families of the peoples of Russia are by no means always extensive, uniting many languages into one family. Many of them are very small and some are even isolated. Such nationalities primarily live in Siberia and the Far East. So, the Chukchi-Kamchatka family unites the Chukchi, Itelmens, and Koryaks. The Aleuts and Eskimos speak Aleut-Eskimo.
A large number of nationalities scattered over the vast territory of Russia, being extremely few in number (several thousand people or even less), have their own languages, which are not included in any known language family. As, for example, the Nivkhs inhabiting the banks of the Amur and Sakhalin, and the Kets, located near the Yenisei.
However, the problem of linguistic extinction in the country continues to threaten the cultural and linguistic diversity of Russia. Not only individual languages, but also entire language families are under the threat of extinction.
language family
language family
The language family is the largest unit of classification of peoples (ethnic groups) on the basis of their linguistic kinship - the common origin of their languages from the alleged base language. Language families are divided into language groups.
The largest in number is the Indo-European language family, which includes language groups:
- Romanesque: French, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Moldavians, Romanians, etc.;
- Germanic: Germans, British, Scandinavians, etc.;
- Slavic: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.
The second largest is the Sino-Tibetan language family, with the largest Chinese language group.
The Altaic language family includes a large Turkic language group: Turks, Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Kirghiz, Yakuts, etc.
The Uralic language family includes the Finno-Ugric group: Finns, Estonians, Hungarians, Komi, etc.
The Semitic group belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic language family: Arabs, Jews, Ethiopians, etc.
Synonyms: family of peoples
See also: Ethnoses Languages
Finam Financial Dictionary.
See what the "Language Family" is in other dictionaries:
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The largest unit of classification of peoples on the basis of linguistic proximity. The Biggest Me" p. Indo-European, the languages of this family are used by 2.5 billion people. It includes Romance, Germanic, Slavic and other language groups. In the second on ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia
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Caucasian languages is a conventional name for the languages of the Caucasus that are not included in any of the known language families distributed outside the Caucasus (Indo-European, Altaic or Semitic). Contents 1 Classification 2 External Relations 3 ... Wikipedia
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The enumeration of languages is accompanied by minimal geographical, historical and philological commentary.
I. INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
1. Indian group 1
(over 96 living languages in total)
1) Hindi and Urdu(sometimes referred to as Hindustani 2) - two varieties of one new Indian literary language: Urdu - the state language of Pakistan, has a written language based on the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (official language of India) - based on the Old Indian script Devanagari.
2) Bengal.
3)
Punjabi.
4) Lakhnda (landi).
5) Sindhi.
6)
Rajasthani.
7) Gujarati.
8) Mrathi.
9)
Sinhalese.
10) Nepal(Eastern Pahari, in Nepal)
11)
Bihari.
12) Oriya.(otherwise: audrey, utkali, in eastern India)
13) Assamese.
14) Gypsy, released as a result of resettlements and migrations in the 5th - 10th centuries. AD
15) Kashmiri and others Dardic languages
Dead:
16) Vedic- the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, formed in the first half of the second millennium BC. e. (recorded later).
17) Sanskrit. The "classical" literary language of the Indians from the 3rd century BC. BC. to the 7th century AD (literally samskrta means "processed", as opposed to prakrta "not normalized" spoken language); rich literature, religious and secular (epos, dramaturgy), remained in Sanskrit; the first Sanskrit grammar of the 4th c. BC. Panini reworked in the 13th century. AD Vopadeva.
18) Pali- Central Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era.
19) Prakrits- various colloquial Middle Indian dialects, from which the new Indian languages \u200b\u200bcame; replicas of minor persons in Sanskrit dramaturgy are written on prakrits.
1 On Indian languages, see: 3grapher G.A. Languages of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal. M., I960.
2 See, for example, the title of the book by A.P. Barannikov "Hindustani (Urdu and Hindi)". D., 1934.
2. Iranian group 1
(more than 10 languages; finds the greatest proximity with the Indian group, with which it unites into a common Indo-Iranian, or Aryan, group;
arya - tribal self-name in the most ancient monuments, from it Iran, and Alan - self-name of the Scythians)
1) Persian(Farsi) - writing based on the Arabic alphabet; for Old Persian and Middle Persian, see below.
2) Dari(Farsi-Kabuli) is the literary language of Afghanistan, along with Pashto.
3) Pashto(Pashto, Afghan) - literary language, from the 30s. state language of Afghanistan.
4) Baloch (baluchi).
5) Tajik.
6)
Kurdish.
7) Ossetian; dialects: Iron (Eastern) Digor (Western). Ossetians - descendants of the Alans-Scythians
8) Talysh.
10) Caspian(Gilyan, Mazanderan) dialects.
11)
Pamir languages(Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Capykol, Khuf, Oroshor, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Vakhani) are the non-written languages of the Pamirs.
12) Yagnobsky.
Dead:
13) Old Persian- the language of cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenid era (Darius, Xerxes, etc.) VI - IV centuries. BC e.
14)
Avestan- another ancient Iranian language, which came down in the Middle Persian lists of the sacred book "Avesta", which contains the religious texts of the cult of the Zoroastrians, the followers of Zarathushtra (in Greek: Zoroaster).
15)
Pahlavi- Middle Persian language III- IX centuries. n. e., preserved in the translation of the "Avesta" (this translation is called "Zend", from where for a long time the Avestan language itself was incorrectly called Zend).
16) Median- a genus of northwestern Iranian dialects; no written monuments have been preserved.
17) Parthian- one of the Middle Persian languages \u200b\u200bof the 3rd century. BC e. - III century. n. e., common in Parthia to the southeast of the Caspian Sea.
18)
Sogdian- the language of Sogdiana in the Zeravshan valley, the first millennium AD. e.; ancestor of the Yaghnobi language.
19) Khwarezmian- the language of Khorezm along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya; the first - the beginning of the second millennium AD.
20)
Scythian- the language of the Scythians (Alans), who lived in the steppes Along the northern coast of the Black Sea and east to the borders of China in the first millennium BC. e. and the first millennium AD. e.; preserved in proper names in Greek transmission; ancestor of the Ossetian language.
21) Bactrian(Kushan) - the language of the ancient Bakt along the upper reaches of the Amu Darya, as well as the language of the Kushan beginning of the first millennium AD.
22) Saky(Khotanese) - in Central Asia and in Chinese Turkestan; from V - X centuries. AD texts written in the Indian Brahmi script remained.
Note. Most contemporary Iranian scholars subdivide the living and dead Iranian languages into the following groups:BUT. Western
1) Southwestern: ancient and middle Persian, modern Persian, Tajik, Tat and some others.
2) Northwestern: Median, Parthian, Balochi (Baluchi), Kurdish, Talysh and other Caspian.
B. Oriental
1) Southeastern: Saka (Khotanese), Pashto (Pashto), Pamir.
2) Northeastern: Scythian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Ossetian, Yagnob.
1 On Iranian languages, see: Oransky I.M. Iranian languages. M, 1963. - Tat - Tats are divided into Muslim Tats and "Mountain Jews"
3. Slavic group
BUT. Eastern subgroup
1) Russian; adverbs: northern (great) Russian - "surrounding" and southern (great) Russian - "aking"; The Russian literary language developed on the basis of the transitional dialects of Moscow and its environs, where from the south and southeast the Tula, Kursk, Oryol and Ryazan dialects spread features alien to the northern dialects, the former dialectal basis of the Moscow dialect, and displacing some of the features of the latter, as well as by mastering the elements of the Church Slavonic literary language; in addition, in the Russian literary language in the XVI-XVIII centuries. included various foreign language elements; writing based on the Russian alphabet, reworked from the Slavic - "Cyrillic" under Peter the Great; ancient monuments of the 11th century. (they also apply to the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages); official language Russian Federation, an interethnic language for communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation and adjacent territories former USSR, one of the world's languages.
2) Ukrainian or Ukrainian but indian; before the revolution of 1917 - Little Russian or Little Russian; three main dialects: northern, southeastern, southwestern; the literary language begins to take shape from the 14th century, the modern literary language exists from the end of the 18th century. on the basis of the Podneprovsky dialects of the southeastern dialect; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet in its post-Petrine variety.
3) Belorussian; writing since the 14th century. based on Cyrillic Dialects North-Eastern and South-Western; literary language - on the basis of Central Belarusian dialects.
B. Southern subgroup
4) Bulgarian- formed in the process of contacting Slavic dialects with the language of the Kama Bulgars, from where it got its name; writing based on the Cyrillic alphabet; ancient monuments from the 10th century. AD
5) Macedonian.
6)
Serbo-Croatian; the Serbs write on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, the Croats - on the basis of the Latin; ancient monuments from the 12th century.
7) Slovenian;- writing based on the Latin alphabet; the oldest monuments from the X - XI centuries.
Dead:
8) Old Church Slavonic(or Old Church Slavonic) - the common literary language of the Slavs of the medieval period, which arose on the basis of the Solun dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language in connection with the introduction of writing for the Slavs (two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic) and the translation of church books to promote Christianity among the Slavs in the 9th-10th centuries . n. e.. Among the Western Slavs, it was supplanted by Latin in connection with Western influence and the transition to Catholicism; in the form of Church Slavonic - an integral element of the Russian literary language.
IN. Western subgroup
9) Czech; writing based on the Latin alphabet; ancient monuments from the 13th century.
10) Slovak; Polish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; ancient monuments from the 14th century,
12)
Kashubian; lost its independence and became a dialect of the Polish language.
13) Lusatian(abroad: Sorabian, Vendian); two options: upper Lusatian (or eastern) and lower Lusatian (or western); writing based on the Latin alphabet.
Dead:
14) Polabsky- died out in the 18th century, was distributed along both banks of the river. Labs (Elbes) in Germany.
15) Pomeranian dialects- died out in the medieval period due to forced Germanization; were distributed along the south coast Baltic Sea in Pomerania (Pomerania).
4. Baltic group
1) Lithuanian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century. Latvian; writing based on the Latin alphabet; monuments from the 14th century.
3) Latgalian 1 .
Dead:
4) Prussian- died out in the 17th century. in connection with forced Germanization; the territory of the former East Prussia; monuments of the XIV-XVII centuries.
5) Yatvyazh, Curonian and other languages in the territory of Lithuania and Latvia, extinct by the 17th-18th centuries.
1 There is an opinion that this is only a dialect of the Latvian language.
5. German group
BUT. North Germanic (Scandinavian) subgroup1) Danish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; served as a literary language for Norway until the end of the 19th century.
2) Swedish; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Norwegian; writing based on the Latin alphabet, originally Danish, since the literary language of the Norwegians until the end of the 19th century. was Danish. In modern Norway, there are two forms of the literary language: riksmol (otherwise: Bokmål) - bookish, closer to Danish, Ilansmol (otherwise: Nynorsk), closer to Norwegian dialects.
4) Icelandic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; written monuments from the 13th century. ("sagas").
5) Faroese.
B. West German subgroup
6) English; Literary English developed in the 16th century. AD based on the London dialect; 5th-11th centuries - Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), XI-XVI centuries. - Middle English and from the 16th century. - New English; writing based on the Latin alphabet (no changes); written monuments from the 7th century; language of international importance.
7)
Dutch (Dutch) with Flemish; writing in Latin; Boers live in the Republic of South Africa, immigrants from Holland who speak a variety of the Dutch language, the Boer language (in other words: Afrikaans).
8) Frisian; monuments from the 14th century.
9) German; two dialects: Low German (Northern, Niederdeutsch or Plattdeutsch) and High German (Southern, Hochdeutsch); the literary language developed on the basis of South German dialects, but with many northern features (especially in pronunciation), but still does not represent unity; in the VIII-XI centuries. - Old High German, in the XII-XV centuries. -Middle High German, from the 16th century. - New High German, worked out in the Saxon offices and translations of Luther and his associates; writing based on the Latin alphabet in two varieties: Gothic and Antiqua; one of the largest languages in the world.
10)
Yiddish(or Yiddish, New Hebrew) - various High German dialects mixed with elements of Hebrew, Slavic and other languages.
IN. East German subgroup
Dead:
11)
Gothic, existed in two dialects. Visigothic - served the medieval Gothic state in Spain and Northern Italy; had a written language based on the Gothic alphabet, compiled by Bishop Wulfila in the 4th century. n. e. for the translation of the Gospel, which is the most ancient monument of the Germanic languages. Ostrogothic - the language of the Eastern Goths, who lived in the early Middle Ages on the Black Sea coast and in the southern Dnieper region; existed until the 16th century. in the Crimea, thanks to which a small dictionary compiled by the Dutch traveler Busbeck has been preserved.
12) Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Heruli- the languages of the ancient Germanic tribes in East Germany.
6. Romanesque group
(before the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of Romance 1 languages - Italian)
1) French; literary language developed by the 16th century. based on the Île-de-France dialect centered in Paris; French dialects were formed at the beginning of the Middle Ages as a result of crossing the folk (vulgar) Latin of the Roman conquerors and the language of the conquered native Gauls - Gallic; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the oldest monuments from the 9th century. AD; the middle French period from the 9th to the 15th centuries, the new French - from the 16th century. French became an international language earlier than other European languages.
2) Provencal (Occitan); minority language southeastern France (Provence); as a literary one existed in the Middle Ages (the lyrics of the troubadours) and survived until the end of the 19th century.
3) Italian; the literary language developed on the basis of the Tuscan dialects, and in particular the dialect of Florence, which arose due to the crossing of vulgar Latin with the languages \u200b\u200bof the mixed population of medieval Italy; writing in the Latin alphabet, historically - the first national language in Europe 3 .
4) Sardinian(or Sardinian). Spanish; formed in Europe as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin with the languages of the native population of the Roman province of Iberia; writing based on the Latin alphabet (the same applies to Catalan and Portuguese).
6) Galician.
7) Catalan.
8)
Portuguese.
9) Romanian; formed as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin and the languages of the natives of the Roman province of Dacia; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
10) Moldavian(a kind of Romanian); writing based on the Russian alphabet.
11)
Macedonian-Romanian(Aromunian).
12) Romansh- the language of the national minority; since 1938 it has been recognized as one of the four official languages of Switzerland.
13) Creole languages- Crossed Romance with local languages (Haitian, Mauritian, Seychelles, Senegalese, Papiamento, etc.).
Dead (Italian):
14) Latin- the literary state language of Rome in the republican and imperial era (III century BC - the first centuries of the Middle Ages); the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, historical prose, legal documents and oratory; the oldest monuments from the VI century. BC.; first description Latin at Varro. 1st century BC.; classical grammar of Donat - IV century. AD; the literary language of the Western European Middle Ages and the language of the Catholic Church; along with ancient Greek - a source of international terminology.
15) Medieval Vulgar Latin- folk Latin dialects of the early Middle Ages, which, when crossed with the native languages of the Roman provinces of Gaul, Iberia, Dacia, etc., gave rise to Romance languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.
16) Oscan, Umbrian, Saber and other Italian dialects are preserved in fragmentary written monuments of the last centuries BC.
1 The name "Romance" comes from the word Roma, as Rome was called by the Latins, and now by the Italians.
2 See Ch. VII, § 89 - on education national languages.
3 See ibid.
7. Celtic group
A. Goidel subgroup1) Irish; written records from the 4th c. n. e. (Ogham script) and from the 7th century. (on a Latin basis); is literary and at the present time.
2) Scottish (Gaelic).
Dead:
3) Manx- the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea).
B. Brythonic subgroup
4) Breton; Bretons (formerly Britons) moved after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons from the British Isles to the European continent.
5) Welsh (Welsh).
Dead:
6) Cornish; in Cornwall, a peninsula in southwestern England.
b. Gallic subgroup
7) Gallic; extinct since the era of education French; was distributed in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and even in Asia Minor.
8. Greek group
1) modern Greek, from the 12th centuryDead:
2) ancient greek, 10th century BC. - V c. AD;
Ionic-Attic dialects from the 7th-6th centuries. BC.;
Achaean (Arcade-Cypriot) dialects from the 5th c. BC.;
northeastern (Boeotian, Thessalian, Lesbosian, Aeolian) dialects from the 7th century. BC.
and western (Dorian, Epirus, Cretan) dialects; - the oldest monuments from the 9th century. BC. (poems by Homer, epigraphy); from the 4th century BC. common literary language koine based on the Attic dialect centered in Athens; the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, philosophical and historical prose; from III-II centuries. BC. works of Alexandrian grammarians; along with Latin - a source of international terminology.
3) Middle Greek or Byzantine- the state literary language of Byzantium from the first centuries AD. until the 15th century; the language of monuments - historical, religious and artistic.
9. Albanian group
Albanian, written monuments based on the Latin alphabet from the 15th century.10. Armenian group
Armenian; literary since the 5th century. AD; contains some elements dating back to the Caucasian languages; the ancient Armenian language - Grabar - is very different from the modern living Ashkharabar.11. Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group
Dead:1) Hittite (Hittite-Nesite, known from cuneiform monuments of the 18th-13th centuries. BC.; the language of the Hittite state in Asia Minor.
2) Luvian in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
3) Palai in Asia Minor (XIV-XIII centuries BC).
4) carian
5) Lydian- Anatolian languages of ancient times.
6) Lycian
12. Tocharian group
Dead:1) Tocharian A (Turfan, Karashar)- in Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang).
2) Tocharsky B (Kuchansky)- there; in Kucha until the 7th century. AD Known from manuscripts around the 5th-8th centuries. n. e. based on the Indian Brahmi script discovered during excavations in the 20th century.
Note 1. For a number of reasons, the following groups of Indo-European languages converge: Indo-Iranian (Aryan), Slavs - Baltic and Italo-Celtic.
Note 2. The Indo-Iranian and Slavo-Baltic languages can be grouped under satem languages, as opposed to the other kentom languages; this division is carried out according to the fate of the Indo-European *g and */s of the middle palatals, which in the first gave front-lingual fricatives (catam, simtas, sto - "hundred"), and in the second remained back-lingual plosives; in German, thanks to the movement of consonants - fricatives (hekaton, kentom (later centum), hundert, etc. - "one hundred").
Note 3. The question of belonging to the Indo-European languages of the Venetian, Messapian, obviously, the Illyrian group (in Italy), Phrygian, Thracian (in the Balkans) as a whole can be considered resolved; Pelasgian languages (Peloponnese before the Greeks), Etruscan (in Italy before the Romans), Ligurian (in Gaul) have not yet been clarified in their relationship to the Indo-European languages.
II. CAUCASUS LANGUAGES 1
A. Western group: Abkhazian-Adyghe languages
1. Abkhaz subgroupAbkhazian; dialects: bzybsky- northern and Abjui(or Kadbrian) - southern; writing until 1954 on the basis of the Georgian alphabet, now - on the Russian basis.
Abaza; writing based on the Russian alphabet.
2. Circassian subgroup
Adyghe.
Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian).
Ubykh(Ubykhs emigrated to Turkey under tsarism).
B. Eastern group: Nakh-Dagestan languages
1. Nakh subgroupChechen; are written in Russian.
Ingush
Batsbi (tsova-tushinsky).
2. Dagestan subgroup
Avar.
Darginsky.
Laksky.
Lezginsky.
Tabasaran.
These five languages are written on the basis of Russian. Other languages are unwritten:
Andean.
Karatinsky.
Tyndinsky.
Chamalinsky.
Bagvalinsky.
Akhvakhsky.
Botlikh.
Godoberinsky.
Tsezsky.
Betinsky.
Khvarshinsky.
Gunzibsky.
Ginuhsky.
Tsakhursky.
Rutulsky.
Agulsky.
Archinsky.
Bududhekiy.
Kryzsky.
Udinsky.
Khinalugsky.
3. Southern group: Kartvelian (Iberian) languages
1)
Megrelian.
2) Laz (Chan).
3) Georgian: writing in the Georgian alphabet from the 5th century BC. AD, rich literary monuments of the Middle Ages; dialects: Khevsurian, Kartli, Imeretian, Gurian, Kakhetian, Adjarian, etc.
4) Svansky.
Note. All written languages (except Georgian and Ubykh) are based on the Russian alphabet, and in the previous period for several years - on Latin.1 The question of whether these groups represent one family of languages has not yet been resolved by science; rather, one can think that there are no family ties between them; the term "Caucasian languages" refers to their geographical distribution.
III. OUTSIDE THE GROUP - BASQUE
IV. URAL LANGUAGES
1. FINNO-UGRIAN (UGRIC-FINNISH) LANGUAGES
A. Ugric branch
1) Hungarian, written in Latin.2) Mansi (Vogul); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
3) Khanty (Ostyak); writing on a Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
B. Baltic-Finnish branch
1) Finnish (Suomi); writing based on the Latin alphabet.2) Estonian; writing based on the Latin alphabet.
3) Izhora.
4) Karelian.
5) Vepsian.
6) Vodsky.
7) Livsky.
8) Sami (Saami, Lappish).
B. Perm branch
1) Komi-Zyryansky.2) Komi-Permyak.
3) Udmurt.
G. Volga branch
1) Mari (Mari, Cheremis), adverbs: upland on the right bank of the Volga and meadow - on the left.2) Mordovian: two independent language: Erzya and Moksha.
Note. Finnish and Estonian are written based on the Latin alphabet; for the Mari and Mordovian - for a long time based on the Russian alphabet; in Komi-Zyryan, Udmurt and Komi-Perm - on the Russian basis (since the 30s of the XX century).
2. SAMOYED LANGUAGES
1) Nenets (Yuraco-Samoyed).2) Nganasani (Tavgian).
3) Enets (Yenisei-Samoyed).
4) Selkup (Ostyak-Samoyed).
Note. modern science considers the Samoyedic languages to be related to the Finno-Ugric languages, which were previously considered as an isolated family and with which the Samoyedic languages form a larger association - the Uralic languages.
V. ALTAI LANGUAGES 1
1. TURKIC LANGUAGES 2
1) Turkish(before Ottoman); writing since 1929 based on the Latin alphabet; until then for several centuries - based on the Arabic alphabet.2) Azerbaijani.
3) Turkmen.
4) Gagauz.
5) Crimean Tatar.
6) Karachay-Balkarian.
7) Kumyk- was used as a common language for the Caucasian peoples of Dagestan.
8) Nogai.
9) Karaite.
10) Tatar, with three dialects - middle, western (Mishar) and eastern (Siberian).
11) Bashkir.
12) Altai (Oirot).
13) Shorsky with the Kondom and Mrassky dialects 3 .
14) Khakassian(with dialects of Sogai, Beltir, Kachin, Koibal, Kyzyl, Shor).
15) Tuva.
16) Yakut.
17) Dolgansky.
18) Kazakh.
19) Kyrgyz.
20) Uzbek.
21) Karakalpak.
22) Uighur (New Uighur).
23) Chuvash, a descendant of the language of the Kama Bulgars, writing from the very beginning based on the Russian alphabet.
Dead:
24) Orkhon- according to the Orkhon-Yenisei runic inscriptions, the language (or languages) of the powerful state of the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. in Northern Mongolia on the river. Orkhon. The name is conditional.
25)
Pechenegsky- the language of the steppe nomads of the IX-XI centuries. AD
26)
Polovtsian (Cuman)- according to the Polovtsian-Latin dictionary compiled by Italians, the language of the steppe nomads of the XI-XIV centuries.
27)
Old Uyghur- the language of a huge state in Central Asia in the 9th-11th centuries. n. e. with writing based on a modified Aramaic alphabet.
28) Chagatai- literary language of the XV-XVI centuries. AD in Central Asia; Arabic graphics.
29) Bulgarian- the language of the Bulgar kingdom at the mouth of the Kama; the Bulgar language formed the basis of the Chuvash language, part of the Bulgars moved to the Balkan Peninsula and, having mixed with the Slavs, became an integral element (superstratum) in the Bulgarian language.
30) Khazar- the language of a large state of the 7th-10th centuries. AD, in the area of the lower reaches of the Volga and Don, close to the Bulgar.
Note 1. All living Turkic languages, except Turkish, have been written since 1938-1939. on the basis of the Russian alphabet, until then for several years - on the basis of Latin, and many even earlier - on the basis of Arabic (Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Tatar and all Central Asian, and foreign Uighurs still). In sovereign Azerbaijan, the question of switching to the Latin alphabet has been raised again.
Note 2. The question of the grouping of the Turko-Tatar languages has not yet been finally resolved by science; according to F.E. Korsh (see: Korsh F.E. Classification of Turkish tribes by language, 1910.) - three groups: Northern, Southeastern and southwestern; according to V.A. Bogoroditsky (see: Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics in connection with other Turkic languages, 1934.) - eight groups: Northeastern, Abakan, Altai, West Siberian, Volga-Urals, Central Asian, Southwestern ( Turkish) and Chuvash; according to V. Schmidt (See: Schmidt W. Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde, 1932.) - three groups: Southern, Western, Eastern, while V. Schmidt classifies the Yakut as Mongolian. Other classifications were also proposed - V.V. Radlova, A.N. Samoilovich, G.I. Ramstedt, S.E. Malova, M. Ryasyanen and others. In 1952, N.A. Baskakov proposed a new classification scheme Turkic languages, which the author thinks of as "periodization of the history of the development of peoples and Turkic languages" (see: "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Department of Literature and Language", vol. XI, issue 2), where ancient divisions intersect with new ones and historical with geographical ones (see (also: Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. - M., 1969).1 A number of scientists are of the opinion about the possible distant relationship of the three language families - Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, forming the Altai macrofamily. However, in the accepted usage, the term "Altaic languages" denotes rather a conditional association than a proven genetic grouping (V.V.).
2 In view of the fact that in Turkology there is no single point of view on the grouping of Turkic languages, we give them a list; at the end, different points of view on their grouping are given.
3 Currently, Altaic and Shor languages use the same literary language based on Altaic.
2. MONGOLIAN LANGUAGES
1) Mongolian; writing was based on the Mongolian alphabet, received from the ancient Uighurs; since 1945 - based on the Russian alphabet.2) Buryat; from the 30s 20th century writing based on the Russian alphabet.
3) Kalmyk.
Note. There are also a number of smaller languages (Dagurian, Tung-Xiang, Mongorian, etc.), mainly in China (about 1.5 million), Manchuria and Afghanistan; No. 2 and 3 have since the 30s. 20th century writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
3. TUNGUS-MANCHUR LANGUAGES
A. Siberian group
1) Evenki (Tungus), with Negidal and Solon.2) Even (Lamut).
B. Manchurian group
1) Manchurian, dies out, had rich monuments of medieval writing in the Manchu alphabet.2) Jurchen- a dead language, known from the monuments of the XII-XVI centuries. (hieroglyphic writing modeled on Chinese)
B. Amur group
1) Nanai (Gold), with Ulch.2) Udei (Udege), with Oroch.
Note. No. 1 and 2 have since 1938-1939. writing based on the Russian alphabet, and until then, for several years - based on the Latin alphabet.
4. INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES OF THE FAR EAST NOT INCLUDED IN ANY GROUPS
(presumably close to Altai)
1) Japanese; writing based on Chinese characters in the 8th century. AD; new phonetic-syllabic writing - katakana and hiragana.
2)
Ryukyuan, obviously related to Japanese.
3) Korean; the first monuments based on Chinese characters from the 4th century. AD, modified in the 7th century. AD; from the 15th century - folk Korean letter "onmun" - an alpha-syllabic system of graphics.
4) Ainu, mainly on the Japanese Islands, also on Sakhalin Island; now out of use and superseded by Japanese.
VI. AFRASIAN (SEMITE-HAMITE) LANGUAGES
1. Semitic branch
1) Arab; international cult language of Islam; there are, in addition to classical Arabic, regional varieties (Sudanese, Egyptian, Syrian, etc.); writing in the Arabic alphabet (on the island of Malta - based on the Latin alphabet).2) Amharic, official language Ethiopia.
3) Tigre, tigray, gurage, harari and other languages of Ethiopia.
4) Assyrian (Aysor), the language of isolated ethnic groups in the countries of the Middle East and some others.
Dead:
5) Akkadian (Assyrian - Babylonian); known from the cuneiform monuments of the ancient East.
6) Ugarit.
7)
Hebrew- the language of the most ancient parts of the Bible, the cult language of the Jewish Church; existed as a colloquial language until the beginning of our era; from the 19th century on its basis, Hebrew was formed, now the official language of the state of Israel (along with Arabic); writing based on the Hebrew alphabet.
8) Aramaic- the language of the later books of the Bible and the common language of the Near East in the era of the III century. BC. - IV century. AD
9) Phoenician- the language of Phoenicia, Carthage (Punic); dead BC; writing in the Phoenician alphabet, from which subsequent types of alphabetic writing originated.
10) Geez- the former literary language of Abyssinia IV-XV centuries. AD; now a cult language in Ethiopia.
2. Egyptian branch
Dead:1) ancient egyptian- language ancient egypt, known from hieroglyphic monuments and documents of demotic writing (from the end of the 4th millennium BC to the 5th century AD).
2) Coptic- a descendant of the ancient Egyptian language in the medieval period from the 3rd to the 17th centuries. AD; cult language Orthodox Church in Egypt; writing is Coptic, the alphabet is based on the Greek alphabet.
3. Berbero-Libyan branch
(North Africa and West Central Africa)
1) Ghadames, Sioua.
2) Tuareg(tamahak, ghat, taneslemt, etc.).
3) 3enaga.
4) Kabyle.
5) Tashelhit.
6) Zenetian(reef, shauya, etc.).
7) Tamazight.
Dead:
8) Western Numidian.
9) Eastern Numidian (Libyan).
10) Guanche, existed until the 18th century. languages (dialects?) of the natives of the Canary Islands.
4. Kushite branch
(North East and East Africa)
1) Bedauye (beja).
2) Agavian(aungi, bilin, etc.).
3) Somalia.
4) Sidamo.
5) Afar, saho.
6)
Oromo (galla).
7) Iraqw, Ngomvia and etc.
5. Chadian branch
(Central Africa and West Central Sub-Saharan Africa)
1) Hausa(belongs to the Western Chadian group) is the largest language of the branch.
2) Other Western Chadian: gvandara, ngizim, boleva, karekare, angas, sura and etc.
3) Central Chadian: tera, margi, mandara, kotoko and etc.
4) Eastern Chadian: mubi, sokoro and etc.
VII. NIGERO-CONGO LANGUAGES
(territory of sub-Saharan Africa)
1. Mande languages
1) Bamana (bambara).2) Soninka.
3) Coco (susu).
4) Maninka.
5) Kpelle, scrap, mende, etc.
2. Atlantic languages
1) Fula (fulfulde).2) Wolof.
3) Serer.
4) Diola. Cognacs.
5) Gola, dark, bull and etc.
3. Ijoid languages
Represented by isolated language ijo(Nigeria).4. Kru languages
1) Seme.2) Bethe.
3) Godier.
4) Crewe.
5) Grebo.
6) Wobe and etc.
5. Kwa languages
1) Akan.2) Baule.
3) Adele.
4) Adangme.
5) Ewe.
6) Background and etc.
6. Dogon language
7. Gur languages
1) Bariba.2) Senari.
3) suppire.
4) Gurenne.
5) Gourma.
b) Kasem, cabre, kirma and etc.
8. Adamawa-Ubangu languages
1) Longuda.2) Tula.
3) Chamba.
4) Mumue.
5) Mbum.
b) Gbaya.
7) Ngbaka.
8) Sere, Mundu, Zande and etc.
9. Benuecongo languages
The largest family in the Niger-Congo macrofamily covers the territory from Nigeria to the east coast of Africa, including South Africa. It is divided into 4 branches and many groups, among which the largest is the Bantu languages, which in turn are divided into 16 zones (according to M. Gasri).
1) Nupe.
2) Yoruba.
3) Ygbo.
4) Edo.
5) Jukun.
6) Efik, ibibio.
7) Kambari, birom.
8) Tiv.
9) Bamilek.
10) Kom, lamnso, tikar.
11) Bantu(Duala, Ewando, Teke, Bobangi, Lingala, Kikuyu, Nyamwezi, Togo, Swahili, Congo, Luganda, Kinyarwanda, Chokwe, Luba, Nyakyusa, Nyanja, Yao, Mbundu, Herero, Shona, Sotho, Zulu, etc.).
10. Kordofanian languages
1) Kanga, Miri, Tumtum.2) Katla.
3) Rere.
4) Morning
5) Tegem.
6) Tegali, tagbi and etc.
VIII. NILO-SAHARAN LANGUAGES
(Central Africa, geographic Sudan zone)
1) Songhai.
2) Saharan: kanuri, tuba, zagawa.
3)
Fur.
4) Mimi, mabang.
5) Eastern Sudanese: wilds, mahas, bale, suri, nera, ronge, tama and etc.
6) Nilotic: Shilluk, Luo, Alur, Acholi, Nuer Bari, Teso, Nandi, Pakot and etc.
7) Central Sudanese: kresh, sinyar, capa, bagirmi, moru, madi, logbara, mangbetu.
8)
Kunama.
9) Bertha.
10) Kuama, komo, etc.
IX. Khoisan languages
(on the territory of South Africa, Namibia, Angola)
1) Bushman languages(Kung, Auni, Hadza, etc.).
2) Hottentot languages(nama, quran, san-dave, etc.).
X. Sino-Tibetan languages
A. Chinese branch
1) Chinese is the world's largest spoken language. Folk Chinese is divided into a number of dialect groups that differ greatly primarily phonetically; Chinese dialects are usually defined geographically. Literary language based on the northern (Mandarin) dialect, which is also the dialect of the capital of China - Beijing. For thousands of years, the literary language of China was Wenyan, which was formed in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and existed as a developing but incomprehensible bookish language until the 20th century, along with the more colloquial literary language Baihua. The latter became the basis of the modern unified literary Chinese language - Putonghua (based on Northern Baihua). The Chinese language is rich in written records from the 15th century. BC, but their hieroglyphic nature makes it difficult to study the history of the Chinese language. Since 1913, along with hieroglyphic writing, a special syllabo-phonetic letter "zhu-an izymu" was used on a national graphic basis for pronunciation identification of the reading of hieroglyphs by dialects. More than 100 have since been developed. various projects reforms of Chinese writing, of which the project of phonetic writing on the Latin graphic basis has the greatest promise.2) Dungan; the Dungans of the People's Republic of China have an Arabic script, the Dungans of Central Asia and Kazakhstan are originally Chinese (hieroglyphic), later - Arabic; since 1927 - on a Latin basis, and since 1950 - on a Russian basis.
B. Tibeto-Burmese branch
1) Tibetan.2) Burmese.
XI. THAI LANGUAGES
1) Thai- the state language of Thailand (until 1939, the Siamese language of the state of Siam).2) Laotian.
3) Zhuang.
4) Kadai (li, lakua, lati, gelao)- a group of Thai or an independent link between Thai and Austronesian.
Note. Some scholars consider the Thai languages to be related to Austronesian; in former classifications they were included in the Sino-Tibetan family.
XII. LANGUAGES
1) miao, with dialects hmong, hmu and etc.2) yao, with dialects mien, kimmun and etc.
3) Well.
Note. These little-studied languages of Central and South China were formerly included in the Sino-Tibetan family without sufficient reason.
XIII. DRAVID LANGUAGES
(languages ancient population Indian subcontinent, presumably related to the Uralic languages)
1) Tamil.
2) Telugu.
3) Malayalam.
4)
Kannada.
For all four, there is a script based on (or type of) the Indian Brahmi script.
5) Tulu.
6) Gondi.
7)
Brahui and etc.
XIV. OUTSIDE THE FAMILY - THE LANGUAGE OF BURUSHASDI (VERSHIK)
(mountainous regions of Northwest India)
XV. AUSTRIASIAN LANGUAGES
1) Languages munda: santal i, mundari, ho, birkhor, juang, sora, etc.2) Khmer.
3) Palaung (rumai) and etc.
4) Nicobar.
5) Vietnamese.
6) Khasi.
7) Malacca group(semang, semai, sakai, etc.).
8) Naali.
XVI. AUSTRONESIAN (MALAY-POLYNESIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Indonesian branch
1.Western group1) Indonesian, has been named since the 1930s. XX century., Currently the official language of Indonesia.
2) Batak.
3) Cham(Chamsky, Dzharai, etc.).
2. Javanese group
1) Javanese.
2) Sundanese.
3) Madura.
4) Balinese.
3. Dayak or Kalimantan group
Dayak and etc.
4. South Sulawesian group
1) Saddansky.
2)
Buginese.
3) Makassarsky and etc.
5. Philippine group
1) Tagalog(Tagalog).
2)
Ilokan.
3) Bikolsky and etc.
6. Madagascar group
Malagasy (formerly Malagasy).
Dead:
Kawi- Old Javanese literary language; monuments from the ninth century. n. e.; by origin, the Javanese language of the Indonesian branch was formed under the influence of the languages of India (Sanskrit).
B. Polynesian branch
1) Tonga and Niue.2) Maori, Hawaiian, Tahiti and etc.
3)Sam6a, uvea and etc.
B. Micronesian branch
1) Nauru.2) Marshall.
3) Ponape.
4) Truk and etc.
Note. The classification of the Austronesian macrofamily is given in an extremely simplified form. In fact, it covers a huge number of languages with an extremely complex multi-stage subdivision, regarding which there is no consensus (V.V.)
XVII. AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES
Numerous minor indigenous languages of Central and Northern Australia, most prominently guarantee. Apparently, they form a separate family Tasmanian languages on about. Tasmania.XVIII. PAPUAN LANGUAGES
Languages of the central part of about. New Guinea and some smaller islands in the Pacific. A very complex and not definitively established classification.XIX. PALEOASIATIAN LANGUAGES 1
A. Chukchi-Kamchatka languages
1) Chukchi(Luoravetlansky).2) Koryak(Nymylan).
3) Itelmensky(Kamchadal).
4) Alyutorsky.
5) Kereksky.
B. Eskimo-Aleut languages
1) Eskimo(Yuite).2) Aleutian(Unangan).
B. Yenisei languages
1) Ket. This language reveals features of kinship with the Nakh-Dagestan and Tibetan-Chinese languages. Its bearers were not natives of the Yenisei, but came from the south and assimilated by the surrounding people.2) Kott, Arin, Pumpokol and other extinct languages.
D. Nivkh (Gilyak) language
E. Yukagiro-Chuvan languages
Extinct languages (dialects?): Yukagir(previously - odulian), Chuvan, Omok. Two dialects have been preserved: Tundra and Kolyma (Sakha-Yakutia, Magadan, region).1 Paleoasian languages - a conditional name: Chukchi-Kamchatka represent a community of related languages; the rest of the languages are included in Paleoasiatic rather on a geographical basis.
XX. INDIAN (AMERINDIAN) LANGUAGES
A. Language families of North America
1) Algonquian(Menomini, Delaware, Yurok, Mikmak, Fox, Cree, Ojibwa, Potowatomy, Illinois, Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Arapaho, etc., as well as disappeared - Massachusetts, Mohican, etc.).2) Iroquois(Cherokee, Tuscarora, Seneca, Oneida, Huron, etc.).
3) Sioux(Crow, Hidatsa, Dakota, etc., along with several extinct ones - ofo, biloxi, tutelo, katawba).
4) gulf(natchez, tunic, chickasaw, choctaw, muskogee, etc.).
5) Na-dene(haida, tlingit, eyak; Athabaskan: nava-ho, tanana, tolova, hupa, mattole, etc.).
6) Mosan, including Vakash (Kwakiutl, Nootka) and Salish (Chehalis, Skomish, Kalispel, Bella Kula).
7) Penutian(Tsimshian, Chinook, Takelma, Klamath, Miubk, Zuni, etc., as well as many extinct ones).
8) hocaltec(karok, shasta, yana, chimariko, pomo, salina, etc.).
B. Language families of Central America
1) Yuto-Aztec(Nahuatl, Shoshone, Hopi, Luiseño, Papago, Bark, etc.). This family is sometimes combined with the Iowa-Tano languages (Kiowa, Piro, Tewa, etc.) within the Tano-Aztec phylum.2) maya quiche(Mam, Kekchi, Quiche, Yucatek Maya, Ixil, Tzeltal, Tojolabal, Chol, Huastec, etc.). The Maya, before the arrival of Europeans, reached a high level of culture and had their own hieroglyphic writing, partially deciphered.
3) Ottoman(Pame, Otomi, Popolok, Mixtec, Trick, Zapotec, etc.).
4) Miskito - Matagalpa (Miskito, Sumo, Matagalpa, etc.). These languages are sometimes included in Chibchan.
5) Chibchanskiye (karake, rama, getar, guaimi, chibcha, etc.). The Chibchan languages are also spoken in South America.
B. Language families of South America
1) Tupi Guarani(tupi, guarani, yuruna, tuparia, etc.).2) Kechumara(Quechua is the language of the ancient state of the Incas in Peru, currently in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador; Aymara).
3) Arawak(chamicuro, chipaya, itene, uanyam, guana, etc.).
4) Araucanian(Mapuche, Picunche, Pehuiche, etc.) -
5) pano takana(chacobo, kashibo, pano, takana, chama, etc.).
6) Same(Canela, Suya, Xavante, Kaingang, Botokudsky, etc.).
7) Caribbean(wayana, pemon, chaima, yaruma, etc.).
8) Language alakaluf and other isolated languages.
