The traditional principle of Russian spelling. Theory
Modern Russian spelling is governed by the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation", in force since 1956. The adoption of these rules was at one time very important for the ordering of Russian writing. This was the first generally binding, legislatively enshrined set of rules that eliminated a significant inconsistency in Russian spelling. They used to write, for example: go and go, come and come pince-nez and pince-nez, diet and diet, dance and dance, turn back and woody, boardwalk and plank, freckled and freckled, devil and damn, just right and just; some borrowed words were written with one consonant letter, then with two: il (l) adjustment, differential (f) erentiate, coefficient (f) icient, parallel (l) elogram (m) and etc.
Spelling principles are guidelines for the choice of letters by a native speaker where sound can be variably indicated.
The nature and system of Russian spelling is revealed using its principles: morphological, phonemic, phonetic, traditional (historical) and the principle of differentiation of meanings.
Spelling rules can be based on various principles.
Basically, the Russian spelling is morphological, respectively, the main principle of Russian spelling is the morphological principle. Its essence lies in the fact that it requires the unity of the spelling of the significant parts of the word. Writing for example a root
-House- is preserved in all words of the same root, despite the fact that its pronunciation in different words of this series is different (cf .: at home, home, brownie, housewife, etc.).
Likewise, the consistency of spelling of most suffixes, prefixes and endings is respected. This principle links a single word with related words.
The morphological principle requires that the spelling check be focused on the morphemic composition of the word, it assumes uniformity, the same spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes) in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms. These inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation include: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; stunning voiced and voicing voiceless consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [sinieva] - blue, [kan'eshna] - of course, and many others. dr.
Spelling, based on the morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech. In this case, the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation is carried out in morphological spelling on the basis of strictly defined relationships with pronunciation. Morphological spelling is a consequence of the seeker's understanding of the structural division of the word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes) and has as its result the most uniform transmission of these parts in writing. The way of writing with a uniform graphic transmission of significant parts of words makes it easier to "grasp" the meaning when reading.
Preserving the graphic unity of the same morphemes in writing, where possible, is characteristic feature Russian spelling. The uniformity of spellings of significant parts of words is achieved by the fact that positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in the Russian letter.
Checking spellings written according to the morphological principle includes:
- a) understanding the meaning of the word being checked or a combination of words, without which it is impossible to find a related test word, determine grammatical form words, etc .;
- b) analysis of the morphemic composition of the word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - at the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for the choice and application of the rule;
- c) phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding strong and weak phonemes, positional alternations and their causes. Further - the solution of the spelling problem by the algorithm.
It should be noted that the assimilation of spellings corresponding to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: the choice of words, the formation of their forms, the construction of phrases, sentences.
For a long time, the morphological principle in spelling has been considered the main, leading, since it provides the leading role of semantics. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle has claimed the role of the leading principle.
The next principle we'll look at is the phonemic principle.
In modern phonology (a section of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in a language system), it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are an identity. It is a phoneme - a linguistic unit represented by a series of positionally alternating sounds. So, the phoneme [O] can be represented by the following sounds regularly reproduced in the speech of native speakers of Russian: strong position - under stress [House]; weak position - unstressed [lady].
The phonemic principle of spelling says: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) In strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: the letter denotes in its strong version and in a weak position also in the same morpheme, of course. A phoneme is a sense-discriminator. The letter, fixing the phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of the morpheme (for example, the root), regardless of the variants of its sound.
The phonemic principle explains basically the same orthograms as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows a deeper understanding of the nature of spelling. He more definitely explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel, one should focus on the struck variant, on the strong position of the morpheme.
The phonemic principle allows you to combine many disparate rules: checks of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; promotes understanding of consistency in spelling.
The morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict one another, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from the phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on the parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological principle.
Through the uniform designation of morphemes, a uniform spelling of words is achieved, which is the ultimate goal of spelling.
The morphological principle of spelling is characterized by high comprehension and considerable simplicity. Spelling based on the morphological principle seems to be the most perfect and promising.
However, the morphological principle does not cover all spellings without exception. There are cases when the spellings do not obey him and even contradict. Therefore, along with the morphological, there are: phonetic, traditional (historical) and differentiating principles.
The phonetic principle defines a letter in which letters are sequentially denoted sounds actually pronounced in each specific case, i.e. the mainstay for spelling is pronunciation. The phonetic principle is used in Serbian, Belarusian, partly in Russian. According to this principle, the following are written in Russian:
- a) final consonants in prefixes on s / s: cloudless, joyless, useless;
- b) spelling O or a, in the prefix ra- - ras-, rose- - rus-
search - find, placer - scatter
v) NS after c: gypsies, cucumbers, sinitsin.
Russian spelling has evolved in the process of a long historical development, therefore there are quite a few spellings in it that no longer correspond to either its main principle or the current state of affairs. So, in the Old Russian language, the sounds f and NS were soft and after them you should write and... In modern Russian, these sounds are already solid, but we, paying tribute to tradition, continue to write after them not NS, a and: live, sew... The old spelling of adjective endings is also preserved.
-Wow, -his although in modern language in place G we pronounce v... The spellings explained by the history of the language, the history of the word, are called traditional.
According to the traditional principle, the word is written as it was written in the old days or as in the language from which it was borrowed. This principle is sometimes called historical, because traditional spellings evolved historically, some of them can be explained by the action of historical phonetic patterns.
Sometimes these spellings are called etymological, because they reflect the history of words. But traditional spellings do not always reflect the etymology of words, and often directly contradict it:
tomorrowa by tomorrowO to (forat trO k, morning)
Toa lach toO lach (about)
sta can stO kan (drain, drain)
The traditional principle of writing is to preserve spellings that are not explicable in terms of modern pronunciation or modern word structure. These spellings are memorable.
The oral form of the language changes much faster than the written one, since oral speech changes spontaneously, while the spelling norm is created deliberately, changes are made to it only when the contradiction between spelling and pronunciation becomes obvious. For this reason, languages with a long written tradition often retain those that are not justified by the current state of the writing language.
The traditional spelling principle is not motivated by the laws of the language. It reflects a tradition that has arisen in written communication.
The differentiating principle is the spelling of two words or forms that are phonetically the same, but have different meanings, i.e. are homophones:
grew (dew) - roses (rose), froze - (freeze) - from the rear (rear), arson (noun) - set fire to (verb).
The differentiating principle has a small radius of action, determining the spelling of homonyms. In accordance with this principle, the spelling reflects the desire to delimit homonyms, fully conveying their sound appearance in different graphic ways: BURN - BURN; bAL - bALL etc. The first pair of homonyms is homoforms (the sound of lexemes is not the same in all word forms) related to various parts speech. In this case, the distinction between homoforms in writing corresponds to the grammatical principle: the vowel E is written in verbal word forms, the vowel O - in the word forms of a noun. The words of the second pair are not opposed by grammatical meanings, the words bAL - bALL are spelled differently according to the differentiating principle. This principle is secondary. It does not define the graphic appearance of the word, but is "layered" on the phonetic and morphological principles. According to the differentiating principle, a morpheme has a constant plan of expression in writing (as the morphological principle also suggests), however, the sound compositions of morphemes that coincide orally are transmitted in writing different ways(which limits the scope of the phonetic principle) in order to reflect differences in lexical meaning.
The differentiating principle has a very narrow scope - the distinction in writing of some homonyms (homophones). Therefore, it is usually not even considered a principle, but only talk about differentiating spellings.
So, knowledge of the basic principles of Russian spelling allows you to generalize the learned rules, to find a single pattern in them. Spelling is essential for full communication.
Thus, the spelling system of the Russian language is determined by a set of principles, the main of which is morphological.
The modern spelling norm requires knowledge
firstly, more than a hundred spelling rules,
secondly, a large number of exceptions to the rules and,
third, the spelling of the so-called vocabulary words, i.e. words, the spelling of which is not regulated by the rules.
The Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation, published in 1956, were being prepared back in the 30s of the XX century. It is clear that over time they "lagged behind life", do not fully respond current state of the Russian language and spelling practice, and therefore need clarifications, amendments - after all, the language, for the written reflection of which the spelling rules are responsible, is in constant motion and development.
For half a century, the language, naturally, has undergone changes that undermine the spelling rules, new words, types of words, constructions have appeared, the spelling of which is not regulated by the rules and therefore experiences fluctuations. We see how many new words have entered the language in our time: dealer, killer, offshore, default, realtor, karate and many, many others. It is not always clear how to write them. Among these innovations, there are linguistic units that stand on the verge between a word and a part of a word: mini, midi, taxi, video, audio, media and other repeating first parts of compound words. Naturally, in the Rules of 1956, you cannot find information on how to write them with the next part of the word - together or with a hyphen.
In the course of using the current rules, inaccuracies and inconsistencies were found in them, moreover, some linguistic phenomena were not initially covered by the rules. This causes difficulties for those who write and study Russian writing, and provokes inconsistencies in spelling practice. For example, in the 1956 Rules, only three words are indicated, in which, after a solid consonant, the letter must be written e: mayor, peer and Sir, whereas in the spelling dictionary with the letter NS also the words master(? master, teacher?), plein air, racketeering and some others, more rare and highly specialized. The set of rules does not contain recommendations for the use of the letter. th. It is clear that the 1956 Rules need some revision. It is fully justified and even necessary. The adoption of amendments, clarifications and additions to the spelling rules approved more than half a century ago is a completely natural thing: the letter should, albeit with a lag, but still “keep up” with the language.
1. Spelling as a branch of linguistics.
2. Principles of Russian spelling.
3. Russian punctuation and its principles.
4. From the history of Russian spelling.
Spelling(Greek orthos "correct", grapho "I write"), or spelling, is a branch of linguistics that establishes a set of rules that determine uniform norms for the spelling of words, their forms, as well as norms for the graphic design of the accompanying components of the letter. Graphics by themselves are not able to determine the mode of functioning of alphabetic characters. This task is recognized to be solved by spelling.
Spelling in turn is part of orthology - the theory of correct literary speech. Orthology is based on the belief that mastering the culture of past generations is possible only on the basis of literacy and depends on the degree of mastery of the culture of the written and spoken word.
Usually, when it occurs, any sound letter is phonetic. This was in the beginning Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Old Slavonic writing. However, as the national language develops, the pronunciation changes, while the spellings, which are inherently more conservative, remain unchanged. The gap that has arisen between oral and written speech is either eliminated (this is done socially consciously), or consolidated. In the latter case, relations arise between sound and letter, which are elevated to the rank of law. This is how the principle of spelling of one or another writing is established.
The rules of Russian spelling are developed and improved not for the sake of their accumulation, but in order to make the process of written communication between people as easy as possible by eliminating heterogeneous and contradictory approaches to the use of the means of Russian graphics.
The basic concept of spelling is spelling. Spelling- this is a case of problematic spelling, where the writer must choose letters to designate a particular sound. For example, the word chocolate may have whole line design options, based on pronunciation: * jackalat, shikalat, shykolad However, the spelling establishes only one variant of the graphic design of a given word in accordance with the requirement of uniformity.
Variants can be phonemes that are in a weak position, i.e. the position in which the sound can be labeled variably. The phoneme in weak positions can be designated in different ways, the choice of letters is determined by spelling principles.
Spelling principles are the rules for choosing letters to denote phonemes in weak positions. Modern Russian spelling is built on the basis of several principles. These are phonetic, morphological, historical and ideographic principles.
Morphological principle in the system of Russian spelling is the main, leading principle, for on its basis the majority of spellings were formed.
The essence of the morphological principle is that the basis for writing any morpheme (root, suffix, prefix, inflection) is the graphic appearance of a given morpheme that is created letter designation the sounds that form it in a strong position. For example, in the word fruit we should designate the vowel sound of the root morpheme with the letter O, because in a strong position - fetus- this sound is indicated by the letter O.
This means that in order to check spellings that correspond to the morphological principle, it is enough to choose a related word or one containing the same morpheme so that the dubious sound is in a strong position: v O yes - water, wholesale - wholesale, pr e mate - a premium; petitions O- celebration, self-indulgence; cut a t - create, consider, decide; okal and on - saccharin, analgin,
In words Forest and climbed the final consonant sounds the same, like a voiceless sound, but in writing it is denoted by different letters, because in a strong position to denote a given sound are used in one case C (scaffolding - le with), in the other - Z (climb - le s).
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the morphological principle applies to all morphemes - prefixes, suffixes, inflections. For example, in predict the prefix (prefix) is written with the letter D, since the corresponding consonant in a strong position is indicated by the letter D - suggest, predict.
Spelling, based on the morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech: at the junction of morphemes and at the absolute end of a word for consonants and inside morphemes for vowels. At the same time, the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation is carried out on the basis of a strict correlation with pronunciation, and not in isolation from it, not chaotic. Morphological spellings are a consequence of native speakers' understanding of the structural division of a word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes) and has as its result a uniform transmission of these parts in writing. The way of writing with a uniform graphic transmission of significant parts of words makes it easier to "grasp" the meaning.
The name of the principle "morphologically" is associated with the uniform transmission of morphemes. It is common knowledge that all morphemes have a specific meaning. So, the suffix -clerk carries the meaning of "a person who does something" (bricklayer, glazier). Prefix pre- has as one of the meanings "very" (bright, exaggerate, beautiful).
If we wrote as we pronounce, the morphological composition of words would not be clear and we would hardly recognize even related words. But since we, despite the different pronunciation, write morphemes in the same way, uniformly, the significant part of the word has a single graphic image.
Thus, the morphological principle facilitates quick understanding and comprehension of the text, because attention is not delayed, on the designation of pronunciation features. We immediately see the root, prefix, suffix, ending in words pre-rotation-eni-e, de-color-n-th, do-a-et-sya.
Morphological spelling suppresses differences in pronunciation in our minds: liquid - thin; form - formal, signalman - communication; to approach - to pick up. The morpheme remains conscious as liquid-, form-, connection-, sub-, although some sounds in it can be replaced by others. The morphological principle exists primarily as a consequence of the awareness of the "kinship" of roots, prefixes, suffixes, and endings. We write words depending on the understanding of their composition. In this case, changes in the sound composition of the word and its parts do not destroy the unity of the morpheme. The morpheme remains in the minds of a certain semantic unit, and a spontaneous, unconscious desire not to change its spelling arises.
The morphological principle of Russian spelling historically developed spontaneously, and in the future it was deliberately supported for the uniform spelling of related words.
Traditional (historical) principle writing is that the spelling fixed by tradition is preserved, even if it does not correspond to the modern state of the language. Examples of traditional spellings include zhi, shi, qi in words breadth, live, compasses... Once these consonants were soft, the spelling reflected the phonetic principle. Over time, these sounds in Russian hardened, but the spelling remained. This spelling is also supported by morphological analogies: the verb ending - it, -i (flies, chops; put, carry).
The traditional principle is that it reflects the spelling of phonemes v weak positions: sounds are indicated by one of a number of possible letters.
In contrast to the morphological principle in the traditional, the choice of a letter to denote a phoneme was determined on the basis of the tradition of writing, based on historical spelling or simply conditionally. However, the choice of letters here is limited and very specific.
For example, in words isotope, coefficient, atom, the choice of the letter O is determined from its possible alternation with A. solution, standard, magnet are written with the letter A, because, in principle, the alternation A / O could be represented here. The choice of a letter is not based on pronunciation, but traditionally: on the basis of etymology, transcription, transliteration, or just convention.
Traditional spellings have an essential feature that brings them closer to morphological spellings. They create graphically uniform morpheme images: To a blook, pod a bluchnik; with O tank, s O bachy, turn off e eh, will replace e eh; peasants e, townspeople e.
The traditional principle defines the following spellings:
Unstressed vowels, unstressed (m O loco, with a Paradise);
- vowel alternation in roots (R a sti - r O drain; sun O chit - sk a kat; fast e pour - post and lat);
Writing G to denote [c] in the endings - his (the fifth, mine, blue, kind, strange, lost;
Writing H to denote [w] in combination chn (bakery, birdhouse;
- B after hissing at the end of nouns, verb forms, adverbs and particles (ink, rye, night, you go, you say, gallop, swing, only);
- hyphenated, continuous, separate spellings;
The choice of uppercase and lowercase letters when designating improper names;
Design of graphic abbreviations.
Phonetic principle is defined as the motto “write as you hear”. With the phonetic principle in writing, the letters denote exactly the phonemes: house, floor, temple, table, soul, immediately, drives. The phonetic principle underlies all phonemographic writing systems. The Serbo-Croatian spelling is based on this principle; partly (in the area of vowel writing) - the spelling of Belarusians.
The phonetic principle is opposed to the morphological one, since sounds in strong and weak positions are indicated by different letters: once NS grab - and gra; ra with put - ra s reverse.
Spells written according to the phonetic principle can be written according to the morphological principle. Therefore, phonetic spellings are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.
Phonetic spellings include:
Writing prefixes with ending Z: without-, voz- § zz-, lower-, raz-, rose-, through- (through-). Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with Z, because this is how we write all the other prefixes: sang and passed, sat down and knocked out.
Writing Y instead of the initial I in the root after the prefixes ending in a solid consonant: unprincipled, refined, playful, uninteresting. The spelling of the initial I is fundamentally preserved at the present time after the Russian prefixes inter-, super-. After inter- And it is written in force general rule live, shi, and then in excess of-- because there are no combinations of KY, GY, XY in Russian / language (super-ideological, inter-institutional). After foreign prefixes, I is saved so that the writer and reader can quickly understand the root and quickly understand the word: subinspector, pan-Islamism;
- writing O in suffixes -onok, -onk- after hissing: daw, hat. In the morphological spelling, it would be E, cf .: owlet, hut.
Ideographic principle z It is concluded that words with the same sound envelopes differ graphically: burn (noun) - burned (last verb, m. r., singular); company (fun) - campaign (pre-election); ball ( prom night) - point (estimate); crying (noun) - crying (verb); Hope (proper name) - hope (common name). Those. to distinguish the meanings of homonyms, differentiating spellings are used.
Punctuation is a part graphics system language. But the functions of letters and the role of punctuation marks differ significantly. If with the help of letters the sound and graphic shell of words is indicated, then with the help of punctuation marks the written utterance is divided into certain structural parts, thereby facilitating the task of the writer when designing the text, and for the reader - the perception of its content. A text written without punctuation marks (and without capital letters) reads three to five times slower than a text that is well-formed. With the help of punctuation, the articulation of the text, its purposefulness, structure and the main features of intonation are conveyed.
Russian punctuation is a system of graphic signs that, in accordance with certain rules, divide the text into paragraphs, sentences, designate certain components within a sentence, which is necessary condition for a written message in Russian.
Punctuation marks are graphic (written) marks needed to dismember the text into sentences, to convey the features of the structure of sentences and their intonation in writing. Punctuation marks are used according to the rules that are necessary for the writer and reader to equally understand the meaning and structure of the text.
Russian punctuation marks include:
1) a period, a question mark, an exclamation mark are signs for the end of a sentence;
2) comma, dash, colon, semicolon are signs of separation of parts of a sentence;
3) brackets, quotation marks ("double" signs), which highlight individual words or parts of a sentence, for this, a comma and a dash are used as paired characters; if the highlighted construction is at the absolute beginning or at the end of the sentence, then one comma or dash is used;
4) ellipsis; being a “semantic” sign, it can be placed at the end of a sentence to indicate the special significance of what has been said, or in the middle to convey confused, difficult or agitated speech.
Principles of Russian punctuation- these are the foundations of modern punctuation rules that define optimal use punctuation marks. Punctuation marks reflect the semantic and structural division of speech, as well as its rhythmic and intonational structure. Russian punctuation is based on a structural and semantic principle. Modern punctuation is based on meaning, structure, and rhythmic-intonational division of the utterance in their interaction.
Structural and semantic dismemberment of the text is carried out when performing the basic functions of punctuation marks.
1. The structural function is to separate paragraphs from each other, adjacent independent sentences within a paragraph. The separators are the red line (paragraph mark), period, question and exclamation marks. In addition, a comma, semicolon, dash and colon can perform a structural function if they are placed on the border between parts complex sentence... The same function is performed by punctuation marks to denote the boundaries of those semantic segments that complicate a simple sentence: with introductory words and constructions, when addressing, to isolate minor members, with direct speech, in a position between homogeneous members of a sentence. For example: Everything in a person should be beautiful: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts(Chekhov).
2. The logical-semantic function is performed by a colon and a dash in a non-union two-term sentence. Colon indicates a deductive sentence (The prime number 19 can be represented as the product of two natural numbers in only one way: 19 = 4x19.) Dash - in the proposal of the inductive system (The discovery of a colossal public sound has come true - a high-temperature superconductor has been obtained).
3. The exclamation mark and ellipsis perform the expressive function. They serve as indicators of the emotional upliftness of the statement or its incompleteness at the time of the emotional appeal: Spring...
The system of punctuation marks was unified in Europe with the advent of typography. Most of the punctuation marks in their modern form and meaning were introduced in the 15th-16th centuries by the Venetian book printers Aldo Manuzia (grandfather and grandson who bore the same name).
Russian spelling is a historical phenomenon. In the form in which we now know the spelling, it was far from always. The norms of Russian spelling were not established immediately, but took shape with the development of general literary norms in the spheres of phonetics, vocabulary, word formation, and grammatical system.
Russian spelling has gone through several major stages of development. The history of Russian civil writing began in the Peter the Great's era with the introduction of the civil script and the approval of a sample of the alphabet improved on the basis of the Slavic-Russian Cyrillic alphabet. Peter's reform was a graphic reform. The history of Russian spelling dates back to Lomonosov's Russian Grammar (1753), in which the theoretical basis of the morphological principle was laid. But the Russian writing remained complex, contradictory, so at the end of the 19th century, scientists did work to simplify the alphabet and streamline the Russian spelling system. In 1904, a commission at the Russian Academy of Sciences published a draft of a new spelling, but there were so many opponents of the reform that it was possible to carry it out only under Soviet rule in 1918.The reform of Russian spelling coincided with the demolition of the old state machine, so its implementation became possible.
However, the reform, having resolved the largest issues of simplifying Russian writing, did not touch on many particular issues of spelling.
In 1929, a commission was organized at the Main Directorate of Science of the People's Commissariat for Education to solve the problem of streamlining the Russian spelling. The 30-50s were a period of creation of a unified set of rules for Russian spelling and punctuation. In 1956, the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation" were published, approved by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Ministry higher education USSR, Ministry of Education of the RSFSR. "Rules ..." became a document, all of which were mandatory for educational institutions, press organs, for state and public organizations in their official correspondence and open publications. "Rules ..." have become a source for all compilers of textbooks, dictionaries of the Russian language, encyclopedias and reference books.
"The Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation" is the first truly complete set of clearly formulated and scientifically based rules and regulations in the history of Russian spelling.
It is necessary to understand that the "Rules ..." were aimed at streamlining, unification of Russian spelling based on the principle of historical and cultural continuity. This was not a reform of the Russian spelling, since its foundations were preserved.
On the other hand, the "Rules .." did not use all the opportunities to improve the Russian writing. Its compilers were overly careful with numerous exceptions, there were cases of clearly outdated spellings. After the publication of the "Rules ..." numerous letters and appeals about spelling imperfections were sent to the governing departments. In 1962, at the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Spelling Commission was created to improve Russian spelling, chaired by Acad. V.V. Vinogradov. After the collapse of the USSR, the Spelling Commission works under the President Russian Federation... At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. an attempt was made to improve the Russian spelling. However, the draft reform did not meet with the approval of the Russian society when widely discussed.
The work of a document clerk and archivist requires such professional qualities as an automatic spelling skill and spelling vigilance. Spelling skills must be maintained throughout the entire period of active professional activity. The main source and way of maintaining the required level of professional qualifications is constant use of normative dictionaries and linguistic reference books, as well as work with spelling and punctuation codes.
List of used literature
1. Vetvitsky V.G., Ivanova V.F., Moiseev A.I. Modern Russian writing. - M .: Education, 1974.
2. Gvozdev A.N. Modern Russian literary language... Part I. Phonetics and morphology. - M .: Education, 1973.
3. Gorbunova L.I. Writing in its history and functioning: study guide. allowance. - Irkutsk: Irkut Publishing House. state University, 2007.
4. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976.
5. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling.
6. Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. - M .: Azbukovnik, 1999.
7. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Lectures on General Linguistics. M .: "High school", 1990 (Lecture 1, 2, 8, 11, 12).
8. Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. Yu.N. Karaulov. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia; Bustard, 1998.
9. Linguistics. Big encyclopedic dictionary. - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998.
Questions for independent work and self-control
1. Give a definition of the concepts of rfography, spelling, spelling principle.
2. What is the essence of the morphological principle of Russian spelling?
3. Describe the traditional, phonetic ideographic principles of Russian spelling.
4. Give a definition of concepts punctuation, punctuation marks, the principle of punctuation... What are the functions of Russian punctuation marks?
CHAPTER 7. NORMS OF RUSSIAN SPELLING
The concept of spelling, types and types of spelling
The concept of spelling is familiar to everyone from school. Well-known terms immediately come to mind: "spelling", "spelling mistakes", "spelling analysis", etc. All of them are associated with the laws of correct writing and spelling.
In modern Russian, all the rules of "correct writing" are contained in two main sections: spelling and punctuation.
Spelling(from Greek orthos - "correct" and grapho - "I write") is a system of rules for literal notation of words, and punctuation- rules for the placement of punctuation marks. Spelling is divided into five sections.
1. Rules for the designation of sounds with letters.
2. Rules for the use of continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings.
3. Rules for the use of uppercase (large) and lowercase (small) letters.
4. Word hyphenation rules.
5. Rules for the use of abbreviated words.
We can say that the spelling is a "dangerous" place in a word.
The word "spelling" comes from the Greek [orphos] - "correct" and [gram] - "letter". But not only the letter is included in the concept of spelling. What about word hyphenation (incorrect hyphenation is also a mistake), with continuous and separate spelling, capital letter, hyphen? Consequently, the spelling is a "dangerous" place not only in a word, where you can make a mistake in choosing a letter, but also in spelling in general.
Spells differ in types (letter spellings, merged-hyphen-separate, spellings with uppercase and lowercase letters), by type (spelling of the root, prefixes, suffixes, endings; hyphenated spellings, etc.), they can also be subdivided within species ( for example, the spelling of the root is testable - unverifiable, with alternating vowels, etc.).
Determining the nature of spelling is the most important skill that helps to perceive the studied material in the system and correlate it with the desired rule. In teaching practice, students often confuse spelling (for example, in the word "sleepover" they often write the letter "o" after a hissing, on the grounds that the corresponding vowel is stressed). In this case, word-formation analysis is not performed, and an error in spelling is due to a mixture of rules: spelling o - e after sibilants in the root, suffixes and endings of nouns and adjectives.
To write correctly, you should be able to see the "dangerous" places in the spelling and be able to apply the rule. Therefore, most often, a spelling is understood as a spelling determined on the basis of rules or by a dictionary. There are writing rules in every language - they ensure the accurate transmission of speech and the correct understanding of what is written by everyone who speaks this language.
Principles of Russian spelling
The formation of rules in the process of development and formation of the language is ongoing. The systematization of rules, their grouping do not occur by themselves, but in accordance with the ideas and principles of spelling and punctuation that are leading in a given historical period of time. And although there are many rules and they are different, they obey only a few basic principles. The spelling systems of languages differ depending on the principles underlying the use of letters.
Phonetic principle
Phonetic principle Russian spelling is based on the rule "As we hear, so we write." Historically, the alphabetic-sound system of Russian writing was focused precisely on pronunciation: in birch bark letters, ancient Russian annals, one can, for example, find such spellings as: runner (without him). Today, the phonetic principle as a leading one has been preserved and is used, in particular, in the Serbian and Belarusian spelling.
Applying the phonetic principle is not as easy as it seems at first glance. First, it is difficult to follow the pronunciation when writing. Secondly, the pronunciation is different for everyone, everyone speaks and hears in their own way, so learning to “decipher” texts written strictly within the framework of the phonetic principle is not easy. For example, we pronounce [sivodnya, maya], but we write in a different way.
However, some of modern rules formed under the influence of phonetic patterns: for example, the spelling of "s" instead of "and" in the roots after the Russian-language prefixes ending in a solid consonant (except for the prefixes inter- and super-): artless, previous and etc.; writing "s", not "z" at the end of some prefixes before the following voiceless consonant: armless, story. The rules for writing "s" and "z" at the end of prefixes are associated with the history of the Russian language. These prefixes, unlike all the others, were never prepositions, that is, independent words, and therefore there was no "gap" between the final sound of such a prefix and the initial sound of the next part of the word. However, it should be remembered that talking about the use of prefixes in writing on s - s according to the principle "I write as I hear" is possible only with a reservation. This principle is observed in relation to the bulk of words with these prefixes - you know the rule or not, write, guided by pronunciation (reckless, goodbye, dodgy), but there are two groups of words that can be misspelled if you use this principle... These are words followed by a sibilant (expand, fade) or a sound similar to the final sound of the set-top box (tell-tell, careless). How to be? Words that begin with prefixes on s - s-, and then they are followed by the letters "z", "s" or hissing, you should first pronounce without a prefix, and then decide on the use of one or another letter: be? sonica, be? honest, be? pitiful, ra? to make you laugh.
The traditional principle of Russian spelling
The spelling is based on the traditional, or historical, principle, when a word is spelled as it was once pronounced. This principle is at the heart of English spelling. There are such words in Russian, for example sew. In the Old Russian language, the sounds [w], [w], [c] were soft, so the writing after them reflected the pronunciation. By the 16th century [w], [w], [c] hardened, and after them the sound [s] began to be pronounced, but by tradition we write after them -and (lived, sewed, circus). The traditional ones are most often unverifiable spellings (they should be checked against dictionaries).
The rules of continuous and separate, as well as hyphenated spelling are based on the concept of a word, and the principle is as follows: separate words in Russian should be written separately. The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the principle of syllable division (dividing words into syllables).
In cases with hyphenation, one should take into account the morphemic composition of the word (dividing the word into syllables, taking into account the composition of the word) and the prohibition to hyphenate one letter (for example, although in the word “family” the final spelling “I” represents an ending and a syllable, one cannot transfer one letter to another string).
In cases of continuous and separate spelling or writing through a hyphen, everything is also not as simple as it seems at first glance: for example, when writing complex adjectives or a number of adverbs, it can be difficult to determine the boundaries of words in the speech stream, and the question of how to write such words (together, separately or through a hyphen), is solved on the basis of knowledge of the meaning of the word as a lexical and grammatical unit, based on the opposition of the morpheme of words. For example, you need to decide whether a certain segment of speech is a word, or is it a morpheme, or two words, that is, first of all, determine the boundary of words, and then apply the rule: in our opinion and in our opinion.
The phonetic principle of spelling is traditionally understood as such, in which successive chains of sounds in word forms are designated on the basis of a direct connection "sound - letter", without taking into account any other criteria.
In short, this principle is defined by the motto "write as you hear".
But a very important question is what sounds should be designated with the phonetic principle, with what detailing.
In practical writing, which is any letter-sound letter, and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be designated.
The phonetic principle of spelling with the emergence of the concept and term "phoneme" could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term in modern linguistic literature (by IDF scientists) is used in a different sense (see below, p. 145 et seq.), it is more convenient to leave the former name for it1.
The phonetic principle as a definite orthographic beginning is proclaimed when the positional alternations of phonemes (if any) are specially reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is such a principle of designating phonemes when phonemes weak positions with which the phonemes of strong positions alternate are indicated by letters adequate to the phonemes of weak positions on the basis of the direct connection "phoneme - letter adequate to it" 2.
But the designation of some phonemes of strong positions also falls within the scope of the phonetic principle. This is the designation of the stressed vowel / o / after sibilants (as is the case with the morphological principle), which is associated with the "transition" / e / w / o / and the peculiarity of the letter series e - e - o, for example: daw, hat, etc. ...
The phonetic principle is the antagonist of the morphological principle. Spells written according to the phonetic principle may, if deemed appropriate, be written according to the morphological principle; that is why they are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.
There are few orthograms that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. Let's consider them.
1. Writing prefixes with a final z: without-, voz-, vz-, from-, bottom-, raz-, rose-, trans- (via-).
Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with s, i.e. one should write not only painless, but also “non-partisan,” not only escaped, but also “soiled,” and so on. This is exactly how, without changing the graphic appearance, all other prefixes are written: sang and passed, repaid and thanked, sat down and ran, etc.
Meanwhile, we write prefixes in -з, proceeding from the phonetic principle: they are written either with the letter z, then with the letter c, depending on the pronunciation (see "Rules ...", § 50). According to the law of alternation, the sound / s / before the next voiceless consonant is replaced by / s /, and this sound alternation, contrary to the morphological principle, is reflected in the letter:
It should be noted that the prefixes in -з are not written completely phonetically. So, in the words ruthless and reckless, in the place of the final orthographic s in the prefix, there is no sound / w /, and in the place of the final spelling with in the prefix, there is no sound / w /. In these words, alternation of a different nature occurs - alternation at the place of education.
Thus, the phoneticity of writing prefixes in -з has a limit: it is limited to showing in writing either voiced or deafness of the final consonant sound of the prefix before subsequent voiced (before which it is written z) and voiceless (before which it is written with) consonants. There is also one peculiar exception. The word tasteless is written with a spelling variant without-, although a voiceless sound / s / is pronounced in the prefix in place of the orthographic s /: be / s / tasty (before the subsequent voiceless sound / f /, pronounced in place of the letter c). But since in the letter we see the sign of a voiced consonant, namely the letter c, and not f, we do not write the prefix with the letter z (i.e., with the sign of a voiced consonant) in relation to the subsequent letter c (the sign of a voiced consonant), and not to the deaf sound / f / designated by it. Here the real sound recedes in our consciousness before the force of the letter1.
2. Writing the prefix rose-.
In the writing of this prefix, in addition to reflecting the alternation / s / s / s / - distributed, but the painting, - the positional alternation of shock / o / with unstressed / a / is also reflected. In the "Rules ..." it is said: "... the prefix dis- (ras-) is always written not under stress, for example: distribute (when he was born), schedule, schedule (when he was written ) ".
Thus, the prefix roses- has four written options: rose-, rose-, times-, ras-.
Withdrawal of unstressed variants of ra- (ra-), i.e. the ability to write "to distribute" instead of the now accepted distribution (since there is a root); "list" instead of the currently accepted schedule (since there is a ro? list), etc., some cases of stress on / a / interfere: ravit, ravito, ravity - from developed; developed (along with development), developed (along with development), developed (along with development) - reflected1.
But the phonetic spelling of the vowel in the prefix roz- long time was limited by one exception: the word search? y with unstressed / a / was written with o (since search). Latest edition Spelling dictionary of the Russian language (M., 1991) gives the spelling of this word with a - search, search engine (see p. 305).
3. Spelling s instead of the initial and (by pronunciation) in the root after the prefixes2 ending in a hard consonant: artless, sophisticated, unprincipled, pre-Julian, etc. 3
These spellings are phonetic. After prefixes ending in a solid consonant, it is pronounced in accordance with the phonetic laws of the Russian language / s /.
Before the publication of the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation" in 1956, instead of the etymological and after the prefixes, it was written only in Russian words (play, search, etc.), in foreign language roots, according to the rules, it was written and ("without ideology", " uninteresting "etc.). Since in modern language words such as idea, interest, history, etc. others, are no longer perceived as foreign language, in 1956 it was considered expedient to give a single rule for both Russian and borrowed words. Indeed, writing is not always easy.
can determine if the root part of a word is borrowed. It is not by chance, therefore, that there were hesitations: ideless and unprincipled, uninteresting and uninteresting, which took place in the practice of printing before the publication of "Rules ..." 1956.
The spelling of the initial and in the root after solid consonants is retained at the present time after the Russian prefixes inter- and super-, as well as after foreign language prefixes and particles. After the prefix, inter- and is written by virtue of the general rule, according to which s is not written after z, and after super- - because the Russian language is not characterized by the combination of ge, ky, xy. After foreign prefixes, and is saved so that the writer can quickly see and understand the root, for example, in the word subinspector, etc., and thanks to this, quickly understand the word. The rule is set out in § 7 of the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation".
4. Writing about in suffixes -onok, -onk (a) after sibilants: daw, hat, etc. (cf .: owlet, hut, etc.). The morphological principle would correspond to the spelling with e.
Traditionally, it was considered to correspond to the phonetic principle to write e / o after sibilants and q in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as writing e / o in the suffix -ok- (-ek-) after sibilants1. But these spellings can be considered as morphological (see above, p. 109).
In the general system of Russian spelling, built on the morphological principle, spellings based on the phonetic principle, as falling out of the system, make it difficult for those who write in to a greater extent than morphological, and they should therefore be given special attention.
It should be emphasized once again that such spellings as house, hold, floor, etc., are not included in the scope of the phonetic principle (just as they are not included in the scope of any other spelling principle). There are no spelling 2.
They do not correspond to the phonetic principle and such spellings as country, bitch, etc. 3 Letters a and k are written not on the basis of a direct connection "phoneme - letter", but on the basis of morphological comparisons (country ?, since countries; bitches since bitches?), i.e. according to the morphological principle.
1 Baudouin de Courtenay called this way of writing phonemography: "... phonemography denotes a one-sided, exclusively phonetic way of writing, in which the splitting of a sentence into syntagms or syntactic elements is not taken into account, and the splitting into morphemes, that is, morphological elements, is not taken into account. , in morphemography, attention is drawn to mental kinship, ie associations by the similarity of a sentence with other sentences and words with other words "(Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. General Linguistics.Moscow, 1963.Vol. 2.P. 332.
2 The name "phonemic" (not "phonetic") principle is used for these cases: Maslov Yu.S. (Introduction to linguistics. M., 1987. S. 259); Zinder L.R. (Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987. S. 91); Selezneva L.B. (Modern Russian writing ... Tomsk, 1981, p. 56).
1 The literal aspect of the rule about prefixes in -з was noted by A.I. Moiseev. (Russian language: Phonetics. Morphology. Spelling. M., 1980. S. 233); Kuzmina S.M. (Theory of Russian spelling. M., 1981. S. 251).
1 See: Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Reference Dictionary / Ed. R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegova. M., 1959. S. 484; Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1983.S. 480.
2 Ы instead of and (in pronunciation) is also written in the prefix from-, if it follows after another prefix: again, childhood.
1. The rules establishing a uniform spelling of significant parts of a word are based mainly on the morphological principle of Russian spelling. It lies in the fact that the significant part of the word should be written in the same way, uniformly, regardless of how it is pronounced in speech. Unstressed vowels are written as if they were stressed, and consonants are written in the same way as in the position in front of vowels, sonorant consonants (y, l, m, n, p) and consonant c. Examples: 1) at the root of the word export, instead of the sound [o], the reduced [b] is heard, instead of [z] - [s], but this root in all cases will be written with the letters o and z, which denote the sounds [o] and [ h] in strong positions, as in the word we take out; 2) the prefix is written in all words in the same way, although it is pronounced differently: shallow - refusal - to leave; 3) the suffix -liv- is written through and (lucky, affable), since under the stress this very sound is heard in it: talkative; 4) the ending of nouns is always written in the same way: with chalk; it can be checked by stress: table.
Unverifiable spellings are called traditional: north, west, barrier. They do not contradict the morphological principle: parts of a word that cannot be checked must also be written uniformly: north, northerners, Severodvinsk.
In some few cases, deviations from the morphological principle are observed. For example, roots with alternating vowels are not written uniformly: dawn - dawn, spread - spread. This is due to the reflection of ancient sound alternations in writing.
Another principle of Russian spelling is phonetic, according to which the spelling and pronunciation must match. This principle applies mainly to the spelling of prefixes: harmless - powerless (the sound that is heard is written at the end of the prefix); dissolve - dissolution (about only under stress). The phonetic principle is based on the rule of using the vowel s after a prefix ending in a hard consonant: search, previous. There are few phonetic spellings in Russian spelling.
2. The rules establishing separate and continuous spellings are based on following principle: all words (both independent and official) are written separately from each other, and all parts of words are written together: two days, without writing; two days, unwritten.
Semi-literal (hyphenated) spellings are observed mainly in compound words: southwest, pale yellow; in adverbs: first, in a comradely manner.
Spelling norms sometimes lag behind the processes taking place in the language. So, the adverb under the arms is currently understood not as a combination of two words, but as one word, but so far its separate spelling is preserved. Therefore, if you encounter difficulties associated with the separate, continuous and semi-continuous spelling of adverbs, as well as the spelling of complex words, you need to refer to the spelling dictionary.
3. The way of transferring a word depends on its division into syllables, as well as on the morphemic composition. Accordingly, when transferring words, one should not break a syllable, transfer a part that does not form a syllable, and, if possible, one should take into account the structure of the word: open, write, length.
4. Use of uppercase and lowercase letters:
a) the first word in an independent sentence is written with a capital letter: Summer has come. The holidays have begun;
b) all proper names are written with a capital letter: Eugene Onegin, Petersburg. The names used in the common noun are written with a lowercase letter: a club-footed bear (bear), try a Napoleon (cake), undergo an X-ray (examination);
c) words formed from proper names are spelled differently. Adverbs - with a lowercase letter: in Chekhov's lyric, satire in Gogol. Adjectives with the suffix -sk- are also written with a lowercase letter: Pushkin's prose, Nabokov's plays. If these adjectives are used in compound names, they must be written with a capital letter: Pushkin Readings, Nabokov Conference. The capital letter is written in adjectives with the suffixes -oe- (-ev-) and
-in-: Platonic philosophy, Dalev dictionary, Machine diary;
d) in the names of higher international organizations, higher government agencies, positions and titles, all words are written with capital letters: United Nations, Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation, Hero of the Russian Federation;
e) in geographical and astronomical names, in the names of the most important historical events, all words are written with capital letters, except for generic designations such as ocean, island, war, constellation, etc.: Arctic Ocean, Alpha Ursa Major, Great Patriotic War;
f) in the names of organizations and institutions, the first word is written with a capital letter, proper names and the words House, Palace: State Academic Bolshoi Theater of Russia (Bolshoi and Russia - proper names), Moscow Operetta Theater, Central House of Books;
g) in the titles of works and documents, the first word and proper names are written with a capital letter: Old Testament, Rachmaninoff's First Concerto for Piano and Orchestra. Titles of books, titles of newspapers, magazines, films, pictures, performances, titles of products, trade marks must be enclosed in quotation marks: "Romeo and Juliet" by Shakespeare, the magazine "Crocodile", iris "Golden Key";
h) in the names of holidays and significant dates, as a rule, only the first word is written with a capital letter: New Year, March 8, Builder's Day, but: Victory Day (the second word is used with a special meaning). If the date in the name of the holiday is indicated by a number, then the word following it is written with a capital letter; Wed: May 1 - May Day.
Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P.A.Lekanta - M., 2009
