Adjectives and their meanings. What is an adjective in Russian

§one. general characteristics adjective

The adjective is an independent significant part of speech.

1. grammatical meaning - "sign of the subject."
Adjectives are words that answer the questions: what?, whose?

2. Morphological features:

• constants - rank by value, for quality: full / short form and degree of comparison
• inflected - case, number, in the singular - gender.

3. Syntactic role in a sentence: for full forms of quality adjectives, as well as for relative and possessive adjectives - a definition, for short forms of quality adjectives - part of a compound nominal predicate.

§2. Morphological features of adjectives

The adjective, like other parts of speech, has a set of morphological features. Some of them are permanent (or immutable). Others, on the contrary, are non-permanent (or changeable). So, for example, the adjective sweet is a quality adjective, full form, positive degree of comparison. In a sentence, this word can be in different cases and numbers, and in the singular - in different genders. In the illustration, dotted lines lead to changeable features. The ability to be in full or short form, in a positive - comparative - superlative degree, linguists refer to constant features. Different permanent signs are expressed in different ways. For example:

sweeter - comparative adjective sweet expressed by the suffix -sche- and the absence of an ending,
less sweet - the comparative degree of the adjective sweet is expressed by the combination less + sweet,
sweet - a short form of the adjective in singular. m.r. has a null ending, while the full form sweet has an ending -y.

Non-permanent signs: case, number, gender (in the singular) are expressed by endings: sweet, sweet, sweet, sweet, etc.

§3. Ranks of adjectives by meaning

Depending on the nature of the meaning, adjectives are divided into:

• quality: big, small, good, bad, funny, sad,
• relative: golden, tomorrow, forest, spring,
• possessive: fox, wolf, father, mother, fathers.

Quality adjectives

Qualitative adjectives denote features that can be expressed to a greater or lesser extent. Answer the question: Which?
They have:

• full and short forms: good - good, cheerful - cheerful
• degrees of comparison: small - less - smallest and smallest.

Most quality adjectives are non-derivative words. The stems of quality adjectives are generating stems from which adverbs are easily formed: bad ← bad, sad ← sad.
The meaning of quality adjectives is such that most of them enter into relationships

• synonyms: big, large, huge, enormous
• antonyms: big - small.

Relative adjectives

Relative adjectives correlate in meaning with the words from which they are formed. Therefore, they are so named. Relative adjectives are always derived words: golden ← gold, tomorrow ← tomorrow, forest ← forest, spring ← spring. The signs expressed by relative adjectives do not have different degrees of intensity. These adjectives do not have degrees of comparison, as well as full and short forms. Answer the question: Which?

Possessive adjectives

These adjectives express the idea of ​​belonging. They, unlike qualitative and relative adjectives, answer the question: Whose? Possessive adjectives do not have degrees of comparison, as well as full and short forms.
Suffixes of possessive adjectives: fox - -iy- [iy '], mother's - -in-, sinitsin - [yn], fathers - -ov-, Sergeev -ev-.
Possessive adjectives have a special set of endings. Even from the above examples, it can be seen that in the initial form (im.p., singular, m.r.) they have a zero ending, while other adjectives have endings - oh, oh, oh.

Forms im.p. and v.p. possessive adjectives. and plural as in nouns, and the rest as in adjectives:

Singular

Im.p. zh.r. - a: mother, fox, m.r. -:, mother, fox cf. - oh, e: mom, fox.

Rod.p. zh.r. - oh, to her: mother's, fox, m.r. and cf. - wow, his: mother's, fox.

Data p. zh.r. - oh, to her: mother's, fox, m.r. and cf. - oh, him: mother's, fox.

Win.p. zh.r. - y, y: mother's, fox, m.r. and cf. R. - as im.p. or r.p.

Tv.p. zh.r. - oh, to her: mother's, fox, m.r. and cf. - th, them: mother's, fox.

P.p. zh.r. - oh, to her: mother's, fox, m.r. and cf. - om, eat: mother's, fox.

Plural

Im.p. - s, and: mother's, fox.

Rod.p. - oh, them: mother's, fox.

Data p. - th, them: mother's, fox.

Win.p. - as im.p. or v.p.

Tv.p. - s, them: mother's, fox.

P.p. - oh, them: mother's, fox.

Adjectives can move from one category to another. Such transitions are due to the peculiarities of the context and are associated, as a rule, with the use of adjectives in figurative meanings. Examples:

• fox nora is a possessive adjective, and fox cunning - relative (does not belong to a fox, but like a fox)
• bitter medicine is a quality adjective, and bitter truth is relative (corresponding to bitterness)
• light bag is a quality adjective, and light life is relative (corresponding to ease)

§4. Full and short forms of quality adjectives

Qualitative adjectives have both forms: both full and short.
In full form, they are inclined, i.e. change by numbers, by gender (in singular) and by cases. Full adjectives in a sentence can be an attribute or part of a compound nominal predicate.

Late at night they left the house.

Late is a quality adjective, positive. degree, complete, in the form of singular, f.r., tv.p.

In the short form, adjectives are not declined. They do not change by case. Short adjectives change by number and gender (singular). Short forms of adjectives in a sentence are usually part of a compound nominal predicate.

The girl is sick.

Sick - a quality adjective, put. degree, short form, singular, female AT modern language in the role of definitions, short adjectives are in stable lexical combinations, for example: beautiful girl, in broad daylight.

Do not be surprised:

Some qualitative adjectives in modern language have only short forms, for example: glad, must, much.

Relative and possessive adjectives have only the full form. Please note: for possessive adjectives with the suffix -in- in im.p. coinciding with it form v.p. ending - as in short forms.

§5. Degrees of comparison

Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison. This is how the language expresses that signs can have a greater or lesser degree. Tea can be sweet to a greater or lesser extent, right? And the language conveys this content.
The degrees of comparison thus convey the idea of ​​comparison. They do it systematically. Three degrees: positive, comparative, superlative.

• Positive - this means that the trait is expressed without assessing the degree: high, cheerful, warm.
• Comparative determines a greater or lesser degree: higher, more cheerful, warmer, higher, more cheerful, warmer, less high, less cheerful, less warm.
• Superlative expresses the greatest or least degree: the highest, the most cheerful, the warmest, the highest, the most cheerful, the warmest.

It can be seen from the examples that the degrees of comparison are expressed in different ways. In comparative and superlative degrees, the meaning is transmitted either with the help of suffixes: higher, more fun, highest, funniest, or with the help of words: more, less, most. Therefore, comparative and superlative degrees of comparison can be expressed:

• simple forms: higher, highest,
• compound forms: higher, less high, highest.

Among simple shapes in Russian, as in other languages, for example, in English, there are forms formed from a different stem.

• good, bad - positive degree
• better, worse - comparative degree
• best, worst - superlative

Words in simple and complex comparative and superlative degrees change in different ways:

• Comparative degree (simple): above, below - does not change.
• Comparative degree (complex): lower, lower, lower - the adjective itself changes, the change is possible by cases, numbers, and in the singular - by gender.
• Superlative degree (simple): highest, highest, highest - varies by cases, numbers, and in the singular - by gender, i.e. how in positive degree.
• Superlative degree (complex): the highest, the highest, the highest - both words change by cases, numbers, and in the singular - by gender, i.e. as in a positive way.

Adjectives in a simple comparative form in a sentence are part of the predicate:

Anna and Ivan are brother and sister. Anna is older than Ivan. She used to be taller, but now Ivan is taller.

The remaining forms of comparison are both in the role of a definition and in the role of a predicate:

I approached the older guys.
The guys were older than I thought.
I turned to the older guys.
These guys are the oldest of those who are engaged in the circle.

test of strength

Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.

Final test

1. Is an adjective an independent part of speech?

2. What adjectives can express signs expressed to a greater or lesser extent?

   • quality
   • relative
   • Possessive

3. Which adjectives are characterized by lexical relations of synonymy and antonymy?

   • For quality
   • For relative
   • For possessive

4. Are relative adjectives derived?

5. Which full adjectives have a special set of endings?

   • Quality
   • Relative
   • Possessive

6. Do adjectives in full form change by case?

7. What forms of adjectives are characterized by the syntactic role of the attribute?

   • For full
   • For brief

8. Do all adjectives change by case?

   • Not all

9. Do all adjectives change by gender?

   • Not all

10. Do adjectives in the superlative change in case?

11. Can comparative or superlative degrees be expressed in one word?

12. Can adjectives move from one class of meaning to another?

Right answers:

1. quality
2. For quality
3. Possessive
4. For full
5. Not all
6. Not all

In contact with

In this lesson, you will expand your knowledge of adjective names, learn about the ranks of adjective names by meaning.

Subject: Adjective

Lesson: Places of adjectives by value

1. Features adjectives

We know that every word in a language belongs to one part of speech or another. By what signs can an adjective be distinguished from other parts of speech?

1. Adjectives answer questions which? whose?

2. Adjectives denote a sign of an object

3. Adjectives refer to nouns and agree with them in number and case, and in the singular - in gender

We have now called common features adjective names.

2. Discharges of adjectives

Adjectives have such properties that allow us to divide them into three large groups. Or, as we say, discharges.

Let's choose adjectives for the word pencil.

Thin,

little,

beautiful

wooden,

plastic.

If we asked for a pencil from Masha's sister, then we can say that he Machines or sisters.

Look at the last adjectives. They answer the question whose? Such adjectives are called possessive. They indicate that an object belongs to someone.

The adjectives we named first ( thin, small, beautiful), - quality. They denote the qualities of an object, that is, those features that can be manifested in an object to a greater or lesser extent. It can be color, size, shape, and so on.

Adjectives of the second group ( wooden, plastic) are called relative. They denote a sign of an object that cannot be expressed to a greater or lesser extent. These adjectives denote the material from which the object is made, the sign of the object by time or place of its existence, the sign of the object by purpose, and more. When using such adjectives in phrases, we can easily replace them with nouns.

For example:

Wooden house - tree house

Winter day - winter day

3. How to determine the category of an adjective?

Determining which category an adjective belongs to is quite simple. To do this, you need to perform the following algorithm:

1. Ask a question:

If the adjective answers the question whose?, we have a possessive adjective.

But if the adjective answers the question which?, go to the next step.

2. Form on behalf of the adjective a short form or any degree of comparison.

If you succeed, then we have a quality adjective.

And if not, then relative.

Let's try to determine the categories of adjectives from the quatrain:

From evil wolf -

AT earthen crack.

By cold dew -

To cunning fox.

For convenience, we can put adjectives in the nominative singular.

Evil(which?). Let's try to form degrees of comparison: the meanest, the most evil.

So we have a quality adjective.

earthy (which?). We are trying to form degrees of comparison. One mink cannot be more earthy than another. Yes, and a short form from this adjective will not work. We have a relative adjective.

adjectives cold and cunning are also of high quality, because they answer the question which? and from them one can form degrees of comparison ( the coldest, the most cunning).

Is it possible to determine the category of adjectives by morphemic composition? Sometimes you can. The point is that suffixes an, yan, enn are used when we form adjectives from nouns denoting material, substance. These will be relative adjectives: leather en th.

But if the adjective has no suffixes at all, then we have a quality adjective. for example , fast.

Adjectives of all three categories can move from one category to another. But only if they are used in a figurative sense. For example:

Golden ring. In this case, the adjective golden relative. But in the phrase golden character adjective gold will be of high quality, as it denotes the quality of a person.

Wolf mouth. In this case, we have a possessive adjective. But in the phrase wolf coat this adjective is relative because it refers to the material from which the object is made.

Some relative adjectives were so often used in speech in the meaning of qualitative ones that they gradually completely lost their original meaning and are now perceived by us in modern Russian only as qualitative ones. For example, adjectives have gone this way stormy, outrageous and many others.

4. Qualitative adjectives

Qualitative adjectives differ from relative and possessive ones at all language levels.

1. Denote a feature that can manifest itself in an object to a greater or lesser extent

2. May have antonyms: evil/good

3. Always non-derivative

But possessive and relative are always derivatives, that is, they are formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs.

4. Nouns of abstract meaning can be formed from qualitative adjectives: severity

And adverbs on - about: strictly.

Adjectives with subjective evaluation suffixes: blue, wicked.

5. Only they can have degrees of comparison and a short form

6. Only they can be combined with adverbs of measure and degree: very big, very tight

5. Formation of relative and possessive adjectives

Relative adjectives are formed from nouns, verbs and adverbs. The most common suffixes for their formation are the suffixes - l-, For example, fluent; -sk-, For example, human; -in- - poplar; -ov- - hedgehog; -n- - forest.

Possessive adjectives are formed only from nouns. With the help of suffixes uy- - fox, -ov- - fathers, -in- - mother's.

Bibliography

1. Russian language. Grade 6: Baranov M.T. and others - M .: Education, 2008.
2. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 cells: V.V. Babaitseva, L.D. Chesnokova - M.: Bustard, 2008.
3. Russian language. 6th grade: ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta - M.: Bustard, 2010.

1. About the ranks of adjectives ().
2. Additional tasks ().

Homework

Sort the adjectives into categories (qualitative, relative, possessive).

Tin soldier, tin eyes, cold day, long train, brave act a kind person, stupid question, heart muscle, hearty hello, stone house, stone face, short dress, fat boy, blue scarf, Moscow metro, children's literature, double chin, woolen suit, lead bullet, lead clouds, city park, heavy briefcase, heavy industry, deaf old man, deaf consonant, grandfather's office, Car work, tit nest, goose foot, dog kennel, wolf's mouth, wolf coat, wolf's appetite, deer antlers, marines, dog cold, Katyushin bicycle, grinder, snake venom, snake smile, vegetable oil, lean face, mouse tail, neighbor's garden, grandiose plans, observant man, tragic fate, wooden voice, chicken foot, chicken soup, squirrel collar, iron will, grandfather's words, bird hubbub, hare hat, December frosts, school uniform, Serezhin portfolio, Barents Sea, Bering Strait.

2. Exercise 2.

Write by inserting the missing letters. Underline the adjectives, determine their category.

The whiteness of the snow made it even more furiously green with new paws. The steam of the uncold lowlands rose to the level of tree tops and scattered on birch branches.Countless drops of tiny beads sparkled on the sun. The frost began to slowly shave everything that had at least a small fraction of moisture. The forest river, which only yesterday was running towards the blizzard, began (s, h) to crush with silver teeth. Transparent ice confidently poured into the middle of the jet, squeezing the water current carrying a crushing shell. And everything around be (s, h) shone noisily, sparkled, sparkled. But, barely having time to warm up, our great light began to blush and fall on the distant forest tops. Lilac wings, passing into the depths of the dark expanse, descended lower and lower. In the constellation of Gemini, the awakened Mars flashed with a reddish eye - the god of the Roman pagans, the patron of wars and conflagrations. But this brilliance immediately and (s, h) chaz, lost in the twinkling of countless stars. And now close and distant star clusters have already hung over the world. Only a month, glowing with bright yellow, but still not (with, h) a cheap light, was very close to the frosty forest land. (According to V. Belov)

You probably already remember that adjectives are divided into quality(indicate the quality of the item), relative(denoting a sign of an object in relation to another object) and possessive. We will talk about possessive adjectives in more detail.

These adjectives, unlike qualitative and relative ones, do not answer the question what?, but the question whose? They're called possessive because their main purpose is indicate belonging to a person, animal or animate being. Therefore, they are formed only from the names of animals, persons and other animated beings. For example, mutton, fox, Anin, mother's, foremen, grandfather etc. Grammatically, possessive adjectives closer to relative because they have no degrees of comparison(can not be this item is mother's, and that one is even more mother's), short forms they do not form adverbs and abstract nouns etc. However, they have their own characteristics: special suffixes and a special system of declensions.

We will not consider the declension system here, we will focus only on word formation.

Possessive adjectives are formed, as mentioned above, from the names of animals, persons and other animated beings using suffixes -ov (-ev), -in (-yn), -y.

Fathers house, elders staff, nanny's scarf, sister's mandate, fox tail.

It should also be noted here that these adjectives have null ending. Try not to confuse, for example, adjectives like blue and wolf.

Blue - a qualitative adjective, non-derivative (not formed from anything), without suffixes, the ending th.

wolf - possessive adjective, derivative (derived from the noun wolf with a suffix -th ), null ending.

Pairs of adjectives such as worker and carpenter, red and bear, distant and shark. Working, red and distant have the endingth, a carpenter, bear and shark have null ending and suffixth, because they are possessive and derivative.

Therefore, it is worth being careful when parsing adjectives by composition and taking into account the category of the adjective by meaning.

Now let's move on to traps which adjectives are preparing for us. Although there is a rather sharp boundary between the categories of ad nouns both grammatically and lexically, but it happens that some possessive adjectives disguised under qualitative and even relative, and relative under qualitative. Generally, many adjectives want to go into the category of quality ones. How does this happen and how not to get confused when determining the discharge?

Remember that the rank of an adjective by value can only be accurately determined in context, i.e. in a phrase or in a sentence.

For example, cherry compote - cherry compote. Having made the transformation, we understand what is in front of us relative adjectivenoe, because denotes what the compote is made of. But in the phrase cherry suit adjective cherry no longer means that the suit is made of cherries, it means the color of the suit, and color is a quality characteristic, i.e. in this context, the adjective becomes quality.

Let's take a few more examples.

Iron constructor- iron constructor relative adjective)
Iron will- strong will quality adjective)
iron health – good health (quality adjective)

steel knife- steel knife relative adjective)
Steel color dress (quality adjective)
steel look- unfriendly, cold, hard ( quality adjective)

Bear hair- wool that belongs to a bear ( possessive adjective)
Bear coat at the hostess- fur coat from a bear ( relative adjective)
bear walk- clumsy, awkward, sprawling ( quality adjective)

Fox muzzle- a muzzle that belongs to a fox ( possessive adjective)
fox hat- fox hat relative adjective)
fox cunning- highly developed cunning ( quality adjective)

Thus, we see that the same adjective can take on different meanings. However grammatical characteristics remain unchanged.: neither possessive nor relative adjectives will acquire degrees of comparison, short forms and other distinctive features quality adjectives.

Let's summarize.

To determine the rank of an adjective, you need:

1) Look, the adjective is used in direct or figurative meaning. If the value is portable, it is quality adjective.

2) If the value is direct, ask two questions: which? whose? If this adjective refers to affiliation, in front of us possessive adjective.

3) Try to substitute adverb of measure and degree (very) or create degrees of comparison. If it worked - adjective quality.

4) try convert combination with an adjective into a prepositional case phrase. Happened - relative adjective.

And remember that the main thing is still lexical meaning, not grammar. Grammar just helps us.

Good luck in learning Russian and excellent grades!

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Ranks of adjectives

Discharge is the only constant morphological feature of this part of speech. There are three types of adjectives:

Most quality adjectives have a long form and a short form. The full form changes according to cases, numbers and genders. Adjectives in short form change by number and gender. Short adjectives are not declined; in a sentence are used as predicates. Some adjectives are used only in a short form: much, glad, must, necessary. Some quality adjectives do not have a corresponding short form: adjectives with suffixes denoting a high degree sign, and an adjective, which are part of the terminological names (fast train, deep rear). Qualitative adjectives can be combined with the adverb very, have antonyms. Qualitative adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees of comparison. In form, each degree can be simple (consists of one word) and compound (consists of two words): harder, quietest.

• relative(answering the question “which one?”)
  • relative adjectives do not have degrees; designate the material from which the object is made, the spatial and temporal features of the object: wood - wooden, January - January, freezing - frosty;
  • most relative adjectives do not combine with the adverb "very";

Relative adjectives denote such a feature of an object that cannot be in the object to a greater or lesser extent. Relative adjectives do not have a short form, degrees of comparison, do not combine with an adverb very much, do not have antonyms. Relative adjectives change by case, number, and gender (singular).

• possessive- answer the question "whose?" and denote belonging to something living or person ( paternal, sisters, fox).

Possessive adjectives indicate that something belongs to a person and answer the questions whose? whose? whose? whose? Possessive adjectives change for case, number, and gender (singular).

To attribute an adjective to any category, it is enough to find at least one sign of this category in the adjective.

The boundaries of the lexical and grammatical categories of adjectives are mobile. So, possessive and relative adjectives can acquire a qualitative meaning: dog tail(possessive) dog pack(relative), dog life(quality).

Coordination of adjectives with nouns

Adjectives agree with the nouns they refer to in gender, number and case.

• Example: adjective "blue"
  • blue (Sing., m.r., Im.p.) house (Sing., m.r., Im.p.)
  • blue (Sing., Wed, Im.p.) sky (Sing., Wed, Im.p.).

Declension of adjectives.

The gender, case and number of the adjective depend on relevant characteristics the noun with which it agrees. Indeclinable adjectives are usually in postposition with respect to the noun, and their gender, number, and case are determined syntactically by the characteristics of the corresponding noun: red jacket, beige jackets.

• solid: red th, red wow, red omu
• soft: syn uy, sin his, sin him
• mixed: big oh, large wow, large them.

The declension of adjectives includes a change in numbers, and in the singular - in cases and genders.

The form of the adjective depends on the noun to which the adjective refers and with which it agrees in gender, number and case.

Short adjectives change only by gender and number.

The masculine and neuter forms differ in the nominative and accusative cases, while in other forms they are the same.

Forms differ accusative masculine singular and plural adjectives referring to animate and inanimate nouns:

• V.p. = I.p. with inanimate nouns:
  • “Their villages and fields for a violent raid he doomed to swords and fires” (A. Pushkin);
• V.p. = R.p. with animate nouns:
  • “Masha did not pay attention to the young Frenchman” (A. Pushkin);
  • And the whole earth must praise forever ordinary people, to whom for victories I would have poured stars into orders ”(V. Sysoev).

masculine adjectives in -oh inclined in the same way as th, but always have a stressed ending: grey, young - gray, young - gray, young - about gray, about the young.

The letter designation of the endings of adjectives in some cases sharply diverges from the sound composition: white - white [bv], flying-his - summer [b].

Declension of qualitative and relative adjectives:

• hard declination;
• soft declension;
• mixed declension.

Hard declension of adjectives

According to the solid type, adjectives with a base on a solid consonant are inclined, except for G, K, X, C and hissing ones: thin, white, straight, native, boring, stupid, gray, bald, cool, well-fed.

Formation of adjectives

Adjectives are most often formed in a suffixal way: swamp - swamp n th. Adjectives can also be formed by prefixes: not big, and prefixed-suffixal ways: under waters n th. Adjectives are also formed in a compound suffix way: flax about seed cleaner tedious. Adjectives can also be formed by compounding two stems: pale pink, three-year.

Morphological analysis of the adjective

1. General grammatical meaning.
2. Initial form. The initial form of an adjective is considered to be singular, nominative, masculine ( blue).
3. Constant signs: discharge.
4. Non-permanent features: used in short/full (only for qualitative ones); degree of comparison (only for qualitative ones); number, gender, case (blue - used in full form, singular)
5. syntactic role - definition

Transition to other parts of speech

Most often, participles pass into the category of adjectives. Pronouns can also act as adjectives ( No artist from him).

Adjectives, in turn, can substantiate, that is, move into the category of nouns: Russian, military.

Features of adjectives in other languages

Notes

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Synonyms:

See what "Adjective" is in other dictionaries:

Exist., number of synonyms: 1 adjective (2) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Adjective- see adjective ... Russian humanitarian encyclopedic dictionary

Part of speech characterized by; a) designation of an attribute of an object (quality, property, belonging, etc.) (semantic attribute); b) variability in cases, numbers, genders (morphological feature); c) use in a sentence in a function ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

An adjective is a part of speech denoting a sign of an object and answering the question “what” / “whose”. In Russian, adjectives change by gender, case, number and person, and can have a short form. There are adjectives in a sentence ... ... Wikipedia

The numeral is an independent part of speech denoting the number, quantity and order of objects. Answers the questions: how much? which? Numerals are divided into three lexical and grammatical categories: quantitative (two, five, twenty, ... ... Wikipedia

Is an separate part speech denoting an object and having a developed morphology, inherited mainly from the Proto-Slavic language. Contents 1 Categories 1.1 Number 1.2 Pa ... Wikipedia

ADJECTIVE, wow, cf. or an adjective. In grammar: a part of speech denoting a quality, property or belonging and expressing this meaning in the forms of case, number and (in units) gender. Full, short adjectives. Quality,…… Dictionary Ozhegov

Exist., number of synonyms: 2 adjective (1) word (72) ASIS synonym dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Adjective

The adjective is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that

1) indicate a non-procedural feature of the subject and answer questions which?, whose?;

2) change by gender, number and case, and some - by completeness / brevity and degrees of comparison;

3) in a sentence there are definitions or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.

Ranks of adjectives by meaning

Three categories of adjectives are distinguished by meaning: qualitative, relative, possessive.

quality adjectives denote the quality, property of an object: its size ( large), shape ( round), Colour ( blue), physical characteristics ( cold), as well as the propensity of the object to perform an action ( talkative).

relative adjectives designate a sign of an object through the relation of this object to another object ( book), action ( reading room) or another feature ( yesterday's). Relative adjectives are formed from nouns, verbs, and adverbs; the most common suffixes for relative adjectives are the suffixes - n- (forest), -ov- (hedgehog), -in- (poplar-in-th), -sk- (warehouse), -l- (fluent).

Possessive adjectives denote the belonging of an object to a person or animal and are formed from nouns by suffixes - in- (mum-in), -ov- (father-ov), -uy- (fox). These suffixes are at the end of the stem of the adjective (cf. possessive adjective fathers and relative adjective paternal).

Qualitative adjectives differ from relative and possessive adjectives at all language levels:

1) only qualitative adjectives denote a feature that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent;

2) quality adjectives can have antonyms ( deep - shallow);

3) only qualitative adjectives can be non-derivative, relative and possessive ones are always derived from nouns, adjectives, verbs;

4) qualitative adjectives form nouns with the meaning of an abstract attribute ( rigor) and adverbs in - about(strictly), as well as adjectives with a subjective assessment suffix ( blue-yenky-y, evil-yushch-y);

5) only qualitative adjectives have a full / short form and degrees of comparison;

6) qualitative adjectives are combined with adverbs of measure and degree ( very big, but not * very readable).

Thus, we see that qualitative adjectives are grammatically opposed to relative and possessive adjectives, which, in turn, are grammatically very similar. The difference between relative and possessive adjectives is manifested only in the type of their declension (see declension of adjectives), which gives reason to many researchers to combine them into one group of relative adjectives, which, with sequential grammatical selection of parts of speech, also includes ordinal numerals and pronominal adjectives.

Declension of adjectives

Adjectives of all ranks have non-permanent signs kind(singular) numbers and case in which they agree with the noun. Adjectives also agree with the noun in animation if the noun is in the form of V. p. plural, and for the masculine - and the singular (cf .: I see beautiful shoes and I see beautiful girls) - see the animation of the noun.

Changing an adjective by gender, number and case is called adjective declension.

quality and relative adjectives decline the same way. This type of declension is called adjective.

In Russian, there are indeclinable adjectives that mean:

1) colors: beige, khaki, marengo, electric;

2) nationalities and languages: Khanty, Mansi, Urdu;

3) clothing styles: pleated, corrugated, flared, mini.

Invariable adjectives are also words (weight) gross, net, (hour) peak.

Degrees of comparison adjectives

Qualitative adjectives have a non-constant morphological sign of degrees of comparison.

School grammar indicates that there are two degrees of comparison - comparative and superlative. It is more correct to single out three degrees of comparison - positive, comparative and excellent. The positive degree of comparison is the original form of the adjective, in relation to which we are aware of other forms as expressing a greater / lesser or greater / lesser degree of attribute.

comparative adjective indicates that the feature is manifested to a greater / lesser extent in this subject compared to another subject ( Petya is taller than Vasya; This river is deeper than the other) or the same item in other circumstances ( Petya is taller than he was last year; The river is deeper here than there.).

The comparative degree can be simple and compound.

Simple comparative degree denotes a greater degree of manifestation of the trait and is formed as follows:

base of positive degree + formative suffixes -her(s), -e, -she/-same (quicker, higher, earlier, deeper).

If there is an element at the end of the base of a positive degree to /OK, this segment is often truncated: deep - deep.

Some adjectives have suppletive, i.e., formed from another stem, forms: bad - worse, good - better.

When forming a simple comparative degree, a prefix can be attached on- (newer). Simple comparative degree with a prefix on- is used if the adjective occupies the position of an inconsistent definition ( Give me a new newspaper) and does not require the introduction into the sentence of what the given feature is compared with. If there is in the sentence both what is being compared and what is being compared, the prefix on- introduces a colloquial tone ( These shoes are newer than those).

Morphological features of a simple comparative degree are uncharacteristic of an adjective. This is

1) immutability,

2) the ability to control a noun,

3) use mainly in the function of the predicate ( He is taller than his father). A simple comparative degree can occupy the position of definition only in a separate position ( Much taller than the other students, he seemed almost an adult) or in a non-isolated position with a prefix on- in position after a noun ( Buy me fresher newspapers).

Composite comparative degree denotes both a greater and a lesser degree of manifestation of a trait and is formed as follows:

element more / less + positive degree ( more / less high).

The difference between a composite comparative degree and a simple one is as follows:

1) the composite comparative degree is wider in meaning, since it denotes not only a greater, but also a lesser degree of manifestation of a feature;

2) the composite comparative degree changes in the same way as the positive degree of comparison (initial form), i.e. by gender, number and case, and can also be in short form ( more handsome);

3) a composite comparative degree can be both a predicate and a non-isolated and isolated definition ( A less interesting article was presented in this journal. This article is less interesting than the previous one..)

Superlatives comparison indicates the largest / smallest degree of manifestation of the trait ( highest mountain) or to a very large / small degree of manifestation of the trait ( kindest person).

The superlative degree of comparison, like the comparative one, can be simple and compound.

simple superlatives Comparison adjective denotes the highest degree of manifestation of the attribute and is formed as follows:

basis of positive degree + formative suffixes -aysh- / -aysh-(after k, g, x, causing alternation): good-eysh-th, Supreme

When forming a simple superlative degree of comparison, the prefix can be used nai-: kindest.

The morphological features of a simple superlative degree of comparison of adjectives are the same as those of a positive degree, i.e., variability in gender, number, cases, the use of a definition and a predicate in the syntactic function. Unlike the positive degree, the simple superlative adjective does not have a short form.

Compound Superlative comparison of adjectives denotes both the greatest and the least degree of manifestation of a feature and is formed in three ways:

1) element the most + positive degree ( the smartest);

2) element most / least+ positive degree ( most/least smart);

3) simple comparative degree + element total / all (He was smarter than everyone).

The forms of the compound superlative degree, formed by the first and second methods, have morphological features characteristic of a positive degree, i.e. they change according to gender, numbers and cases, they can have a short form ( most convenient), act both as a definition and as a nominal part of the predicate. Compound superlative forms formed in the third way are invariable and act mainly as a nominal part of the predicate.

Not all qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison, and the absence of simple forms of degrees of comparison is observed more often than the absence of compound forms.

The absence of a simple comparative and superlative degree may be due to

1) with the formal structure of the adjective: if the adjective has a suffix that matches the suffixes of relative adjectives, it may not have a simple comparative degree ( emaciated - * thinner, * thinner, advanced - * more advanced);

2) with the lexical meaning of the adjective: the meaning of the degree of manifestation of the attribute can already be expressed in the basis of the adjective - in its root ( barefoot - *barefoot) or in suffix ( fat-enn-th - * thicker, evil-shinning - * furious, white-oval - * whitish, blue-enk-th - * bluer).

Compound forms of degrees of comparison are not formed only for words with a semantic restriction, that is, in the second case. Yes, no forms. *more feisty, *less whitish, but there are forms less emaciated, more advanced.

Completeness / brevity of adjectives

Qualitative adjectives have a full and a short form

The short form is formed by adding a positive degree of endings to the stem: for the masculine gender, - a for women - o/-e for the average, - s / -i for plural ( deep-, deep-a, deep-o, deep-and).

A short form is not formed from quality adjectives that

1) have suffixes characteristic of relative adjectives - sk-, -ov- / -ev-, -n-: brown, coffee, fraternal;

2) denote the colors of animals: brown, black;

3) have suffixes of subjective assessment: tall, blue.

The short form has grammatical differences from the full form: it does not change by case, in the sentence it appears mainly as a nominal part of the predicate (cases like red girl, white combustible stone are phraseologized archaic); the short form acts as a definition only in a separate syntactic position ( Angry at the whole world, he almost stopped leaving the house).

In the position of the predicate, the meaning of the full and short forms usually coincides, but some adjectives may have the following semantic differences between them:

1) the short form denotes an excessive manifestation of a sign with a negative assessment, cf.: skirt short - skirt short;

2) the short form denotes a temporary sign, the full one - permanent, cf.: the child is sick - the child is sick.

There are such qualitative adjectives that have only a short form: glad, much, must.

Transition of adjectives from category to category

It is possible for an adjective to have several meanings related to different categories. In school grammar, this is called "the transition of an adjective from category to category." So, a relative adjective can develop a meaning characteristic of qualitative ones (for example: iron detail(relative) - iron will(kach.) - metaphorical transfer). Possessives may have meanings characteristic of relative and qualitative ones (for example: Foxy burrow(possessive) - fox hat(relative) - foxiness(kach.). Qualitative adjectives, used terminologically, function as relative ones ( voiceless consonants). At the same time, the adjective retains the type of its declension, but often changes morphological features: qualitative ones lose their degrees of comparison and short form (for example, one cannot say * This consonant is deaf), while relative ones, on the contrary, can acquire these features ( With every word, his voice became more and more honey, and his habits became more and more fox-like.).

Morphological analysis of the adjective

Morphological analysis of the adjective is carried out according to the following scheme:

1. Adjective. Initial form.

2. Morphological features:

a) permanent:

Rank by value,

The degree of comparison (for qualitative, in which this feature is constant),

Full / short form (for quality, in which this feature is permanent);

b) unstable:

Degree of comparison (for qualitative, in which this feature is not constant),

Full / short form (for quality, in which this feature is unstable),

Genus (in singular),

Case (for full).

Pronoun as a part of speech

A pronoun is an independent non-significant part of speech that indicates objects, signs or quantities, but does not name them.

The grammatical features of pronouns are different and depend on which part of speech the pronoun acts as a substitute in the text.

Pronouns are classified by meaning and by grammatical features.

Pronoun ranks by meaning

There are 9 categories of pronouns by meaning:

1. Personal: . Personal pronouns indicate the participants in the dialogue ( I, you, we, you), persons not participating in the conversation, and objects ( he, she, it, they).

2. returnable: myself. This pronoun indicates the identity of the person or thing named by the subject, the person or thing named by the word myself (He won't hurt himself. Hopes did not justify themselves).

3. Possessive: mine, yours, yours, ours, his, hers, theirs. Possessive pronouns indicate that an object belongs to a person or another object ( This is my portfolio. Its size is very convenient).

4. pointing: this, that, such, such, so much, this(outdated), this(outdated). These pronouns indicate a sign or quantity of objects.

5. Determinants: himself, most, all, everyone, each, any, other, different, everyone(outdated), all kinds(outdated). Definitive pronouns indicate the attribute of an object.

6. Interrogative: who, what, which, which, whose, how much. Interrogative pronouns serve as special interrogative words and indicate persons, objects, attributes, and quantity.

7. relative: the same as interrogative ones, in the function of connecting parts of a complex sentence (union words).

8. Negative: nobody, nothing, no one, nothing, none, no one. Negative pronouns express the absence of an object or attribute.

9. indefinite: someone, something, some, some, several, as well as all pronouns formed from interrogative pronouns by the prefix something- or suffixes - then, -or, -someday.

Ranks of pronouns by grammatical features

According to their grammatical features, pronouns correlate with nouns, adjectives and numerals. Pronominal nouns indicate a person or an object, pronominal adjectives indicate an attribute of an object, pronominal numbers indicate a quantity.

To noun pronouns include: all personal pronouns, reflexive myself who and whatnobody, nothing, no one, nothing, someone, something, someone and etc.).

To adjective pronouns include all possessive, all attributive, demonstrative this, that, such, such, this, this, interrogative-relative which, which, whose and the negative and indefinite ones formed from them ( none, nobody, some, some, some and etc.).

To pronouns-numerals include pronouns so many, how many and formed from them a few, some and etc.).

Pronouns also include pronouns-adverbs, i.e. words that indicate a sign of action ( where, when, there, for some reason and etc.). These pronouns complement the categories of definitives ( everywhere, always), index ( So, there), interrogative, relative ( where, why), undefined ( somewhere, ever) and negative ( nowhere, never) pronouns.

On the one hand, there is a basis for such a combination of all pronominal words: indeed, the pronoun as a part of speech does not have grammatical unity and is distinguished on the basis of its referential function: pronominal words do not name objects, signs, quantities, circumstances, but point to them, referring us or to extralinguistic reality, speech situation (pronoun I names the person who is currently speaking, phrase Give methat book can be understood by pointing the hand at a certain book), or to the preceding or following text ( Here is the table.He (= table) wooden. Man,which (=man) I need, didn't come- reference to the previous context . I want to talk aboutvolume that I won't come- reference to the following context).

On the other hand, there is an established linguistic tradition to refer to the pronoun as a part of speech only those pronominal words that are used "instead of a name", that is, instead of a noun, adjective or numeral. It is this tradition that we adhere to in our description. Pronominal adverbs are described by us as an insignificant category of adverbs (see adverb).

Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns

Pronominal nouns include the following pronouns: personal I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they, return myself, interrogative-relative who and what and the negative and indefinite ones formed from them ( no one, nothing, nobody, nothing, someone, something, someone, something, anything and etc.).

These pronouns have grammatical features similar to the grammatical features of nouns, but they also have certain differences from significant nouns. You can ask them questions who? or what?, in the sentence these words act mainly as subjects or objects.

Consider the morphological features of pronouns-nouns.

Personal pronouns have a morphological character faces:

1 person: me, we;

2 person: you you;

3rd person: he, she, it, they.

The morphological feature of the person of pronouns is expressed out of word - personal endings of the verb in the present or future tense of the indicative mood and forms of the imperative mood of the verb, i.e. those verbal forms that have a morphological feature of the person:

1 person: I'm going, we're going;

2 person: you go-eat, go-and-, you go, go, go;

3rd person: he, she, it goes, let it go, they go, let it go.

For other pronouns-nouns, as well as for all significant nouns, it is not customary to determine the person.

Personal pronouns have a morphological feature numbers. Personal pronouns are singular ( I, you, he, she, it) and plural ( we you they) numbers. When listing personal pronouns, all three complexes cite these eight words, from which we can conclude that each of the eight personal pronouns is an independent word. However, there are disagreements regarding the interpretation of the sign of number in the complexes. In complex 1, nothing is said about changing personal pronouns according to numbers, however, in terms of the morphological analysis of the pronoun, the number is placed in non-permanent features. Complex 2 says that personal pronouns “are singular. and many others. numbers." In complex 3 it is indicated that the pronouns 1 and 2 of the person do not change in numbers (i.e. I and we- different words), and 3rd person pronouns - change (i.e. is he and they are forms of the same word.

In linguistics, it is usually believed that the number is a constant feature of noun pronouns, i.e. pronouns I and we, you and you, is he, she is, it and they- different words. This is due to the fact that between the words I and we, you and you there is no normal for a change in number ratio “one object - a lot of objects, each of which is called the singular form”, i.e. it cannot be said that we- it's a lot I, insofar as we- This I(speaking) and someone else.

Thus, we will describe personal pronouns as words with a permanent feature of the singular or plural.

Noun pronouns have a constant feature kind. This question, like the question of number, is poorly covered in school textbooks. On the one hand, as already mentioned, the list of personal pronouns contains 8 words, i.e. the words is he, she is and it considered different words. On the other hand, 3rd person pronouns change by gender. The gender of other personal pronouns is not mentioned.

We will proceed from the following provisions. All personal pronouns have a constant gender sign, which, like significant nouns, is expressed out of word.

Pronouns I and you general kind: i, you came- - I, you came.

Pronoun is he male: he came-.

Pronoun she is female: she came.

Pronoun it neuter: it came.

Plural Pronouns we, you, they not characterized by genus.

We can talk about the animation of personal pronouns, since their V. p. coincides with R. p. ( no you - I see you).

All personal pronouns change according to cases, i.e. bow down. Personal pronouns are declined in a special way, and the forms of their indirect cases are formed from a different basis (the so-called suppletivism):

	I.p. I
	me	you
		you
	me	you
	me/me	you / you				us	you
	(about me	(about you	(about him	(about him	(about her	(o) us	(about you	(about them

In indirect cases with a preposition, 3rd person pronouns are added n: from him, to them, from her. Addition does not occur with derivative prepositions during, thanks to, according to, in spite of and etc.: thanks to her, according to him.

returnable pronoun-noun myself has no gender or number. It declines like a personal pronoun you, except that the pronoun myself has no form I. p.

Interrogative-relative pronouns who and what in school textbooks are not characterized in terms of gender and number, however, it can be noted that the pronoun who masculine singular ( who's come- but not * who came or * who came and), and the pronoun what- neuter singular ( what happened).

Formed from pronouns who and what negative and uncertain pronouns have the same characteristics as pronouns who and what. Feature of indefinite pronouns someone and something is that someone has the form only I. p., and something- I. p. and V. p. A negative pronouns no one and nothing, on the contrary, do not have the form I. p.