Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II. Reforms of the era of Catherine II in the field of culture and education

1.1. State policy in the field of education. In the Catherine era, the trend of nationalization of education received new impetus and new character. If in the first quarter of the century the main goal of education was to satisfy the state need for personnel, then Catherine II had the task of influencing the public consciousness with the help of education, educating a “new breed of people”. In accordance with this, the principle of class education was preserved. 1.2. Book business. An important role in the spread of literacy and the development of education was played by book publishing, which expanded noticeably in the second half of the century. Book business has ceased to be the privilege of the state. The Russian educator N. I. Novikov played an important role in its development. His printing houses published books on all branches of knowledge, including textbooks. important event was the publication in 1757 of the “Russian Grammar” by M. V. Lomonosov, instead of the “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, which no longer corresponded to the norms of the language and the needs of the Russian school. 1.3. System educational institutions. Primary school remained the least developed link in the education system. As in the previous period, there were diocesan schools for the children of the clergy, garrison schools for the children of recruits. It was only at the end of the century that formally classless main public schools were opened in each province, and small public schools in each district. However, the children of serfs were still deprived of the opportunity to receive an education. In 1786, the Charter of public schools was issued - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced. Vocational schools still occupied a significant position in the education system. Further development received a network of medical, mining, commercial and other professional schools, new areas of special education arose. In 1757, in St. Petersburg, according to the project of I. I. Shuvalov, the Academy of the Three Most Noble Arts was founded (in 1764 it was transformed into the Imperial Academy of Arts, which was both an educational institution and a government agency that regulated the entire artistic life). The Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage. To train teachers of public schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, teacher's seminaries were created, on the basis of which teacher's (pedagogical) institutes subsequently arose. Significant changes have taken place in the system of higher education. The largest cultural center Russian Empire became the Moscow Imperial University, created in 1755 according to the project of Lomonosov and Shuvalov. The university had philosophical, legal and medical faculties. Theology was not taught there until the beginning of the 19th century, all lectures were given in Russian. A printing house was organized at the university, in which until 1917 the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was published. In addition to Moscow University, where education was classless in accordance with the charter, noble corps (land, sea, artillery, engineering and page) and theological academies continued to operate. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens (Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg) was opened for girls, at which there was a School for underage girls of non-noble origin (later it was transformed into the Alexander Institute). 1.4. Results. By the end of the XVIII century. 550 educational institutions functioned in the country, in which there were about 60 thousand students; women's education began. Despite significant achievements in the spread of literacy and the development of a network of educational institutions, education still remained class-based, it was not universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. one.

Introduction

Catherine II is an extraordinary figure in the history of Russia and, above all, in the history of political and legal thought, public administration and education. For thirty-four years (1762 - 1796) she was at the pinnacle of Russian state power - more than all the reigning persons both before (with the exception of Ivan the Terrible) and after her. It played an important role in the emergence of the ideology of "enlightened absolutism" in our country. Catherine II acted as a successor to the work of Peter I in reforming Russian society and the state, their exaltation.

The main task of Catherine II was to create conditions for the education of the noble class. And for this, new educational institutions were needed: schools, colleges, gymnasiums and institutes for noble maidens.

Having carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time (the works of Jan Comenius, Fenelon, Locke's Thoughts on Education and others), Catherine formulated new tasks for the school: not only to teach, but also to educate. The humanitarian ideal that originated in the Renaissance was taken as a basis. He proceeded from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual and eliminated from pedagogy everything that was in the nature of violence or coercion. On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required the maximum isolation of children from the family and their transfer into the hands of a teacher, which led to the creation of a new type of educational institutions.

But, unfortunately, Catherine's reform was not brought to an end. The revision of the Austrian statute on Russian soil gave a system of education that was simpler in terms of its external scheme and narrower in terms of tasks, designed for the interests of the predominantly urban population. The system did not solve the problem of public education, and very soon it became clear that it was necessary to revise this system in order to turn it into a plan for "universal education." True, back in 1770, the Commission on Schools, created by Catherine, developed a project for the organization of village schools (which included a proposal to introduce compulsory primary education in Russia for all male children, regardless of class). But it remained a project and was not implemented.

Target This essay consists in analyzing the features of the development of the Russian education system in the era of Catherine II, mainly the development system of the education system in the 18th century.

1. general characteristicseducationin Russia until the 18th century

The period of the origin of the Russian school itself dates back to about the 10th century, although academician B. D. Grekov believed that ordinary literacy, and, consequently, teaching it, existed in Russia before the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich and the emergence of schools of “book teaching”. Grekov B. D. A blow to anti-patriotic tendencies in historical science // New world. - 1949. - No. 3. - S. 51 -52. True, some facts confirm the opinion of this scientist. So, according to the archaeologist S.A. Vysotsky, who discovered on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, can be found Slavic alphabet of 27 letters, the origin of which dates back to the 9th century. Vysotsky S. A. Old Russian alphabet from St. Sophia of Kiev // Soviet archeology. - 1970. - No. 4. - S. 128 - 139.

The first state decision on the creation of schools in Russia belonged to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich: “...begin to put churches and priests in the city and bring people to baptism in all the city and village. Having sent the beginning to the deliberate children of the children and giving the beginning to the teaching of the book. complete collection Russian chronicles. T. 1. - S. 118.

Since the term school came to Russia much later in the 14th century, schools of “book teaching” in schools specially organized in cities at princely courts and temples received quite wide use already in the tenth century.

Many researchers attribute the development of genuine enlightenment in Russia to the 16th century. See: Ikonnikov V.S. Maxim Grek and his time. - Kiev, 1915.; Kopylenko M. M. Manuscript Greek grammar of the Likhud brothers // Byzantine Times. T. 17. - M., 1960, etc. The need for education and the low level of education were stated even in Stoglav: our masters, and there is nowhere for us to study; As much as our fathers and masters know how, that’s why they teach us, and their fathers and their masters, we ourselves, therefore, know little ... and there is nowhere for them to learn. Stoglav. (Chapter 25). - Kazan: Kozhanchikov Publishing House, 1887. - S. 32.

The handicraft way of transferring knowledge did not satisfy the growing needs of the Russian state, had a negative impact on material well-being, and aggravated the lag in economic development compared to the countries of the West and East.

Russian enlightenment in the XVI - XVII centuries was local. Paragraph 6 of the “Privileges of the Moscow Academy” read: “We unshakably believe the tsar’s decree, if not for a single person here in the reigning city of Moscow and in other cities of our power, except for this institute instituted by us, in their homes Greek, Polish and Latin and other strange languages without the knowledge and permission of the schools of the guardian and teachers of house teachers, do not keep and do not teach your children, just in this single general school, let them learn, in hedgehog from different house teachers, even more so from foreign and heterodox, opposition, any faith of our Orthodox do not enter and do not be a disagreement. Ancient Russian vivliofika. Part IV. - 2nd ed. - Published by N. I. Novikov, 1788. - P. 397 - 420. Nevertheless, at the level of ideas, it is possible to talk about the gradual formation of new ideas about the Orthodox ideal of a person and about changes for the purposes of education and upbringing.

Following ancient traditions, the boyars prepared their children for managing the family estate, the peasants for working on the land, and the artisans for their profession. The volume and content of children's education were dictated precisely by these circumstances. Common, relatively identical, was that part of the preparation for life, which can conditionally be called moral education in the spirit of Orthodoxy.

Orthodox learning was limited to religious and religious-moral knowledge. The ability to read, write and count were only the means necessary for familiarization with the Orthodox spiritual culture as such. Rhetorical skills belonged to the category of special ones, necessary only for the ministers of the church.

Schools were conductors of the Orthodox faith and morality, but it is not necessary to talk about the emergence of an education system during this period. Perhaps such training did not pursue, apart from the goals of moral education in the spirit of Orthodoxy. In any case, such an assumption is possible, since after graduating from the monastic school, the highest for that time, the child no longer received any opportunity to continue his education.

It is important that in the 17th century the circle of people who had access to education expanded significantly. Let nominally, but the right to enter the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy had both people from noble estates, and children of parents of a clergy, and simply free Orthodox Christians.

The dynamics of the creation of state special educational institutions in the Petrine era was very high: in 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, the Engineering and Artillery School, the Moscow "multilingual" school - the school of translators were established; in 1704 a school of translators was opened in St. Petersburg; in 1707 - a military medical school; in 1712 - the Engineering School for noble children; in 1714, a decree was issued on the establishment of digital schools in cities for children of the lower classes and ranks everywhere; in 1719, the Engineering and Artillery schools were opened in St. Petersburg, Admiralty schools for children of the lower naval ranks, similar in status and content of education to the city digital ones.

Thus, the Russian school made, as it were, a leap from the Orthodox school, which in fact did not meet the requirements of the times for a long time, to a special state school, characteristic of Europe during the modern period.

2. Explicit and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age

The structure of Russian society in the Catherine era was characterized by rigid social barriers between classes, estates and groups.

In the 18th century, there was a large-scale expansion of values that penetrated from Western Europe, which was actively promoted by both the ideology and the policy pursued by the Russian state.

The educational policy of Catherine, like that of Peter I, was based on the Russian interpretation of social development, according to which the will of the autocrat dictates the laws of life.

The sphere of education was privatized by the state, the authorities, declared the sphere of state interests, therefore, any public initiatives in it are permissible only with the knowledge, permission and under the control of the authorities. Education was elevated to the rank of a creator, not limited by the laws of social and cultural life; education was seen as a powerful means of forming a given type of personality, transforming society. State pedagogy was guided by the interests of society; there was no place in it for a person and his personal qualities. Moreover, in Russian society, where all relations ran along the “state-subject” axis, education could not but be put at the service of the state.

Since the 18th century, the sphere of education and pedagogical thought of the Russian Empire focused mainly on the experience of European countries (England, France, Austria, Germany), their philosophy and pedagogy, but also culture. There was mainly an uncritical borrowing, an unconditional transfer of the social and cultural, up to everyday, experience of European countries to educational institutions and educational system Russia. The scale of borrowing in the 60s of the XVIII century was described by Kapterev: “Every Russian teacher dragged everything he liked from a German. Not only private methods and methods of teaching were borrowed, not only general guiding ideas and entire pedagogical worldviews were borrowed, even people who were the implementers of the principles of German pedagogy were borrowed. The Ministry of Education under Minister Tolstoy signed up Germans and Czechs as teachers of Russian gymnasiums and even as inspectors and directors, although these foreigners did not know how to speak Russian; the Germans opened a Russian seminary to train teachers for Russian secondary schools; various plans, programs and systems that were supposed to be introduced into Russian schools were sent for review and approval by foreign scientists and teachers. It was impossible to go further than such servility to foreign countries, obviously, a reaction should have come ”Demkov M.I. History of Russian pedagogy. Part III. New Russian Pedagogy (XIX century). - M., 1909, S. 494-495 ..

There were other assessments of the "enlightened" activities of the Empress. For example, a prominent Catherine's nobleman I.I. Betskoy, addressing Catherine the Great, said: “Peter the Great created people in Russia; Your Majesty put souls into them.” In his opinion, Catherine II "meekly and calmly completed what Peter the Great was forced to establish by force." Shishov A.V. Age of Catherine II - vol. III, IV - M.: Russian Literature, 1998, p.171.

In the reign of Catherine II, in the age of Enlightenment, the school was entrusted not only with the creation of a “new breed of people” from the best representatives nobility, but also the creation of the "third estate" according to the European model. The 16th chapter of the Great Order explained that those who, being neither a nobleman nor a farmer, practice arts, sciences, navigation, trade and crafts, as well as all those who, " not being nobles, they will leave all government established schools and educational houses, no matter what those schools of rank may be, spiritual or secular. See: Bulkin A.P. Cultural conformity of education. Pedagogical experience of Russia in the 18th - 20th centuries.// Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences. - M., 2003.

In general, the entire 18th century for Russia passed under the sign of the forcible imposition by the supreme power on society of teaching and the creation of educational institutions, initial attempts to attract children of all classes, with the exception of the serfs, but gradually the educational policy of the state eventually concentrated on two states - the nobility and raznochintsy and practically did not concern other taxable classes.

Even the parochial schools, which were included in the nomenclature of educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education, intended for the lower classes, were not funded from the treasury and their existence depended entirely on the will and desire of the landlords and rural communities.

G.G. Shpet, in his article “An Essay on the Development of Russian Philosophy,” argued that Russia had neither its own enlightenment philosophy, nor its own enlightenment. He believed that the Russian Enlightenment did not become, as it should have been, a movement towards the sciences and proper knowledge. It, according to him, was an ideological justification for the socio-bureaucratic desire of a part of Russian society for ranks and the blessings of life. "... Russia generally passed its cultural path without creativity" The Age of Catherine II: Balkan Affairs / Ros. acad. Sciences, Institute of Slavic Studies. - M.: Nauka, 2000, S.252..

Of course, it is also difficult to agree with such total denials of the Russian Enlightenment and its sociocultural results, since it was in the 18th century that a special status of the Russian intelligentsia was formed, prompting it to engage in moral and educational activities.

Another prominent researcher, V.M. Zhivov, has a negative attitude towards the era of the Russian Enlightenment. In his article “The State Myth in the Age of Enlightenment and Its Destruction in Russia at the End of the 18th Century,” he wrote that “the culture of the Russian Enlightenment was a state culture, a direct embodiment of a variant of state mythology, ... a mythological act of state power” See: Zhivov V.M. The State Myth in the Age of Enlightenment and Its Destruction in Russia at the End of the 18th Century // From the History of Russian Culture in the 18th - Early 19th Century. - M.: Nauka, 1996 .. And therefore, quite naturally, the author comes to the conclusion: “Russian Enlightenment is a mirage. Some figures of the Russian Enlightenment sincerely believed in its reality, others were its unwitting participants, but this did not change its mythological essence.

But it was in the era of Catherine the Great, a prominent figure in the era of the Russian Enlightenment, a freethinker and democrat, Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818), for the first time in Russia, uses the term "pedagogy" and attempts to justify the goal of education. The section “On the universal and ultimate goal of education and on its parts”, which was included in the work “On the upbringing and instruction of children”, which became popular in those years, is completely devoted to this problem. Novikov N.I. On the upbringing and guidance of children // Addition to the Moscow News, 1783, Nos. 2, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 28, 34, 82-94.

The obvious and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age, its inner split have always intrigued Russian public consciousness. Recall at least A.S. Pushkin. Catherine for him, on the one hand - "Tartuffe in a skirt and a crown", on the other - a wise mother - empress " captain's daughter". But nevertheless, as Karamzin designed: The Russian people have never felt so happy as during the reign of Catherine. Kamensky A.B. Life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1997, p. 4.

Giving an assessment of the Catherine's era, it should be noted that the culture of the 18th century, despite a number of contradictions, is characterized by an unprecedented interest in the personality of a person. Catherine the Second knew how to surround herself with smart and businesslike people. It was in her era that a number of major state, political, military figures, and creators of culture, supported and inspired by the monarch, came to the fore.

3. AnalysispracticesRussian secular education

Starting a brief analysis of the practice of Russian education, first of all, we note that the study of the texts of pedagogical works of contemporaries of Catherine the Great (Betskaya, Dilthey) and state documents (Statutes of the Educational Society for Noble Maidens (1754), the Shlyakhetsky Land Cadet Corps (1766), The charter of public schools in the Russian Empire (1786), the educational book "On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen" (1783)) shows that the word "education" is not used in them. This gives us grounds for the conclusion that this word was not used in Russian (at least in texts related to educational matters) before Novikov, and it probably did not exist.

However, since the 17th century there have been global changes in the goals of the Russian school. Ignoring religion in teaching strengthened in the pupils the desire for secular values and a new ideal of man.

The tough foreign policy situation in which Russia found itself at the beginning of the 18th century did not allow spending enough time on thinking through and organizing a well-coordinated and original education system. Almost all types of new educational institutions, their forms of organization and methods of work were borrowed from Western Europe.

The ideas of Peter the Great did not penetrate deep enough into the minds of most of his contemporaries. Despotism and violence in the educational sphere led to alienation and massive attempts to avoid "educational service".

The Russian philosophical and pedagogical thought of the Catherine era reflected the ideas of the Enlighteners of Europe, who, synthesizing in the minds of Russian thinkers with ideas traditional for Russia, formed very original ideas about the ideal of a person, which formed the basis of the goals of upbringing and education in the second and last thirds. XVIII century.

The desire of the first Russian emperor to raise the country at any cost, attracting literate and active people from all classes, generously endowing and rewarding them with money, estates and high titles, was replaced by thoughts about establishing the “order of things”, about creating a closed class circle of the nobility, in which other - "vile" people would not be admitted.

Classical education, which corresponded to the developing goals of education, became a new phenomenon for Russia. Often, its main meaning comes down only to the fact that “dead languages” - Latin and Greek, and mathematics as a fundamental basis for the development of human consciousness, were necessarily introduced into its content, which is basically true. But for domestic education, something else seems to be more important: we can say that the introduction and development of classical education in Russia was an important stage in the process of changing ideas about the ideal of a person and the goal of education, since educational institutions new for the second third of the 18th century were no longer oriented towards the installations of the Petrine era, which assumed the fastest possible training of specialists, but on the preparation for life of a more or less free person who should have had the right to choose the sphere of application of his forces. Such an approach for domestic educational practice, which was developed during the reign of Catherine II, was fundamentally new and reflected a vision of a person and his upbringing as a whole that had not been seen before in Russia.

The new state educational institutions, primarily the cadet corps and the institutes of noble maidens, were distinguished by good organization and definite approaches to the pedagogical realization of the goal. It should be noted the isolation of pupils and the process of education in closed educational institutions from the family and society. The parents of the cadets of the gentry land corps, giving their five-six-year-old sons for training, signed a special "announcement" in which they stated that they were sending their child for upbringing and training for a fifteen-year period and would not demand their return or short-term leave. Plans and statutes of the lieutenant general of the Betsky gentry land cadet corps. - St. Petersburg, 1766. - 32 p.

These fifteen years of training were to be passed for the cadets in complete isolation from society. Educators were instructed to exclude any contact with strangers and servants, the teachers themselves were instructed to be with the children inseparably, day and night, eat the same as the children, constantly communicate with them, demonstrating an example of good manners and good manners.

The author of the Charter of the Land Cadet Corps, I. I. Betskoy, insisted on an affectionate, benevolent and loving tone of communication between all educators and children. The need to instill kindness in pets, to develop in them a sense of dignity which excluded the use of corporal punishment.

The content of cadets' education represented a wide range of subjects, the teaching of which had to correspond to the age capabilities of the students. At each of the five age levels, disciplines were added that required great intellectual effort and independence in the study. The Charter of the corps contained important pedagogical remarks, indicating those personal qualities pupils, the development of which should be especially paid attention to educators and teachers: for children 6-9 years old - to the development of their own cognitive needs, to teach "what else is similar to their years"; at 9-12 years old, “inspire love for virtue and good morals, notice the natural inclination of the mind” in everyone; at 12-15 years old - “to make diligent experiments on the inclinations of pets in order to find out who is more capable of which rank, whether military or civilian”; at 15-18 years old - "to set examples of honor and those thoughts that lead to virtue ..." and divide the cadets into those "who go to the military and civil ranks", giving them the opportunity to change their mind at any moment; at 18-21 years old - to help “maturely” make a choice of a place of service for the Fatherland. See: Plans and statutes of the Lieutenant General of the Betsky Gentry Land Cadet Corps. - St. Petersburg, 1766. - 32 p.

In the 18th century, several cadet corps were organized in Russia. The most famous were the gentry land, naval and page corps. Such a set of privileged educational institutions was not accidental. Noble service in the middle of the century received a clear division into military land and sea, court and civil. Obviously, these educational institutions focused on preparing the nobles for the further implementation of their efforts - serving in one of these areas.

The nobility, which did not send their children to universities, nevertheless tried not to deprive them of the opportunity to receive a broad scientific education. To this end, in 1779, the Noble Boarding School was opened at Moscow University - a closed men's educational institution that combined gymnasium and university classes. About the goals of education in this boarding school, it was said that the following tasks should be solved in the process of education and upbringing: To teach children, or enlighten their minds with useful knowledge and through that prepare them to be necessary members in society; to root goodwill in their hearts and through that make them truly useful, that is, honest and virtuous fellow citizens; preserve their health and give the body the necessary strength, only necessary for the incurring of social labors, the proper administration with the success of public service. Sychev-Mikhailov M. V. From the history of the Russian school and pedagogy of the XVIII century. - M., APN RSFSR, 1960. - S. 85.

New for Russia during this period was a change in attitude towards the education of women. By this time, the nobility had developed not only the male, but also the female ideal of a noble person. By the end of the 18th century, institutes and boarding schools for noble maidens were widely spread and enjoyed popularity.

All the content of education in women's boarding schools and institutes was focused on the education of these qualities. The beginnings of the sciences, including foreign languages, the beginnings of mathematics and natural science, architecture, familiarization with heraldry, needlework, the law of God and the rules of "secular treatment and courtesy" were designed to provide girls with the necessary intellectual level necessary for communication in their social circle.

The purpose of female noble education was not preparation for any service, but the upbringing of the ideal wife of a nobleman. True, there are many examples in Russian history when the ladies-in-waiting of the empresses and the grand ladies of the court had a significant influence even on the administration of the state. A shining example of the enlightened Russian woman was Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova (1743-1810), who achieved high results in public service and enlightenment.

The document created by M.V. Lomonosov - “The draft regulation of Moscow gymnasiums” - became widely known and disseminated. Draft regulations for Moscow gymnasiums // Lomonosov M. V. - M .: Ed. House of Shalva Amonoshvili, 1996. - (Anthology of humane pedagogy) - S. 88-101. The main idea of the "Project ..." was the division of the gymnasium into two departments: for the children of the nobility and for the children of the raznochintsy. The main goal of this fairly open educational institution was only to teach schoolchildren the principles of science. All attention was concentrated only on the transfer of knowledge and the preparation of the gymnasium student for further education.

The idea of creating a system of estate schools, which belonged to G. N. Teplov, was to separate all educational institutions to "schools for learned people”, military schools, civil schools, merchant schools, “lower schools” and “schools for non-believers”. The proposed system clearly reflected the tendency towards the development of heterogeneity in the educational ideal of a person, which was characteristic of Russia after the reforms of Peter the Great. For all estates, the goals of education were determined in accordance with their social purpose and position.

In terms of school education, the Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as the basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main.

In fact, in the lower schools - schools organized by the secular authorities and the church at the parishes, it was planned to implement in practice the former patriarchal Orthodox approach: would be settled by those who are knowledgeable in Christian law, virtuous and industrious, therefore, it should contain the following parts: 1) the Russian alphabet with warehouses of the church and civil press, moreover, the calculus in letters and numbers; 2) short morning and evening prayers and prayers before dinner; a catechism with a clear but concise interpretation of the Decalogue and articles of faith; 4) Christian virtues, consisting in the position of subjects of the sovereign, in unquestioning obedience to state instructions, in honoring and obedience to one's masters and other established authorities, and in positions to oneself and one's neighbor. General plan of gymnasiums and state schools // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. V.5, No. 2736. - St. Petersburg, 1830. - P.74.

Nevertheless, this Catherine's reform played a significant role in the development of Russian education. For 1782 - 1800 different types about 180,000 children graduated from schools, including 7% of girls.

By the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there were about 300 schools and boarding schools with 20 thousand students and 720 teachers. In fact, the reforms led to a major positive result: a network of small and main schools was created as the basis for building a secondary and higher education; a special program for the training of teachers was developed - all this together created fertile ground for a new and more successful reform at the beginning of the next century.

One of the implemented projects of I.I. Betsky. In Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1770, educational institutions for raznochintsy of a fundamentally new type were opened. The Moscow and St. Petersburg Orphanages were created on the basis of the ideas of the English Enlighteners, who sought to realize the idea of the natural equality of people. Children of all classes and of any gender were admitted to educational homes for full board. In the process of learning in these houses, teachers were asked to identify their natural inclinations and talents of pupils and, depending on them, teach sciences or crafts. This approach already reflected a new look at a person, his place in society and the goals of education.

I.I. Betskoy assumed that the most gifted children would be more useful to the state and the emperor if they graduated from the university, and the less gifted - having mastered some kind of "rough craft". Both those and others, in his opinion, will be happy themselves, having realized what God has given them. Sychev-Mikhailov M. V. From the history of the Russian school and pedagogy of the XVIII century. General plan of the Imperial Orphanage. - M., APN RSFSR, 1960. - S. 179 - 207.

Concluding the analysis, we note that the goals of education in all educational institutions corresponded to the class ideals of a person. The new secular approach was actually implemented only in privileged noble educational institutions, in all others there were minor changes in the 18th century.

Conclusion

The development of education in Russia in the 18th century reflected the changes that took place during this period in the views on the spiritual and life values of the upper strata of Russian society. New values associated with the idea of public service, preparing children to take a place worthy of their high origin in society, were reflected in the statutory documents and projects of the emerging educational institutions. At the same time, it is impossible not to pay attention to the class character and class discrimination of educational institutions. In the 18th century, a tradition arose of a clear division of educational institutions into “noble”, “spiritual”, “raznochinsk”, etc. Belonging to the "high society" has become an independent life value, which is clearly reflected in the typology of schools.

Classes, which divided Russian society into "noble" and "vile", significantly influenced the very understanding of culture and education in Russia. The nobility is a privileged estate, into which in the 18th century, along with the old Russian boyar nobility - the “pillar nobles”, the most successful representatives of other segments of the population began to join, receiving their title as a reward for merit, and sometimes simply buying a title of nobility.

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16. Plans and statutes of the lieutenant general of the Betsky gentry land cadet corps. - St. Petersburg, 1766. - 32 p.

Measures were taken to strengthen the nobility in the center and locally. For the first time, a document appeared in Russian legislation that determined the activities of local government bodies and the court. This system of local organs lasted until the Great Reforms of the 1960s. The administrative division of the country introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917.

On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. The country was divided into provinces, in each of which 300-400 thousand male souls were supposed to live. By the end of Catherine's reign in Russia, there were 50 provinces. The governors were at the head of the provinces, reporting directly to the empress, and their power was significantly expanded. The capitals and several other provinces were subordinate to governors-general.

Under the governor, a provincial government was created, the provincial prosecutor was subordinate to him. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged in land management. Schools, hospitals, almshouses were in charge of the Order of public charity (to look after - to look after, patronize, take care of); For the first time, state institutions with social functions were created.

The provinces were divided into counties with 20-30 thousand male souls in each. Since there were clearly not enough cities - centers of counties, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. The main authority of the county was the Nizhny Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain, elected by the local nobility. A county treasurer and a county surveyor were appointed to the counties, following the model of the provinces.

Using the theory of separation of powers and improving the management system, Catherine II separated the judiciary from the executive. All estates, except for the serfs (for them, the landowner was the owner and judge), had to take part in local government. Each estate received its own court. The landowner was judged by the Upper Zemstvo Court in the provinces and the district court in the counties. State peasants were judged by the Upper massacre in the province and the Lower massacre in the district, the townspeople - by the city magistrate in the district and the provincial magistrate in the province. All of these courts were elected, with the exception of the lower courts, which were appointed by the governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and in the provinces - the chambers of the criminal and civil courts, whose members were appointed by the state. New for Russia was the Constituent Court, designed to stop strife and reconcile those who quarrel. He was unassailable. The separation of powers was not complete, since the governor could interfere in the affairs of the court.

The city was singled out as a separate administrative unit. It was headed by the mayor, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts, in turn, were divided into quarters that were controlled by a quarterly warden.

After the provincial reform, all collegiums ceased to function, with the exception of the Foreign Collegium, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium. The functions of the collegiums were transferred to the provincial bodies. In 1775, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated, and most of the Cossacks were resettled in the Kuban.

The existing system of administration of the territory of the country in the new conditions solved the problem of strengthening the power of the nobility in the field, its goal was to prevent new popular uprisings. The fear of the rebels was so great that Catherine II ordered to rename the Yaik River into the Urals, and the Yaik Cossacks into the Urals. More than doubled the number of local officials.

Letters granted to the nobility and cities

April 21, 1785, on the birthday of Catherine II, at the same time, letters of commendation were issued to the nobility and cities. It is known that Catherine II also prepared a draft letter of grant to the state (state) peasants, but it was not published due to fears of noble discontent.

By issuing two charters, Catherine II regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates. In accordance with the "Diploma on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility", it was exempted from compulsory service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. The estates were declared the full property of the landowners, who, in addition, had the right to start their own factories and plants. The nobles could only sue their peers and without a noble court could not be deprived of noble honor, life and estate. The nobles of the province and the county constituted the provincial and county corporations of the nobility, respectively, and elected their leaders, as well as officials local government. Provincial and district noble assemblies had the right to make representations to the government about their needs. The charter granted to the nobility consolidated and legally formalized the power of the nobility in Russia. The dominant class was given the name "noble". "The letter of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire" defined the rights and obligations of the urban population, the system of governance in cities. All townspeople were recorded in the City Philistine Book and constituted a "city society". It was declared that "philistines or real city dwellers are those who have a house or other structure, or a place, or land in that city." The urban population was divided into six categories. The first of these included the nobles and clergy who lived in the city; the second included merchants, divided into three guilds; in the third - guild artisans; the fourth category consisted of foreigners permanently living in the city; the fifth - eminent citizens, who included persons with higher education and capitalists. The sixth - the townspeople, who lived by crafts or work. Residents of the city every three years elected a self-government body - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges. The General City Duma elected an executive body - a six-member Duma, which included one representative from each category of the urban population. The city duma decided matters on improvement, public education, compliance with the rules of trade, etc. only with the knowledge of the mayor appointed by the government.

The letter of grant placed all six categories of the urban population under the control of the state. The real power in the city was in the hands of the mayor, the council of the deanery and the governor.

Education reform

Catherine II attached great value education in the life of the country. In the 60-70s of the XVIII century. she, together with the president of the Academy of Arts and the director of the land gentry corps, I. I. Betsky, made an attempt to create a system of closed class educational institutions. Their structure was based on the idea of the priority of upbringing over education. Considering that “education is the root of all evil and good,” Catherine II and I. I. Betskoy decided to create a “new breed of people.” According to the plan of I. I. Betsky, Orphanages were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens with a department for bourgeois girls in St. Petersburg, the Commercial School in Moscow, and the Cadet Corps were transformed.

The views of I. I. Betsky were progressive for their time, providing for the humane upbringing of children, the development of natural talents in them, the prohibition of corporal punishment, and the organization of women's education. However, "hothouse" conditions, isolation from real life, from the influence of the family and society, of course, made I. I. Betsky's attempts to form a "new man" utopian.

The general line of development of Russian education did not go through the utopian undertakings of I. and Betsky, but along the path of creating a system of a comprehensive school. It was initiated by the school reform of 1782-1786. The Serbian educator F. I. Janković de Mirievo played an important role in carrying out this reform. Two-year small public schools were established in county towns, and four-year main public schools were established in provincial towns. In the newly created schools, unified dates for the beginning and end of classes were introduced, a classroom lesson system, methods of teaching disciplines and educational literature, and unified curricula were developed.

New schools, together with closed gentry buildings, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums at Moscow University, formed the structure of secondary education in Russia. According to experts, by the end of the century there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with a total number of 60-70 thousand students, not counting home education. Education, like all other spheres of the country's life, basically had a class character.

A. N. Radishchev

The Peasant War, the ideas of Russian and French enlighteners, the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence in North America (1775-1783), which led to the formation of the United States, the emergence of Russian anti-serfdom thought in the person of N. I. Novikov, the advanced deputies of the Legislative Commission influenced the formation views of Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (1749-1802). In "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", in the ode "Liberty", in "Conversation about what is the son of the Fatherland" A. N. Radishchev called for the "complete destruction of slavery" and the transfer of land to the peasants. He believed that "autocracy is the most repugnant state of human nature" and insisted on its revolutionary overthrow. A. N. Radishchev called a true patriot, a true son of the Fatherland, the one who fights for the interests of the people, “for freedom - a priceless gift, the source of all great deeds.” For the first time in Russia, a call was made for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy and serfdom.

“A rebel is worse than Pugachev,” Catherine II assessed the first Russian revolutionary. On her orders, the circulation of the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" was confiscated, and its author was arrested and sentenced to death, replaced by a ten-year exile in the Ilim prison in Siberia.

Pavel I

Some historians call the reign of Paul I (1796-1801) "unenlightened absolutism", others - "military-police dictatorship", others consider Paul "Russian Hamlet", others - "romantic emperor". However, even those historians who find positive features in Paul's reign admit that he equated autocracy with personal despotism.

Paul I came to the throne after the death of his mother at the age of 42, already a mature, mature person. Catherine II, having given her son Gatchina near St. Petersburg, removed him from the court. In Gatchina, Pavel introduced strict rules based on iron discipline and asceticism, opposing them to the luxury and wealth of the St. Petersburg court. Having become emperor, he tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. Characteristic features of Paul were harshness, imbalance and irascibility. He believed that everything in the country should be subordinated to the orders established by the tsar, put diligence and accuracy in the first place, did not tolerate objections, sometimes reaching tyranny.

In 1797, Paul issued the "Institution on the Imperial Family", which canceled Peter's decree on succession to the throne. From now on, the throne was supposed to pass strictly along the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons, to the eldest of the brothers. For the maintenance of the imperial house, an department of “destinies” was formed, which managed the lands that belonged to the imperial family and the peasants who lived on them. The order of service of the nobles was tightened, the effect of the Charter to the nobility was limited. Prussian orders were planted in the army.

In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landlords to use peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending that corvée be limited to three days a week.

Paul I took the Order of Malta under his protection, and when Napoleon captured Malta in 1798, he declared war on France in alliance with England and Austria. When England occupied Malta, having won it from the French, a break in relations with England and an alliance with France followed. By agreement with Napoleon, Paul sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer India in order to annoy the British.

Paul's further stay in power was fraught with a loss of political stability for the country. did not meet the interests of Russia and foreign policy emperor. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in the history of Russia was carried out. Paul I was assassinated in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

Empress Catherine II the Great reigned from 1762 to 1796, i.e. thirty four years. By origin she was a German princess. She was only fifteen years old when she arrived from Germany in St. Petersburg. Here, first of all, she had to learn Russian. By nature, she was gifted with great abilities. Therefore, she very soon learned to speak and write perfectly in Russian. Under the guidance of teachers and herself, she read a lot about Russia and passionately fell in love with her new homeland. Soon she accepted the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian Throne, Peter Feodorovich. Being the Grand Duchess, Ekaterina Alekseevna has already earned herself universal love. She led a very modest life and shunned all luxury. She loved to retire and in solitude to give herself to the most pleasant occupation for her - reading books. In dealing with everyone, she showed constant attention, was unusually affectionate and simple.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Emperor Peter III Feodorovich ascended the throne. His reign, however, was not long. After half a year, he abdicated in favor of his wife; after that he soon died. Then the Empress Catherine II came to the throne. It was in the summer of 1762. On September 22 of the same year, Empress Catherine was solemnly crowned in Moscow, in the Assumption Cathedral.

Since that time, her vigilant labors for the benefit of Russia began. While still living in Moscow, after the coronation, Empress Catherine marked the beginning of her reign with the great and good deed: she founded the so-called Educational House. In this house, children, abandoned by their parents for some reason, found shelter and received education. Until that time, unfortunate foundlings either perished from cold and hunger, or grew up in terrible ignorance and poverty. A few only got to good people, who brought them, as they say, to mind. All the rest, even if they remained alive, they endured both hunger and cold, and did not learn anything good anywhere. Now these unfortunates were taken to the Orphanage. There they were not only fed, watered, clothed, but also taught. They have already left this house as people who are able to live comfortably, benefiting themselves and others. Soon the same house was opened in St. Petersburg. A Russian proverb says: “that father-mother who made you drunk, nurtured and taught good.” This wise word came true on Empress Catherine: for thousands of unfortunate children, she was a real mother. There was and is not a person who would not thank the Empress from the bottom of her heart for a good deed. And until now, we have followed her great example and do not allow unfortunate children to perish.

Catherine II chose several main directions in her policy, and one of the most important were events in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism”. The ideas of "enlightened absolutism" were developed in the writings of outstanding French thinkers: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau. Catherine II, on the basis of these ideas, for two years developed the "Instruction" of the Legislative Commission, in which she outlined her vision of the policy of "enlightened absolutism." In this document, the Empress expressed many thoughts about the changes in Russia.

It was clear from the Nakaz that Empress Catherine considered education to be her most important concern. If, she thought, enlightenment was spread everywhere, then there would be no crime. A well-bred and enlightened person will not go to a bad deed. That is why she cared so much about opening schools. Her main assistant in this matter was Ivan Ivanovich Betsky.

She consulted with him almost daily. In St. Petersburg, the Empress opened an excellent school, which she especially loved. She often visited this school, followed the training, took care of the maintenance of the pupils. Girls from this school were very fond of when Catherine II came to them. They hurried to meet her, hugged her. Mutually, they received purely maternal caresses. So that all subjects could educate their children, Empress Catherine ordered schools to be opened everywhere: in large cities - the main folk - future gymnasiums, in county districts - small folk. At the time, this was an innovation. In the cities at that time there were no schools yet, the capitals were an exception.

As a truly educated woman who loved enlightenment and wished to spread it, Empress Catherine patronized all writers and scientists. She received them at her place, conducted lengthy conversations and readings with them, showered them with royal favors for their labors. The famous Russian scientist Lomonosov lived under Empress Catherine for only three years, but received great favors from her. Once the Empress even visited Lomonosov in his apartment. There she talked with him for a long time and asked him about everything. Then she invited him to visit her: “Come to me to eat bread and salt, I will have cabbage soup as hot as your hostess treats you!” At that time, she was in active correspondence with foreign writers and scientists, famous at that time, and amazed everyone with her mind and knowledge. But most of all she cared about providing patronage to Russian scientists and writers. At the time, these were famous names, like the poet Derzhavin, the writer Fonvizin. The first of them glorified the reign of Catherine the Great in loud verses, and the second is known for comedies in which he portrayed the vices of society. And the Empress herself also loved to write. In her writings, she speaks most of all about the upbringing of children. She believes that this is the most important thing, because it is through good education that good citizens come out. As mentioned above, in the "Instruction" the Empress devoted a whole chapter to education.

Chapter 14

“The rules of education are the first foundation that prepares us to be citizens.

Each special family should be governed by the example of a large family, which includes all private ones.

It is not possible to give a general education to a numerous people and to bring up all the children in houses specially established for this purpose: and for this it will be useful to establish several general rules who can serve instead of advice to all parents.

1. Everyone is obliged to teach his children the fear of God, as the beginning of all chastity, and to instill in them all the positions that God requires of us in the Decalogue and his other traditions.

Likewise, imbue them with love for the fatherland and encourage them to have respect for the established civil laws and honor the governments of their fatherland, as if they are caring for the good of God on earth.

2. every parent should refrain from his children not only from deeds, but also from words that tend to injustice and violence, such as: scolding, oaths, fights, all cruelty and similar actions, and not allow those who surround his children, to give them such bad examples.

3. He must forbid children and those who walk around them, so that they do not lie, below in jest: for a lie of all the most harmful is a vice.

“It is necessary to instill in the youth the fear of God, to establish their hearts in laudable inclinations and befitting the state of their rules; arouse in them a desire for industriousness and so that they fear idleness, as the source of all their evil and their conversations, behavior, courtesy, decency and disgust from all impudence; to teach them about economy in all its details and how much it is useful for them; to turn them away from profligacy, but especially to root in them their own tendency to neatness and cleanliness, both on themselves and on those who belong to them: in a word, all those virtues and qualities that belong to a good education, which in due time they can to be direct citizens, useful members of society and serve as an ornament to it. Empress Catherine also speaks about education in the Civil Teaching:

1) Every child is born unlearned.

2) It is the duty of parents to teach their children.

3) Man has a nature endowed with goodness.

4) Having done a favor to your neighbor, you will do a favor to yourself ....».

The royal grandsons of her Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich were also brought up by Empress Catherine in the same way in the rules of virtue. Having entrusted education to Prince Saltykov, she wrote detailed rules on how to educate and what to teach the Grand Dukes. Later, in 1765, Moscow University was founded by Catherine the Great.

Empress Catherine made a huge contribution not only to the history of Russia's development, but also directly to the development of education. Not for nothing after her death, a magnificent monument was erected to her in St. Petersburg and many other cities: in Tsarskoye Selo, on the Don, in Odessa and others.

Introduction

Chapter 1. The Development of Russian Culture in the Second Half of the 18th Century

Chapter 2. The main features of education in the era of Catherine II

Chapter 3. Smolny Institute

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Catherine II is an extraordinary figure in the history of Russia and, above all, in the history of political and legal thought, public administration and education. It played an important role in the emergence of the ideology of "enlightened absolutism" in our country.

The period of the origin of the Russian school itself dates back to about the 10th century, although academician B. D. Grekov believed that ordinary literacy, and, consequently, teaching it, existed in Russia before the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich and the emergence of schools of “book teaching”. True, some facts confirm the opinion of this scientist. So, according to the archaeologist S.A. Vysotsky, who discovered on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, one can find the Slavic alphabet of 27 letters, the origin of which dates back to the 9th century.

The structure of Russian society in the Catherine era was characterized by rigid social barriers between classes, estates and groups. The educational policy of Catherine, like that of Peter I, was based on the Russian interpretation of social development, according to which the will of the autocrat dictates the laws of life. Since the 18th century, the sphere of education and pedagogical thought of the Russian Empire focused mainly on the experience of European countries (England, France, Austria, Germany), their philosophy, pedagogy and culture.

Classes, which divided Russian society into "noble" and "vile", significantly influenced the very understanding of culture and education in Russia. The nobility is a privileged class, into which in the 18th century, along with the old Russian boyar nobility - the “pillar nobles”, the most successful representatives of other segments of the population began to join, receiving their title as a reward for merit, and sometimes simply buying a title of nobility.

Target term paper- consider studying the main features of the culture and education of the Catherine era. In the process of writing the work, I set myself the following tasks:

1. Describe the development of the culture of the second half of XVIII century.

2. Identify the main features of the education of the era of Catherine II.

3. Consider one of the innovations of that time - the Smolny Institute.

Chapter 1. Development of Russian culture in the second half XVIII century

The 18th century is a time of great change. The centuries-old process of development of Russian culture is entering a new stage of its development. Locality and class limitations are being overcome, a national culture is being formed. It is the secular direction that becomes decisive: secular education is being created, the centuries-old process of accumulating knowledge is entering the final stage: transformation into science; a new, close to colloquial, literary language is taking shape, national Russian literature is appearing, and the number of printed publications is increasing; masterpieces of church architecture are being created, in which elements of civil architecture are clearly traced; development of painting and sculpture.

It is important that in the second half of the 18th century enlightenment thought was formed, and the idea of enlightenment penetrated deeply into all spheres of the cultural process. Enlightenment is a philosophical movement represented by Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, whose main idea was the improvement of the human personality. Enlighteners assigned a decisive role in the implementation of ideals to an enlightened monarch, capable of transforming the country on a reasonable, humane basis. The ideas of enlightenment were so popular that they were equally accepted by representatives of conservative thought (A. P. Sumarokov, M. M. Shcherbatov), liberal (N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin) and revolutionary (A. N. Radishchev) .

A feature of the Russian enlightenment was an anti-serf orientation. This trend was reflected primarily in the activities of N.I. Novikov - the largest publisher and journalist (the satirical magazines "Druten", "Painter", "Purse"), as well as Radishchev, who stood in the position of radical enlightenment ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow").

The literature of the second half of the 18th century remained predominantly of the nobility. Among the lower classes of the urban population and among the peasants, oral compositions of folk poetry, as well as various stories that were part of handwritten books, were distributed. The life of the serfs was reflected in the “Lament of Serfs”, which appeared among the serfs in 1767-1768, that is, on the eve of the peasant war. A lot of satirical stories appear, parodying the royal court, soldier's service, red tape in government instances.

Printed literature of the second half of the 18th century is represented by three trends. The first of them - classicism was embodied in the work of A.P. Sumarokov, who wrote, in addition to many lyrical and satirical poems, 9 tragedies and 12 comedies. He is recognized as the creator of the Russian theater repertoire. Sumarokov, in his ideological and political views, belonged to the conservative camp, also opposed church superstition and the house-building way of family life, and was a supporter of women's education. He saw his duty as a writer in enlightening the nobility. Sumarokov's comedies, like tragedies, performed educational functions, they were aimed at correcting morals and eliminating human vices.

Another direction was artistic and realistic, the largest trace in which was left by D. I. Fonvizin, the author of the comedies The Brigadier and The Undergrowth.

Fonvizin's comedies are outwardly similar to the works of classicism: they have 5 acts, the unity of place and time is observed, and the characteristics of the characters are embedded in the names. However, they do not depict abstract actors endowed with either vices or virtues, but living people, artistically generalized characters generated by feudal reality. The objective value of Fonvizin's comedies goes beyond the scourging of the shortcomings of education, they denounce the vices of serfdom, which allowed inhuman treatment of the peasants.

The third trend is known as sentimentalism. Adherents of sentimentalism show the feelings of an ordinary person, sometimes not distinguished by anything. In psychological novels and stories, sentimentalists portrayed intimate life, family life. In their works, the heroes leave social activities, retire in the bosom of nature. Sentimentalism is characterized by an idyllic picture of rural life: the master shows paternal care for the peasants, and they repay him with respect and obedience. The largest representative of this trend was N. M. Karamzin, and his most significant work was the story “ Poor Lisa". The story is based on a sentimental fiction about the relationship between the poor peasant girl Lisa and the young officer Erast. An idyllic relationship ends in tragedy - the seduced Lisa commits suicide.

Russian painting of the second half of the 18th century is characterized by the improvement of portraiture. Portraits made by Russian artists stood at the level of the best examples of world painting. The flowering of portraiture was due to numerous orders from the court, nobles and nobles, who sought to capture themselves for posterity. The craft of artists was not considered prestigious, so their ranks were replenished mainly by representatives of the unprivileged classes: soldiers' and merchants' children, people from the clergy and even serfs.

Among the portrait painters, three great masters stood out: F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky. Rokotov made ceremonial portraits of Catherine, her son Pavel, nobles. The artist appears as a subtle psychologist who was able to convey the emotional experiences of a person - for him the main thing was the reflection of the state of mind.

Levitsky's brush belongs to the portrait of the famous D. Diderot. The artist managed to create the image of a thinker: a high forehead, a penetrating gaze of expressive eyes. He also made a series of portraits of Smolensk women - pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. Levitsky is distinguished by the ability to convey the external similarity of the model in combination with its psychological image.

The pinnacle of portraiture was achieved in the works of Borovikovsky. He began as a church icon painter. Catherine drew attention to him: in 1783 he decorated the palace in Kremenchug, intended for the crowned traveler. His female portraits by N. A. Naryshkina, M. A. Orlova and others are famous.

From the second half of the 18th century, one of the richest art collections in the world, the Hermitage, began to form in Russia. The date of its foundation is 1764, the year of purchase by Catherine II in Berlin of a collection of paintings by artists of the Dutch and Flemish schools. Already in 1774 the catalog contained more than two thousand works.

Another branch of fine arts achieved significant success - masters of the cutter, the first domestic sculptors, appeared. Among them, two stand out: F. I. Shubin, who represented the realistic trend in sculpture, and M. I. Kozlovsky, the founder of Russian classicism.

Shubin was an outstanding master of sculptural portraiture, the creator of a gallery of figures of the second half of the 18th century. Here are portraits of the Empress and her favorites: Orlov, Zubov, Potemkin; representatives of the enlightened nobility: the Golitsyns, the Sheremetyevs, the Shuvalovs; commanders Chernyshov and Rumyantsev; wealthy merchants and industrialists Baryshnikov and Demidov. The penetrating eye of the artist was able to detect and convey in marble the characteristic features of the model.

If Shubin's portraits reveal similarities with the model, Kozlovsky did not seek to achieve such a similarity, he saw his main task in revealing the image by means used by the sculptors of ancient Rome. In the monument to A. V. Suvorov, the sculptor conveyed the symbolic features of the image. In accordance with the canons of classicism, he is heroized and idealized.

Of the foreign sculptors, the Frenchman Etienne Falcone was the largest. In The Bronze Horseman, the image of the ingenious tsar-transformer, who points the way to a renewed Russia, is conveyed so deeply and expressively that the sculpture is one of the symbols of the city today.

The main feature of the architecture of the second half of the 18th century is the desire to change the appearance of cities, to replace their spontaneous building with the systematic creation of city assemblies. Established in 1762, the “Commission for the Construction of Capital Cities” extended its activities not only to St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also to the provinces, approving the plans of 213 cities. Tver can serve as an example of a new layout.

In architecture, the Russian baroque, distinguished by brilliance and luxury, is being replaced by classicism, which used the ancient heritage. It is distinguished by simplicity, a clear combination of architectural divisions, the subordination of secondary elements to the main one, the presence of porticos and colonnades. The architecture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century was glorified by the outstanding masters V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov.

The most famous creation of Bazhenov - built in 1784 - 1786. in Moscow, the Pashkov House, which is currently the decoration of the capital. Built on a hill, the fabulous building is distinguished by lightness, elegance and fits perfectly into the nearby Kremlin ensemble.

Kazakov created structures for the most diverse purposes. The series of buildings for public needs includes the majestic building of the Senate in the Kremlin, the building of the Golitsyn hospital, the building of the Noble Assembly with its famous columned hall, intended for balls and meetings of the Moscow nobility. Cossacks also built manor complexes: Gubin's house, Demidov's house.

Starov worked mainly in St. Petersburg. He built a cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, which was a mausoleum over the tomb of Alexander Nevsky. The main building of Starov was the Tauride Palace - an architectural monument to the greatness of Russia and its victories in the Russian-Turkish war.

Advances in culture in the 18th century were an integral part of the achievements of the Russian Empire. It turned into the largest state in the world, which contributed to the formation of the Russian nation, a single Russian language, and an original Russian culture. The development of Russian culture of the 18th century created the prerequisites for its entry into the forefront in the world cultural process.

Chapter 2. The main features of education in the era of Catherine II

V. O. Klyuchevsky believed that “the reign of Catherine II is a whole era of our history, and historical eras usually do not close within the limits of the human age, do not end with the life of their creators.” The Empress corresponded with the French enlighteners and wanted to participate in the scientific and literary life of the West. Therefore, Catherine's ideas were the last word in Western European thought.

There was mainly an uncritical borrowing, an unconditional transfer of the social and cultural, up to everyday, experience of European countries to educational institutions and the educational system of Russia. The scale of borrowing in the 60s of the XVIII century was described by Kapterev: “Every Russian teacher dragged everything he liked from a German. Not only private methods and teaching methods were borrowed, not only general guiding ideas and entire pedagogical worldviews were borrowed, even people who were the implementers of the principles of German pedagogy were borrowed.

The document created by M. V. Lomonosov - “The draft regulation of Moscow gymnasiums” became widely known and disseminated. The main idea of the "Project ..." was the division of the gymnasium into two departments: for the children of the nobility and for the children of the raznochintsy. The main goal of this fairly open educational institution was only to teach schoolchildren the principles of science. All attention was concentrated only on the transfer of knowledge and the preparation of the gymnasium student for further education.

The idea of creating a system of class schools, which belonged to G. N. Teplov, was to divide all educational institutions into “schools for learned people”, military schools, civil schools, merchant schools, “lower schools” and “schools for non-believers”. The proposed system clearly reflected the tendency towards the development of heterogeneity in the educational ideal of a person, which was characteristic of Russia after the reforms of Peter the Great. For all estates, the goals of education were determined in accordance with their social purpose and position.

In terms of school education, the Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as the basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main.

Nevertheless, this Catherine's reform played a significant role in the development of Russian education. For 1782 - 1800 About 180,000 children graduated from various types of schools, including 7% of girls.

By the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there were about 300 schools and boarding schools with 20 thousand students and 720 teachers.

New for Russia during this period was a change in attitude towards the education of women. By this time, the nobility had developed not only the male, but also the female ideal of a noble person. By the end of the 18th century, institutes and boarding schools for noble maidens were widely spread and enjoyed popularity.

In fact, the reforms led to a major positive result: a network of small and main schools was created as the basis for building secondary and higher education; a special program for the training of teachers was developed - all this together created fertile ground for a new and more successful reform at the beginning of the next century.

Even the parochial schools, which were included in the nomenclature of educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education, intended for the lower classes, were not funded from the treasury and their existence depended entirely on the will and desire of the landlords and rural communities.

Chapter 3. Smolny Institute

Smolny Institute Education Ekaterina

On the left bank of the bend of the Neva, at the end of Suvorovsky Prospekt and Shpalernaya Street, stands the light and graceful Smolny Cathedral looking up, crowning the ensemble of buildings belonging to it. There was a legend in St. Petersburg that Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1709-1762) wanted to quietly end her life in the monastery and ordered the architect Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli to build the Convent of the Resurrection on the site of the suburban Smolny Palace. In 1748 it was laid. Years passed, the Seven Years' War began, and there was not enough money to complete the building according to the architect's plan. For its intended purpose, the monastery was never used. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine II already became in charge of the fate of the Smolny Monastery. At that time in Russia there was not a single school where girls would study. Noble girls were taught at home, and girls from poor families, as a rule, were not taught at all. And in 1764, Catherine II decided to open an "Educational Society for Noble Maidens" in the Smolny Monastery in order, as the decree said, "... to give the state educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society." Later it became known as the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

Catherine ordered Russian diplomats in European countries to inform her about all the best educational institutions for women. However, the Russian Empress was not completely satisfied with any sample. Thanks to the help and ideas of I.I. Betsky, a project of a completely new educational institution appeared, the like of which has never been seen anywhere else.

The Smolny Institute became a closed educational institution for girls from noble families. Girls of six years old were enrolled there, eighteen-year-old girls were released. The closedness of the educational institution was the main condition and the main idea of Betsky, who spoke about the education of a "new breed" of people. In his view, everything looked really perfect: young girls are completely isolated from the influence of the environment, family, street, after twelve years of training and education, they become adult women, free from vices.

The daily routine at the institute was strict: getting up at 6 o'clock in the morning, then - 6 or 8 lessons. Play time was very limited. The girls lived in dormitories for 9 people with a lady assigned to them. In addition, there was also a cool lady who monitored the behavior of girls in the classroom.

The smallest girls studied at the first age. They wore dresses of brown or cherry color and white aprons. Later, the color of their dresses changed to coffee, for which the girls began to be called "coffee houses".

"Middle-aged" girls were called "blue" by the color of their uniform dress, and "older" girls were called "white", although they came to class in green dresses, and their ball gowns were white.

In addition to ballroom dancing, the Smolyanka training program included such disciplines as reading, spelling, French and German languages(later Italian was added), physics, chemistry, geography, mathematics, history, etiquette, needlework, housekeeping, God's law, rhetoric.

April 30, 1776 was the first issue of fifty-one tars. They held examinations before the council of the educational society, not only in all the subjects laid down in the charter, but also in geometry and mythology, which were not included in the program. Apparently, all the knowledge turned out to be with the pupils, for the council found that “the plural is worthy of being awarded,” but in view of the insufficient number of awards, he awarded “others, as with common consent, and by lot. . The maidens Alymova, Molchanova, Rubanovskaya, Levshina, Borshcheva, Eropkina, von Velstein and Nelidova turned out to be worthy of awards: ciphers and large gold medals. They were also honored with the appointment of their ladies-in-waiting to the empress. The next four also received gold medals; twelve - silver medals; twelve received praise and only fifteen received nothing. In addition, out of the interest from the capital of one hundred thousand, donated by the Empress to Smolny for eternity for the issuance of benefits to the most excellent and the poorest, six thousand were distributed among them. The petty-bourgeois girls leaving the school were awarded with gifts and money.

Petrovna were built for the Resurrection (Smolny) monastery by the architect Rastrelli, for this a third floor was built over the residential buildings of the monastery. However, for an educational institution, these premises still remained uncomfortable. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was decided to build a new special building for the Smolny Institute. His project was developed by the architect D. Quarenghi. An excellent master of classical architecture, Quarenghi, however, bowed to the magnificent creation of Rastrelli - the Smolny Monastery, so he decided to conduct new construction a little to the side, south of the monastery complex. Quarenghi created a strict and significant building, which, as it were, sets off the picturesque creation of Rastrelli.

Smolny Institute had convenient layout: on the first floor on the sides of the corridor there were study rooms, and on the second floor - living rooms. A real decoration of the building was a large front hall with original chandeliers. Quarenghi not only attached importance to every detail of the decoration of the building, but also thought out the layout of the space around it: a large square was arranged on the side of the main entrance, and a regular garden was laid on the opposite side.

The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens became one of the most enduring undertakings of Catherine II: it lasted until 1917. The Smolny building itself entered the history of Russia as one of the symbols of the revolutionary upheavals of the early 20th century.

Conclusion

Prominent Catherine's nobleman I.I. Betskoy, addressing Catherine the Great, said: “Peter the Great created people in Russia; Your Majesty put souls into them.” In his opinion, Catherine II "meekly and calmly completed what Peter the Great was forced to establish by force."

The obvious and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age, its inner split have always intrigued Russian public consciousness. Recall at least A.S. Pushkin. Catherine for him, on the one hand - "Tartuffe in a skirt and a crown", on the other - a wise mother - the Empress of the "Captain's Daughter". But nevertheless, as Karamzin designed: The Russian people have never felt so happy as during the reign of Catherine.

List of used literature

1. Viktorov VV Culturology. Ed. "Exam". M., 2004.

2. Demkov M.I. History of Russian pedagogy. Part III. New Russian Pedagogy (XIX century). - M., 1909 ..

3. Zhukova L. V. History of Russia from ancient times to the present. Ed. "Exam". M., 2005.

4. Architects of St. Petersburg. XVIII century. SPb., 1997.

5. Kamensky A.B. Life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1997.

6. Kaus G. M. Zakharov I. V. Catherine the Great: Biography. M., 2002.

7. Klyuchevsky V. O. Soch. in 9 volumes. M., 1989. Volume 5.

8. Bonfire. No. 4. 1996.

9. Likhachev. "Materials for the history of women's education in Russia". 1899

10. New world. - 1949. - No. 3.

11. Pavlenko N. I., Andreev I. L., Fedorov V. A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. "Graduate School". M., 2004.

12. Pavlenko N.I. Catherine the Great. M., 2000.

13. Plans and statutes of the lieutenant general of the Betsky gentry land cadet corps. - St. Petersburg, 1766.

14. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. V.5, No. 2736. - St. Petersburg, 1830.

15. Soviet archeology. - 1970. - No. 4.

16. Shishov A.V. Century of Catherine II - vol. III - M .: Russian literature, 1998.

Kamensky A.B. Life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. - M.: Knowledge, 1997, p. 4.

Grekov B. D. A blow to anti-patriotic tendencies in historical science // Novy Mir. - 1949. - No. 3. - S. 51 -52.

Vysotsky S. A. Old Russian alphabet from St. Sophia of Kiev // Soviet archeology. - 1970. - No. 4. - S. 128 - 139.

Zhukova L. V. History of Russia from ancient times to the present. Ed. "Exam". M., 2005. S. 188

Pavlenko N. I., Andreev I. L., Fedorov V. A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. "Graduate School". M., 2004. S. 374

Zhukova L. V. History of Russia from ancient times to the present. Ed. "Exam". M., 2005. S. 186

Pavlenko N.I. Catherine the Great. M., 2000. S. 245

Umetskaya M. Beautiful Smolyanka//Bonfire. No. 4. 1996.

Likhachev. "Materials for the history of women's education in Russia". 1899 p. 233

Architects of St. Petersburg. XVIII century. SPb., 1997. S. 145

Shishov A.V. Age of Catherine II - vol. III - M .: Russian literature, 1998, p.171.

Kamensky A.B. Life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. - M .: Knowledge, 1997, p. 4.

Novikov N.I. On the upbringing and instruction of children // Addition to the Moscow News, 1783, Nos. 2, 6, 9.

Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II. Reforms of the era of Catherine II in the field of culture and education

More on Education:

Introduction

The main task of Catherine II was to create conditions for the education of the noble class. And for this, new educational institutions were needed: schools, colleges, gymnasiums and institutes for noble maidens.

Target This essay consists in analyzing the features of the development of the Russian education system in the era of Catherine II, mainly the development system of the education system in the 18th century.

1. general characteristicseducationin Russia until the 18th century

Since the term school came to Russia much later in the 14th century, schools of “book teaching” in schools specially organized in cities at princely courts and temples received quite wide use already in the tenth century.

The handicraft way of transferring knowledge did not satisfy the growing needs of the Russian state, had a negative impact on material well-being, and aggravated the lag in economic development compared to the countries of the West and East.

It is important that in the 17th century the circle of people who had access to education expanded significantly. Let nominally, but the right to enter the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy had both people from noble estates, and children of parents of a clergy, and simply free Orthodox Christians.

Thus, the Russian school made, as it were, a leap from the Orthodox school, which in fact did not meet the requirements of the times for a long time, to a special state school, characteristic of Europe during the modern period.

2. Explicit and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age

The structure of Russian society in the Catherine era was characterized by rigid social barriers between classes, estates and groups.

In the 18th century, there was a large-scale expansion of values ​​that penetrated from Western Europe, which was actively promoted by both the ideology and the policy pursued by the Russian state.

The educational policy of Catherine, like that of Peter I, was based on the Russian interpretation of social development, according to which the will of the autocrat dictates the laws of life.

Even the parochial schools, which were included in the nomenclature of educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education, intended for the lower classes, were not funded from the treasury and their existence depended entirely on the will and desire of the landlords and rural communities.

Of course, it is also difficult to agree with such total denials of the Russian Enlightenment and its sociocultural results, since it was in the 18th century that a special status of the Russian intelligentsia was formed, prompting it to engage in moral and educational activities.

3. AnalysispracticesRussian secular education

However, since the 17th century there have been global changes in the goals of the Russian school. Ignoring religion in teaching strengthened in the pupils the desire for secular values ​​and a new ideal of man.

The ideas of Peter the Great did not penetrate deep enough into the minds of most of his contemporaries. Despotism and violence in the educational sphere led to alienation and massive attempts to avoid "educational service".

The author of the Charter of the Land Cadet Corps, I. I. Betskoy, insisted on an affectionate, benevolent and loving tone of communication between all educators and children. The need to instill kindness in pets, to develop in them a sense of dignity which excluded the use of corporal punishment.

In terms of school education, the Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as the basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main.

Nevertheless, this Catherine's reform played a significant role in the development of Russian education. For 1782 - 1800 different types about 180,000 children graduated from schools, including 7% of girls.

Concluding the analysis, we note that the goals of education in all educational institutions corresponded to the class ideals of a person. The new secular approach was actually implemented only in privileged noble educational institutions, in all others there were minor changes in the 18th century.

Conclusion

Bibliography

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4. General plan of gymnasiums and state schools // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. V.5, No. 2736. - St. Petersburg, 1830. - P.74.

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7. Ancient Russian vivliofika. Part IV. - 2nd ed. - Published by N. I. Novikov, 1788. - S. 397 - 420.

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12. Kopylenko M. M. Manuscript Greek grammar of the Likhud brothers // Byzantine Times. T. 17. - M., 1960.

13. Modzalevsky L.N. Essay on the history of education and training from ancient times to our times \ Under the general editorship of V.P. Salnikov; Scientific ed. M.V. Zakharchenko.-SPb.: Aletheya, 2000.

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16. Plans and statutes of the lieutenant general of the Betsky gentry land cadet corps. - St. Petersburg, 1766. - 32 p.

Letters granted to the nobility and cities

Education reform

A. N. Radishchev

Pavel I

In the 18th century, there was a large-scale expansion of values that penetrated from Western Europe, which was actively promoted by both the ideology and the policy pursued by the Russian state.

However, since the 17th century there have been global changes in the goals of the Russian school. Ignoring religion in teaching strengthened in the pupils the desire for secular values and a new ideal of man.