The science of eloquence appeared in ancient times. Today, the question of what rhetoric is is considered from three sides:

3. An academic discipline that studies the basics of public speaking.

The subject of rhetoric is the special rules for constructing and delivering a speech in order to convince the audience that the speaker is right.

Russia has always had a rich rhetorical tradition. Oratory practice already in Ancient Russia was very diverse and stood out for its high level of skill. The 12th century is recognized as the golden age in Ancient Russia for eloquence. The first textbooks in Russia about what rhetoric is appeared in the 17th century. These were The Tale of the Seven Wisdoms and Rhetoric. They outlined the basics of rhetorical teaching: what is rhetoric, who is a rhetor and his duties; how to prepare a speech, as it happens. In the 18th century, a number of textbooks were already being published, among them the fundamental scientific work “Rhetoric” by Lomonosov.

3. Speech law.

4. Law of communication.

Speech is carried out in different forms such as monologue, dialogue and polylogue. Depending on what goal the speaker has set for himself, it is divided into types:

1. Informative - acquaintance of listeners with certain information, facts, which will make it possible to form an impression of its subject.

2. Convincing - the belief in the correctness of one's position.

3. Arguing - proof of your point of view.

4. Emotional-evaluative - expresses its negative or positive assessment.

5. Motivating - through speech, listeners are encouraged to do something.

Is it possible to become a speaker

?

When the task of speaking to the public arises, in which it is necessary to convince the audience of something, a person begins to think - what is rhetoric? Can you become a good speaker? Opinions on this matter differ. Someone believes that a talented speaker should have a natural gift. Others - that you can become a good speaker if you train and improve yourself a lot. This dispute has been going on for many years, almost the entire history of oratory.

But in any case, the speaker must know the basics of rhetoric, not only its most common techniques, but also individual finds, which will help make the speech vivid and at the same time accessible. How to prepare, how to present it, how to correctly conclude a speech - these are the questions that first of all arise before a novice master of the word.

The need to turn to rhetoric as a doctrine of oratory, or the theory of eloquence, in modern conditions. The relationship between logic and rhetoric. The insufficiency of all the power of logic, rigorous evidence to convince a person who does not want to change his position and take a different point of view. The art of persuasion – not only the power of logical arguments. Rhetoric and the need to go beyond the realm of reliable knowledge. Persuasion and understanding. Belief and faith, their fundamental difference. Rhetoric for the speaker and rhetoric for the listener. Oratory and language space. Speech ethics and speech law. Rhetoric and Morality. rhetorical thinking.

Five parts of rhetoric:

- invention (lat. inventio - invention, discovery) - the invention of thoughts; her focus on the search for argumentation;

- disposition (lat. dispositio - location, placement) - disposition of thoughts; her focus on how to arrange these arguments;

- elocution (from lat. elocution - way of presentation, syllable)- expression of thoughts; its focus on how to put thoughts into words in the most convincing way;

- memoria (from lat. memoria - memory, a way of remembering)- memorization; her focus on how to remember a composed speech;

- action (from lat. actio - action, activity)- making a speech her focus on how to deliver a prepared speech.

The unevenness of these parts, the unevenness of their development by classical and modern rhetoric.

Theme 2. Genera and types of oratory

Gradual formation of genera and types of oratory: five types of eloquence in rhetoric of the 17th - 18th centuries. (court, which developed in the highest circles of the nobility; spiritual, or church-theological; military - the appeal of generals to soldiers; diplomatic; popular, developing during periods of intensification of the struggle, when the leaders of peasant uprisings addressed speeches to the people). Allocation of types of eloquence depending on the sphere of communication corresponding to one of the main functions of speech: communication, communication and influence. Spheres of communication (scientific, business, outreach, social and domestic).

The type of eloquence as an area of ​​oratory, characterized by the presence of a certain object of speech, a specific system for its analysis and evaluation. Types of eloquence distinguished in the modern practice of public communication:

- socio-political(speeches on socio-political, political, economic, socio-cultural, ethical and moral topics; speeches on scientific and technological progress; reports at congresses, meetings, conferences, rallies; diplomatic, political, military-patriotic, parliamentary, propaganda and sub. speech);

- academic - a kind of eloquence that helps to form a scientific worldview, distinguished by scientific presentation, deep reasoning, logical culture (university lecture, scientific report, presentation in a scientific discussion, scientific review, etc.);

- judicial- a type of speech designed to have a targeted and effective impact on the court, to contribute to the formation of the convictions of judges and citizens present in the courtroom (prosecutory, or accusatory, and lawyer, or defensive, speeches);

- social and domestic(an anniversary speech dedicated to a significant date or an individual, which is of a solemn nature; table speech delivered at official (including diplomatic) receptions, as well as everyday speech);

- spiritual(church-theological) - an ancient type of eloquence with rich experience and traditions. Sermon(word), connected with the church action, addressed to the parishioners and pronounced in the church. official speech, addressed to the ministers of the church themselves or to other persons associated with official action. Homiletics is the science of Christian church preaching.

Theme 3 . History of rhetoric

The emergence of rhetoric and its place in the history of ancient culture

Rhetoric as an art and theory of eloquence. The role of sophistry in the development of rhetoric. Speeches that changed the fate of civilization: the speech of Pericles in response to the demands of the Spartan ambassadors is one of the causes of the Peloponnesian War; Demosthenes is the greatest orator of Ancient Greece. "Philippika" of Demosthenes, his speeches against the policy of Philip II of Macedon as the highest examples of the practice of oratory, as well as the reason for the defeat of Athens and Thebes in the battle of Chaeronea, the loss of independence of the Athenian state.

Development of the theory of eloquence. Significance of the Socratic Method and Plato's Dialogues. "Rhetoric" of Aristotle as a presentation of the scientific foundations of eloquence. "Rhetoric", according to Aristotle, as a necessary ability to protect oneself and help justice. "Poetics", "Topeka", "On Sophistic Refutations" by Aristotle - about the relationship of linguistics, logic, rhetoric, sophistry. Meaning of Demetrius' treatise "On Style".

Roman eloquence. The speeches of Mark Thulius Cicero are the pinnacle of the rhetorical skill of Ancient Rome. The rhetorical style of Cicero: the allocation of large, linguistically distinct, rhythmically designed periods, abundant (but not excessive) use of rhetorical embellishments, the absence of foreign words, vulgarisms. Cicero's treatises "On the Orator", "Brutus", "Orator" - a theoretical development of the foundations of rhetoric. Meaning of the "Speeches" of Cicero. The Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instructions by Marcus Fabius Quintilian. "Apology, or on Magic" by Apuleius.

Rhetoric as an essential component of ancient culture. The practice of rhetoric is the most honorable activity in antiquity. Rhetorical education was the main type of education in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome for a whole millennium.

Christian rhetoric is the continuation and development of ancient traditions. Basil the Great. Gregory the Theologian. John Chrysostom. The sermons of John Chrysostom are examples of the defense of human dignity.

Development of rhetorical traditions in Russia

Features of the emergence of Russian eloquence and Russian rhetoric, which determined the Russian rhetorical tradition. The emergence of Russian literature is the emergence of Russian homiletics (“The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, 1049, sermons by Cyril of Turov in the 12th century). The development of homiletics (solemn and instructive eloquence, preaching) in the absence of oratorics. The appearance of elements of oratorics in the sixteenth century. (Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, "The Book of Novgorod Heretics" by Joseph Volotsky). The first textbook "Rhetoric" (1620): a presentation of the principles and techniques of oratory in four types of speech - educational, deliberative, laudatory, judicial. The role of M. V. Lomonosov in the development and formation of Russian rhetoric. The significance of the works of I. S. Rizhsky (“Rhetoric”, 1796) and M. N. Speransky (“Rules of Higher Eloquence”, 1844) in the development of rhetorical traditions in Russia. Development of rhetoric
in the twentieth century and at the present time (works by V. V. Vinogradov, S. P. Obnorsky,
Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky, G. G. Khazagerov and others).

It is important for every person to be able to communicate, since such a skill is a good helper in many life situations. Almost all successes at school, work, in personal life are built on communication skills. If the information is presented by the speaker concisely and structured, then it will reach the listeners in the best possible way. The science that studies all the details of oratory is called rhetoric. It is thanks to her that you can make your speech clear and convincing. Rhetoric - what is it? Science or academic discipline?

What does the word "rhetoric" mean? Translated from Greek, the word rhetoric looks like "rhetorike" and means "oratory". Initially, this definition meant the ability to speak beautifully and express your thoughts in front of other people.

Over time, the concept of rhetoric changed several times, which was influenced by the change in periods of cultural development of people. Therefore, this science, starting from antiquity and ending with the present time, was perceived differently.

It was founded by the Sophists, who said that rhetoric is a discipline that can teach a speaker to prove his position, manipulate and dominate discussions. In modern times, the basis of such a science is harmonizing speech, the search for truth, and the incitement to thought.

Now the word rhetoric is understood as a discipline that allows you to study the methods of speech formation, characterized by expediency, harmony, and the ability to influence. In this regard, the subject of rhetoric acts as a thought-speech action.
Rhetoric combines the teachings of philosophy, sociology, psychology, which helps to achieve effective speech interaction with any audience.

Thus, modern rhetoric is considered from three sides:

• This is a science that considers the art of the word, which has specific standards of public speaking in front of people, allowing you to achieve a good result when influencing listeners.
• This is the highest level of skill in pronunciation of speech in front of the public, mastery of the word at a professional level and excellent oratory.
• An academic discipline that helps students instill the rules of public speaking.

Thus, general rhetoric studies the rules for constructing an expedient and persuasive speech, which helps to make the speech vivid and memorable.

What does science study?

The subject of rhetoric, as a science, includes methods for the formation of appropriate oral and written speech, as well as the process by which thoughts are converted into speech.

In order to determine the tasks of rhetoric, it is necessary to know about its main directions. They are distinguished by two:

1. Logical, in which the main aspects are the ability to convince the listener to effectively present information.
2. Literary, in which the richness and attractiveness of words are considered the most important elements.

Taking into account the fact that in this science these areas are combined, real rhetoric sets itself the task of making speech correct, convincing and expedient.
Having determined what rhetoric is and why it is needed, there is no doubt about its necessity in the life of a person, especially those engaged in public activities.

Rhetoric in ancient times

The origin of rhetoric began in ancient Greece. Due to the fact that democracy was being formed in this state, the ability to convince gained considerable popularity in society.

Every resident of the city had the opportunity to be trained in oratory, which was taught by the sophists. These sages considered rhetoric to be the science of persuasion, which studies the means of verbally defeating an opponent. Because of this, in the future, the word "sophism" caused a negative reaction. After all, with them, rhetoric was considered as a trick, fiction, but earlier this science was considered the highest skill, skill.

In ancient Greece, many works were created that reveal rhetoric. Who is the author of the classical Greek treatise on this science? This is the well-known thinker Aristotle. This work, called "Rhetoric", singled out oratory among all other sciences. It defined the principles on which speech should be built, and indicated the methods used as evidence. Thanks to this treatise, Aristotle became the founder of rhetoric as a science.

In ancient Rome, Mark Tullius Cicero, who was engaged in politics, philosophy and oratory, contributed to the development of rhetoric. He created a work called "Brutus or about famous speakers", describing the development of science in the names of popular speakers. He also wrote the work "On the Orator", in which he spoke about what kind of speech behavior a worthy speaker should have. Then he created the book "The Orator", revealing the basics of eloquence.

Cicero considered rhetoric the most difficult science, unlike others. He argued that in order to become a worthy speaker, a person needs to have deep knowledge in all areas of life. Otherwise, he simply will not be able to maintain a dialogue with another person.

Development of rhetoric in Russia

Rhetoric in Russia arose on the basis of Roman science. Unfortunately, it has not always been so popular. Over time, when political and social regimes changed, the need for it was perceived differently.

The development of Russian rhetoric in stages:

• Ancient Russia (XII-XVII centuries). During this period, the term "rhetoric" and educational books on it did not yet exist. But some of its rules have already been applied. People at that time called the ethics of speech eloquence, eloquence or rhetoric. The art of the word was taught on the basis of liturgical texts created by the preachers. For example, one of these collections is "Bee", written in the XIII century.
• First half of the 17th century. During this period, a characteristic event was that the first Russian textbook was published, revealing the foundations of rhetoric.
• End of the 17th - beginning and middle of the 18th century. At this stage, the book "Rhetoric" written by Mikhail Usachev was published. Also, many works were created, such as "Old Believer Rhetoric", the works "Poetics", "Ethics", several lectures on the rhetorical art of Feofan Prokopovich.
• XVIII century. At this time, the formation of rhetoric as Russian science, a huge contribution to which was made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. He wrote several works dedicated to it, of which the book "Rhetoric" became the basis for the development of this science.
• Beginning and middle of the 19th century. This period is characterized by the fact that a rhetorical boom took place in the country. Well-known authors published a large number of textbooks. These include the works of I.S. Riga, N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky, M.M. Speransky.

However, starting from the second half of the century, literature began to actively replace this science. Soviet people studied stylistics, linguistics, culture of speech, and criticized rhetoric.

Laws of the art of the word

Rhetoric at any time had as its ultimate goal - to influence listeners. A special role for its achievement is played by expressive speech, as well as visual and expressive means.

Scientists divide this science into two varieties - general and particular. The subject of general rhetoric includes general ways of behaving in speech pronunciation and the practical possibilities of their application in order to make speech effective.

This variety includes the following sections:

• rhetorical canon;
• public speaking;
• rules on how to conduct a dispute;
• conversation rules;
• teachings about everyday communication;
• communication between different nations.

By studying these sections, the speaker gains knowledge about the main features of speech use, which are the basis for each master of the word.

General rhetoric studies ways to achieve mutual understanding between the speaker and listeners. For this, the following laws were developed:

• The law of harmonizing dialogue. The speaker should awaken the feelings and thoughts of the listeners, turning the monologue into a dialogue. It is possible to build harmonious communication only with the help of a dialogue of all the people participating in the discussion. The essence of this rule is more precisely revealed by the following laws.
• The law of orientation and advancement of the listener. The person to whom the oratorical influence is directed should have the feeling that he, together with the speaker, is moving towards the intended goal. To achieve this effect, the speaker needs to use words in speech that determine the order of events, connect sentences and summarizing expressions.
• The law of emotional speech. A person speaking to the public must himself experience the feelings that he is trying to evoke in the audience, and also be able to convey them through speech.
• The law of pleasure. It implies the ability to present a speech in such a way that it gives pleasure to the listeners. This effect is easy to achieve if the speech is expressive and rich.

The private type of rhetoric is based on the general type and involves the specific use of general provisions in certain areas of life. Thus, science studies what rules of speech pronunciation and behavior the speaker needs to apply depending on the situation.

There are a lot of private rhetoric, but they all fall into two main groups:

1. Homiletics.
2. Oratory.

The first group implies the speaker's ability to repeatedly influence the public. This includes the ecclesiastical and academic type of eloquence. In modern rhetoric, this group includes propaganda that is carried out in the media.

Thus, with academic eloquence, the speaker, conducting several lectures, should not each time re-talk about the goals of their conduct, their necessity, and so on. It is enough for him to talk about it at the first lecture, and for all the others the general task will be expanded by studying a new topic.

Oratory is not able to influence people repeatedly. In this regard, the speaker must be able to correctly end each speech. This group includes judicial, everyday, socio-political and other types of eloquence.

At present, oratory has grown quite widely, so a specific type of rhetoric has already begun to be divided into its subspecies. For example, administrative, diplomatic, parliamentary and other rhetoric was singled out from socio-political eloquence.

Varieties of the speaker's speech

There are several varieties of oratory, depending on who needs to be convinced, where the speech takes place, what purpose it pursues. These include the following sayings:

• Social and political. This is when they read reports on social, political and economic topics, speak at rallies, conduct campaigning.
• Academic. It includes reading lectures, scientific reports or messages.
• Judicial. This type of eloquence is used by the prosecutor and the defense counsel when speaking in court. By their speech they must convince of the guilt or innocence of the accused person.
• Social and domestic. It is used by all people, making speeches at anniversaries, feasts or at commemorations. This also includes secular chatter, which does not require disputes, discussions, but is characterized by ease and simplicity of perception.
• Theological. This eloquence is used in churches, for example, when the faithful give a sermon or other speech in a cathedral.
• Diplomatic. This type involves the observance of ethical standards in business speech. This is necessary in business negotiations, correspondence, in the preparation of official documents, as well as in translation.
• Military. This kind of eloquence is used when calling for battle, issuing orders, charters, transmitting information by radio.
• Pedagogical. It includes presentations by teachers and students, both oral and written. This also includes lecturing, which is considered a complex act of pedagogical communication.
• Internal, or imaginary. This is the name of the dialogue that each person conducts with himself. This type implies a mental preparation for an oral presentation to the public, as well as for the written transmission of information, when a person reads what is written to himself, remembers something, thinks about something, and so on.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude what rhetoric is and why society needs it. Rhetoric as a science of oratory involves the study of the correct pronunciation of speech in front of the public in order to somehow influence the people listening to it. With its help, speakers acquire the skills to make their speech correct, expedient, and most importantly, convincing.

At the time of its origin in antiquity, rhetoric was understood only in the direct meaning of the term - as the art of a speaker, the art of oral public speaking. A broad understanding of the subject of rhetoric is the property of a later time. Now, if it is necessary to distinguish the technique of oral public speaking from rhetoric in a broad sense, the term is used to refer to the former. oratorio.

Traditional rhetoric (bene dicendi scientia "the science of good speech", as defined by Quintilian) was opposed to grammar (recte dicendi scientia - "the science of correct speech"), poetics and hermeneutics. The subject of traditional rhetoric, unlike poetics, was only prose speech and prose texts. What distinguishes rhetoric from hermeneutics is a predominant interest in the persuasive power of a text and only a weakly expressed interest in other components of its content that do not affect the persuasive power.

The methodological difference between rhetoric and the disciplines of the rhetorical cycle from other philological sciences is the focus on the value aspect in the description of the subject and the subordination of this description to applied tasks. In Ancient Russia, there were a number of synonyms with valuable meaning, denoting mastery of the art of good speech: eloquence, good speech, eloquence, cunning, chrysostom and finally eloquence. In ancient times, the value element also included a moral and ethical component. Rhetoric was considered not only the science and art of good oratory, but also the science and art of bringing to good, persuading good through speech. The moral and ethical component in modern rhetoric has been preserved only in a reduced form, although some researchers are making attempts to restore its meaning. Other attempts are being made - to define rhetoric, completely removing the value aspect from the definitions. There are, for example, definitions of rhetoric as the science of generating statements (such a definition is given by A.K. Avelychev with reference to W. Eco-Dubois). The elimination of the value aspect of the study of speech and text leads to the loss of the specifics of rhetoric against the background of descriptive philological disciplines. If the task of the latter is to create a complete and consistent description of the subject, which allows further applied use (for example, in teaching a foreign language, creating automatic translation systems), but in itself is neutral with respect to applied tasks, then in rhetoric the description itself is built with an orientation on the needs of speech practice. In this regard, the same important role, like scientific rhetoric, educational (didactic) rhetoric plays in the system of rhetorical disciplines, i.e. learning the technique of generating good speech and quality text.

The subject and tasks of rhetoric.

Differences in the definition of the subject and tasks of rhetoric throughout its history were reduced, in fact, to differences in the understanding of what kind of speech should be considered good and quality. There are two main trends.

The first direction, coming from Aristotle, connected rhetoric with logic and proposed to consider good speech persuasive, effective speech. At the same time, efficiency also came down to persuasiveness, to the ability of speech to win recognition (consent, sympathy, sympathy) of listeners, to make them act in a certain way. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject."

The second direction also arose in ancient Greece. Among its founders are Isocrates and some other rhetors. Representatives of this direction were inclined to consider good ornate, opulent, built according to canons aesthetics speech. Persuasiveness continued to matter, but was not the only and not the main criterion for evaluating speech. Following F. van Eemeren, the direction in rhetoric originating from Aristotle can be called "logical", and from Isocrates - "literary".

In the era of Hellenism, the "literary" direction strengthened and pushed the "logical" to the periphery of didactic and scientific rhetoric. This happened, in particular, in connection with the decline in the role of political eloquence and the increase in the role of ceremonial, solemn eloquence after the fall of democratic forms of government in Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages, this ratio continued to be maintained. Rhetoric began to become isolated in the sphere of school and university education, turning into literary rhetoric. She was in a difficult relationship with homiletics - the doctrine of Christian church preaching. Representatives of homiletics either turned to rhetoric in order to mobilize its tools for compiling church sermons, or again fenced themselves off from it as from a "pagan" science. The predominance of a "decorative-aesthetic" idea of ​​one's own subject deepened the separation of rhetoric from speech practice. At a certain stage, the proponents of "literary" rhetoric stopped caring at all whether their speeches were effective in persuading anyone. The development of the rhetorical paradigm in this direction ended with a crisis in rhetoric in the middle of the 18th century.

The balance of power changed in favor of the "logical" direction in the second half of the 20th century, when the old rhetoric was replaced by neo-rhetoric, or new rhetoric. Its creators were predominantly logicians. They created a new discipline as a theory of practical discourse. The most significant part of the latter was the theory of argumentation. The area of ​​interest for neo-rhetoric was again declared to be the effectiveness of the impact and the persuasiveness of speech and text. In this regard, neo-rhetoric is sometimes called the neo-Aristotelian trend, especially if we are talking about the neo-rhetoric of H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteka.

Neo-rhetoric did not reject the results obtained in line with the "literary" trend. Moreover, some researchers of rhetoric to this day pay primary attention to the aesthetic qualities of speech (supporters of rhetoric as a science of artistic and expressive speech: to some extent, the authors General rhetoric, V.N. Toporov and others). Today we can talk about peaceful coexistence and mutual enrichment of the "logical" and "literary" trends, with the former dominating.

Most of the definitions given to rhetoric by various scholars over the centuries place the discipline in one of the two directions characterized. New ideas about the discipline are reflected in a number of modern definitions of rhetoric.

Definitions in line with the "logical" direction: the art of correct speech for the purpose of persuasion; the science of methods of persuasion, various forms of primarily linguistic influence on the audience, taking into account the characteristics of the latter and in order to obtain the desired effect (A.K. Avelichev); the science of the conditions and forms of effective communication (S.I. Gindin); persuasive communication (J. Kopperschmidt); science of speech actions.

Definition in line with the "literary" direction: A philological discipline that studies the ways of constructing artistic and expressive speech, primarily prose and oral; close contact with poetics and stylistics (V.N. Toporov).

divisions of rhetoric.

Traditionally, general and private rhetoric are distinguished. General rhetoric is the science of universal principles and rules for constructing good speech, independent of the specific area of ​​speech communication. Private rhetoric considers the features of certain types of speech communication in connection with the conditions of communication, the functions of speech and the areas of human activity. In modern rhetoric, the term "general rhetoric" also has a second meaning - one of the directions of the new rhetoric. The beginning of the use of this term was laid by the publication of the book by Dubois J. et al. General rhetoric. Sometimes "general rhetoric" is used as a synonym for "neo-rhetoric".

In the ancient textbooks of rhetoric, three functional types of speech were distinguished: deliberative (declining or rejecting), judicial (accusatory or defensive) and solemn, ceremonial or demonstrative (praising or condemning) speech. The deliberative speech was used in political eloquence. It had to proceed from the value categories of useful and harmful. Judicial speech was based on the categories of just and unjust, and ceremonial speech on the categories of good and bad. In the Middle Ages, the predominant type of eloquence was church eloquence, which proceeded from the categories of what was pleasing and objectionable to God.

In modern times, the status of various spheres of social communication has become relatively equal. To the traditional types of eloquence - political, judicial, solemn and theological, new ones were added - academic, business and journalistic eloquence.

Nowadays, one can distinguish as many private rhetoric as there are spheres of communication, functional varieties of language, and in some cases even smaller functional subdivisions (for example, the rhetoric of a television speech is a subsection of journalistic rhetoric).

The dominant types of verbal communication have the greatest impact on public consciousness in each era. Therefore, the rhetorical disciplines that study them attract the greatest interest. At present, it is the rhetoric of the media, political and business (commercial) rhetoric.

Among other divisions of rhetoric is the division into theoretical, applied and thematic rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric is engaged in the scientific study of the rules for constructing high-quality speech, and applied rhetoric uses the found rules and patterns, as well as the best examples of the most successful speeches, in the practice of teaching literature. Theoretical and applied rhetoric are identical to scientific and educational rhetoric. Thematic rhetoric considers the unification of various types of literature around one important topic such as presidential elections. It has spread to the USA.

Parts (canons) of rhetorical development of speech. Parts, or canons, of the rhetorical development of speech were defined in antiquity. Their composition has not undergone significant changes over the centuries. In neo-rhetoric of the 20th century. only the amount of research attention paid to individual canons has changed. Almost all non-rhetorical studies concern argumentation (one of the subsections of the dispositio canon) and types of transformations of the expression plane and the content plane (one of the subsections of the elocutio canon). There are five canons in total.

Finding or inventing the material of speech or text

(inventory). Finding covers the entire set of mental operations associated with planning the content of a speech or text. The author needs to define and clarify the topic (if it is not set in advance), choose ways to disclose it, arguments in favor of the thesis being defended, and other elements of content.

The main criteria for selecting material are the author's communicative intention (intention) and the nature of the audience to which the author is going to address.

In the types of eloquence that serve an open competition of different points of view (primarily judicial and political), it is recommended to single out the main controversial point and build a speech around it. This main point must be tested through a series of so-called statuses: establishment status (the plaintiff alleges that the defendant insulted him, and the defendant denies the fact of the insult - the task of the judges is to establish whether the insult took place); determination status (with one definition of insult, the defendant's statement to the plaintiff may be considered an insult, but with another it cannot), qualification status (for example, judges must determine whether the limits of necessary defense have been exceeded) and some others.

In the old rhetoric, material was divided into specific cases (causa) and general issues (quaestio). The removal of the latter from the former was carried out by abstraction from the specific circumstances of the case. For example, from the specific case “candidate N was twice convicted of lying during the last election campaign”, one can deduce the general question “is it permissible to lie in the name of gaining power?” General questions, in turn, are divided into practical (as in the above example) and theoretical, for example, "what is the purpose of man?" Modern writings on rhetoric attempt to refine this subdivision of material. It is proposed, in particular, to distinguish between encyclopedic, empirical material, “based on data obtained by the author himself”, and comparative, “bringing the empirical and encyclopedic into conformity”.

Depending on the role of the material in the development of the topic and on the attitude of the listeners towards it, the old and new rhetoric determine the degrees of likelihood that the material must correspond to. A high degree of credibility should be distinguished by material important for the development and explanation of the topic. This degree is achieved by selecting familiar material that meets the expectations of listeners or readers. The thesis itself and the strongest arguments in its favor should have the highest degree of credibility. highest degree plausibility is achieved with the help of a paradox or an unexpected question, presenting the thesis as true, and its opposite as a lie. A low degree of credibility may differ in material that is not of interest to listeners or readers, but which the author nevertheless includes in the text to achieve meaningful completeness. An indefinite degree of credibility can distinguish material that is dangerous, inconvenient, indecent, etc., to present to a given audience. The author must say that he is not sure of the truth of this material. Finally, a hidden degree of plausibility distinguishes the material, the assessment of which is beyond the limits of the intellectual capabilities of this audience.

The ways of revealing the topic include, in particular, whether the topic will be presented in a problematic form or descriptively, in the form of dispassionate logical reasoning or emotionally. These different ways, old and new rhetoric trace back to sources or modes of persuasiveness. There are three such modes: logos, ethos and pathos.

Logos is a conviction through an appeal to reason, a sequence of arguments built according to the laws of logic.

Ethos is persuasion through appeal to moral principles recognized by the audience. Since the general moral principles and values ​​are known (justice, honesty, respect for sacred things, devotion to the motherland, etc.), the author who wants to build a conviction in ethos has only to choose the principles that suit the occasion and are closest to the audience.

Paphos means the excitation of emotion or passion, on the basis of which conviction occurs. The doctrine of the arousal of passions was developed already in the old rhetoric. Emotions were described whose success in arousing meant success in persuasion: joy, anger, hope, fear, sadness, enthusiasm, courage, pride, etc.

Rhetoric recommends, in general, selecting material in such a way as to activate all three modes of persuasiveness. The text should present a logical sequence of reasoning, the arguments should be based on moral principles and appeal to the emotions of the audience. At the same time, the modes of persuasion must be brought into harmony with each other and with the theme. Excited emotions should correspond to the theme. Sharp jumps from rational persuasion to emotional speech are unacceptable - smooth transitions are needed.

The first canon of the rhetorical development of speech also includes a subsection on the content sources of the invention of the material, in particular, on the sources of the invention of arguments and arguments. These sources are arranged in a hierarchy - from the most abstract to the most concrete. At the highest level of abstraction are the so-called general terms and Conditions cases described by a sequence of questions: Who? What? Where? How? By whom? Through what? When? What for? Why? Each of the questions sets the area for further meaningful clarifications. These clarifications are called rhetorical places or topoi (Greek topoi, Latin loci). In modern university rhetoric, they are also called "semantic models" or "schemes", and the subsection itself is called a topic. Topoi are particular standardized aspects of the consideration of any topic. In rhetoric, during the period of its existence, a fairly large number of places have accumulated, which, nevertheless, are reducible to a foreseeable number of groups. One possible grouping looks like this:

1) Conditions: Who? What?

Topoi: definition of the subject; genus and species; part and whole; identity, similarity and comparison - similarities and differences, etc.

An example of the development of the topic: subject (what?) - a computer; audience (for whom?) - for philologists; computer definition, internal architecture (central processing unit, read-only memory, etc.); peripherals, multi-computer networks, wide area network, etc. Comparison: computer and abacus, computer and TV, computer and mobile phone ( general functions) etc.

2) Terms: How? By whom? Through what?

Topoi: methods, method and mode of action, interrelated subjects and objects, tools, etc.

Example: principles of operation of a computer (transmission of electrical signals, semiconductor matrices, optical signal, digital signal coding), the role of a human operator, software.

3) Terms: Where? When?

Topoi: place - geographically, socially (in what strata of society); distance (near-far); time (morning-day-night), era (modern, classical), etc.

Example: the history of the emergence of a computer, the country where computers first appeared, social structures (at first, only industrial and official use). Time of occurrence: 20th century. Calculating machines of past centuries, etc.

4) Conditions: Why? Why?

Topoi: causes, goals, intentions, consequences, etc.

Example: why computers appeared, what they are used for today, what global computerization can lead to, consequences in the form of information wars, etc.

The compiler of a speech or text can fill in each group of places depending on his own needs, excluding some topoi or adding new ones. It must also be borne in mind that the structure of places is in no way identical to the structure of the speech or text itself. This is just an auxiliary structure that helps to select meaningful content.

In modern didactic rhetoric, one can find the identification of the concepts of “places” (loci) and “common places” (loci communes). Meanwhile, in theoretical rhetoric, starting from Aristotle, these concepts are not identical. By "common places" is meant not standardized aspects of the consideration of any topic, but meaningfully defined places that served "for the emotional strengthening of already existing arguments ... arguments about the need to honor the gods, laws, state, precepts of ancestors, as well as about the disastrous damage that threatens these strongholds of human society if the accused is not convicted (according to the accuser) or acquitted (according to the defense). Due to the abstractness of their content, these motives could equally develop in speeches for any reason: hence their name ”(M.L. Gasparov).

The method of distribution and enrichment of the content found with the help of the technique of rhetorical places is called rhetorical amplification.

Location or composition of material

(dispositio). This part includes the doctrine of the order of arrangement and the main blocks of the structure of text or speech. The basis of the canon "arrangement" was the doctrine of hriya, or the composition of speech. On the basis of the doctrine of hriya, such modern disciplines as the doctrine of literary composition and the theory of composition as part of the theory of the text arose.

There are from three main blocks of the structure of a text or speech (introduction - main part - conclusion) to seven (introduction - definition of the topic with its subdivisions - presentation - digression - argumentation or proof of one's own thesis - refutation - conclusion). To these blocks, you can add another block - the title of the text.

Detailed division is used for texts related to functional varieties of language (scientific and business speech, journalism). It is not always applicable to the analysis of works of art. To designate the structural compositional parts of the latter in literary criticism, another series of terms is more often used: beginning - plot - culmination - denouement - ending.

1. Title. As a separate block in traditional rhetoric, it did not stand out. The importance of titles has increased with the development of the rhetoric of mass communication. Here, the title (or the name of the TV program) has come to be seen as a means of drawing the attention of the addressee to the text of a newspaper publication or to a television program in the context of an alternative choice associated with a constant increase in the number of messages arriving to the addressee.

2. Introduction. Its function is to psychologically prepare the audience for the perception of the topic. The introduction is recommended to build in such a way as to immediately interest the audience in the topic and form favorable psychological conditions for its presentation. To do this, you can justify the choice of topic, express respect for the audience and opponents, show the general content background against which the topic will be deployed. Depending on the type of audience, the nature of the topic and the situation of communication, the author must choose one of the types of introduction: usual (for some types of texts there is standard form introductions), short, restrained, non-standard (paradoxical), solemn, etc.

It should also be noted here that the introduction, like some other structural blocks (for example, argumentation), can be present in the text either only once, or accompany the introduction of each new subtopic.

3. Definition of the topic and its division. Here the author directly defines what he is going to talk about or write next, and lists critical issues that he wants to highlight (aspects of the topic). In a number of genres of special communication (educational lecture, scientific article), a plan for further communication can be proposed here. A topic subdivision must meet a number of criteria: be logically appropriate; contain only essential, approximately equivalent aspects of the topic. If the main task is to convince the audience, rhetoric recommends building the division in ascending order: from the least convincing to the most convincing aspects of the topic. The definition of the topic and thesis can follow both before the presentation and after it, anticipating the argument.

Direct naming of the theme is not necessary for philosophical and artistic works. Moreover, indicating the topic, especially at the very beginning, can negatively affect the effectiveness of the impact of such works on the audience.

4. Presentation. A consistent story about the various aspects of the subject in accordance with the presented plan. There are two methods of presentation: (1) the natural, plot, historical or chronological method, when the author presents the selected facts in their chronological or other natural sequence (first cause, then effect, etc.); (2) an artificial, plot or philosophical method, when the author deviates from the natural sequence and follows the theme development logic created by him, wanting to increase the entertaining, conflict content of the message, to keep the audience's attention with the help of the effect of violated expectation. At the same time, after a message about an event later in time, a message about an earlier event can follow, after a story about consequences, a story about causes, etc.

5. Retreat or digression, digression. Here, a subject is briefly described that is only indirectly related to the main topic, but about which the author considers it necessary to tell the audience. It is not a mandatory compositional part. The exact place of retreat in the composition is also not fixed. Usually, the digression is located either in the course of the presentation, or after the presentation and before the argument. A digression can be used to relieve mental tension if the topic requires serious intellectual efforts by the audience and the author, or emotional release if the author accidentally or intentionally touched on a topic that is emotionally unsafe in this audience.

6. Argumentation and refutation. Argumentation is understood as a collection of arguments in favor of the thesis in its compositional unity and the process of presenting these arguments. Refutation - the same argument, but with the "opposite sign", i.e. a collection of arguments against the antithesis defended by the opponent, or, if the main antithesis is not formulated, against possible doubts and objections regarding the thesis, as well as the process of presenting these arguments.

Both Aristotle and neo-orators consider argumentation (including refutation) to be the most important compositional block, since it belongs to it. the main role in persuading the audience, and, consequently, in achieving rhetorical goals as such. The doctrine of argumentation was actively developed already in the old rhetoric. In the new rhetoric, the theory of argumentation is its main part.

The most important distinction in the theory of argumentation is the distinction between proof, demonstration, or logical argumentation on the one hand, and rhetorical, dialectical argumentation, or just argumentation, on the other. The proof is carried out according to the formal rules of logic: the laws of logical inference, the rules for constructing a syllogism, and general logical laws. The case when the author manages to deduce the truth of the thesis by means of a formal proof is considered as almost ideal. “Almost”, since rhetoricians and especially non-orators admit that logically rigorous proof is a necessary but not always sufficient condition for the success of persuasion (if the audience, for example, is hostile and fundamentally unwilling to agree, or if, due to its low intellectual level, it is not able to understand that the thesis has already been proven). More often, however, a formal proof of the thesis is impossible. In this case, the author has to resort to rhetorical argumentation. So, convincing the audience of the heads of chemical enterprises of the need for them to implement measures to protect environment, it is not enough to simply prove (based on the data of chemical and biological sciences) that the substances emitted by their enterprises are harmful to living organisms. This evidence needs to be supported by an illustration, for example, how contact with such a substance can end for the children of one or another leader, as well as a mention of sanctions that threaten those who do not take the necessary measures to neutralize emissions.

Rhetorical arguments differ primarily in terms of topoi (places), with the help of which they can be invented or selected. On this basis, one can first of all distinguish two large groups: arguments originating from "external" places (observation, illustration, example and evidence) and arguments originating from "internal" places (deductive, in particular, causal, genus-species etc. argumentation, assimilation and opposition). V modern theory argumentation, the first group is otherwise called empirical, and the second - theoretical argumentation (A.A. Ivin). There are other general classes of rhetorical arguments: analogy, dilemma, induction, as well as contextual arguments: tradition and authority, intuition and faith, common sense and taste (A.A. Ivin).

From the point of view of the modern theory of argumentation (H. Perelman), the choice of one or another formal variety of a rhetorical argument directly depends on the content that the author wants to put into it.

As for the research interest of the modern argumentation theory, it is aimed primarily at studying the most difficult cases, for example, the impossibility of formal proofs of the truth of moral judgments or judgments about values. The study of this class of judgments is especially important for legal argumentation dealing with normative propositions.

The refutation can use the same types of arguments, but with the opposite sign (for example, the head of a chemical enterprise claims that the benefits of his enterprise's products for the country's economy are immeasurably higher than the harm caused by pollution of a local reservoir). The best refutation is when the inconsistency of the thesis is deduced formally and logically. Along with logical proof and the standard methods of rhetorical argumentation listed above, there is an extensive set of techniques used primarily to refute the antithesis (“argument to personality”, “argument to ignorance”, “argument to strength”, misleading verbose empty reasoning, manipulation of ambiguity words, substitution of concepts for homonymous ones, etc.). Their rhetoric does not recommend using them for ethical reasons, but you should know them in order to recognize them from your opponent. Similar techniques were used by the sophists in ancient Greece. For their study, a special applied rhetorical discipline has developed - eristics. The material accumulated by eristics has become an object of interest for modern argumentation theory. Since the sophists did not make detailed lists of their tricks and tricks (otherwise the demand for their teaching services would have decreased), a detailed description and systematization of tricks belongs to later times. Among the well-known works in this area is A. Schopenhauer's brochure Eristic.

Along with the doctrine of techniques, argumentation theory also studies the logical fallacies of argumentation. The latter include, for example, a contradiction in the definition of the type of oxymoron ( living Dead), definition of the unknown through the unknown ( zhrugr is a Russian witchraor), negation instead of definition ( a cat is not a dog), tautology, etc.

7. Conclusion. In the conclusion, the main content of the text is briefly repeated, the strongest arguments are reproduced, the necessary emotional state of the listeners is reinforced and their positive attitude towards the thesis is reinforced. Depending on which of these tasks the author considers the most important, he can choose the appropriate type of conclusion: summarizing, typifying or appealing.

Verbal expression or diction

(elocutio). The part of rhetoric most closely related to linguistic problems is the canon "verbal expression", since it is here that the organization of specific linguistic material is considered, up to the selection of words and the structure of individual sentences.

A verbal expression must meet four criteria: correctness (meet the rules of grammar, spelling and pronunciation), clarity (consist of commonly understood words in generally accepted combinations, if possible, do not include abstract, borrowed and other words that may not be clear to the audience), elegance or embellishment (be more aesthetic than everyday speech) and appropriateness. Relevance in traditional rhetoric was reduced to the harmony of the topic and the choice of language means, primarily vocabulary. From the requirement of appropriateness grew the theory of three styles, according to which low-style subjects should be spoken of with low-style words, high-level subjects with high-style ones, and neutral objects with medium-style words.

These components of the canon "verbal expression" formed the basis of modern science of the culture of speech.

The most voluminous part of the old, especially medieval, rhetoric was one subsection of the canon "verbal expression" - the doctrine of figures. The opinion was expressed that all "verbal expression" and in general all rhetoric, without a trace, can be reduced to the doctrine of figures.

There are about a hundred of the figures themselves, however, the simultaneous use of Latin and Greek names, to which were added names from new languages, led to the fact that for the designation of these figures over the centuries it began to be used significantly. more duplicate or synonymous terms.

Even in antiquity, attempts were repeatedly made to classify the figures.

First of all, figures of thought were separated, which later became isolated under the name of tropes (metaphor, metonymy, etc.), and figures of speech. The latter were subdivided, according to Quintilian, into figures based on the form of speech (grammatical figures) and figures based on the principles of word placement. Other common classifications included the division into word figures (alliteration, assonance) and sentence figures (parcellation, ellipsis, polyunion, non-union, etc.). Some of the figures of the sentence later began to be considered in two ways, depending on the characteristics of a particular language, the nature and purpose of use: on the one hand, as rhetorical figures, and on the other, as means of constructional syntax. Of the modern classifications, the most promising are the classifications of figures according to the procedures for transforming the expression plan and the content plan corresponding to each of them. Authors General rhetoric offer to distinguish figures based on reduction, addition, reduction with addition and permutations (J. Dubois). V.N.Toporov gives the following classification of transformation methods: repetition of aaa... (for example, polyunion), alternation of abab... (parallel syntactic constructions), addition of abc with ab (expletion), reduction of ab with abc (ellipsis), symmetry ab/ba (chiasmus), expansion a > a 1 a 2 a 3, folding a 1 a 2 a 3 > a, etc.

The canon “verbal expression” ended with the doctrine of the amplification of a linguistic expression (the amplification of the content plan was related to the topic), in particular, through the sharing of figures, and the doctrine of the rhetorical period.

memory, remembering

(memory).This canon was intended for speakers who needed to memorize speeches prepared by them for subsequent public reproduction, and was more psychological than philological in nature. It contained a list of techniques that made it possible to memorize relatively large amounts of textual information, mainly based on complex visual images.

performance, pronunciation

(action). Appearance of the speaker. The section on performance included information and skills that today are part of the theory of acting: mastery of the voice - its accent-intonation richness, facial expressions, the art of posture and gesture. Complex requirements were formulated for the behavior of the speaker: to demonstrate charm, artistry, self-confidence, friendliness, sincerity, objectivity, interest, enthusiasm, etc.

Rhetoric and related disciplines.

Rhetoric, like linguistics, belongs to the circle of semiotic sciences (see the works of V.N. Toprov, Yu.M. Lotman). The style and culture of speech are separate and independently developing subsections of the old rhetoric. The problems of a number of other disciplines, philological and non-philological, intersect with the problems of rhetoric. These are: the syntax of superphrasal units and the linguistics of the text, the linguistic theory of expressiveness, the linguistic theory of prose, but also the logical sciences, especially modern non-classical logics, psycholinguistics, the psychology of memory and emotions, etc.

The circle of traditional rhetorical disciplines includes eristics, dialectics and sophistry. The disciplines of the neorhetorical cycle include linguistic theory argumentation, the study of communication, general semantics (general semantics), structural poetics, literary text analysis within the framework of new criticism, etc.

Brief historical essay and personalities.

Rhetoric as a systematic discipline developed in ancient Greece during the era of Athenian democracy. During this period, the ability to speak in public was considered necessary quality every rightful citizen. Therefore, Athenian democracy can be called the first rhetorical republic. Separate elements of rhetoric (for example, fragments of the doctrine of figures, forms of argumentation) arose even earlier in ancient India and ancient China, but they were not brought together into a single system and did not play such an important role in society.

It is customary to trace the beginning of rhetoric to the 460s BC. and associate with the activities of the senior sophists Corax, Tisias, Protagoras and Gorgias. Corax allegedly wrote a textbook that has not come down to us The art of persuasion, and Tisias opened one of the first schools for teaching eloquence.

Protagoras

(c. 481–411 BC) is credited as one of the first to study deriving a conclusion from premises. He was also one of the first to use a form of dialogue in which the interlocutors defend opposing points of view. belong to works that have not come down to us The Art of Arguing, About the sciences and others. It was he who introduced the formula “The measure of all things is man” (the beginning of his work True).

Gorgias

(c. 480–380 BC) was a student of Corax and Thissias. He is considered the founder or at least the discoverer of figures as one of the main objects of rhetoric. He himself actively used figures of speech (parallelism, homeoteleuton, i.e. uniform endings, etc.), tropes (metaphors and comparisons), as well as rhythmically constructed phrases. Gorgias narrowed down the subject of rhetoric, which was too vague for him: unlike other sophists, he claimed that he did not teach virtue and wisdom, but only oratory. was the first to teach rhetoric in Athens. His essay has been preserved. About non-existent or about nature and speech Praise to Elena and Justification of Palamedes.

fox

(c. 415-380 BC) is considered the creator of judicial speech as a special type of eloquence. His presentation was distinguished by brevity, simplicity, logic and expressiveness, symmetrical construction of phrases. Of his approximately 400 speeches, 34 have survived, but the authorship of some of them is disputed.

Isocrates

(c. 436-388 BC) is considered the founder of "literary" rhetoric - the first rhetorician who paid primary attention to writing. He was one of the first to introduce the concept of the composition of an oratorical work. In his school, the allocation of four compositional blocks was adopted. The features of his style are complex periods, which, however, have a clear and precise construction and therefore are easily accessible for understanding, rhythmic articulation of speech and an abundance of decorative elements. The rich embellishment made Isocrates' speeches somewhat ponderous to hear. However, as a literary reading they were popular, as evidenced by the large number of lists on papyri.

Plato

(427-347 BC) rejected the value relativism of the sophists and noted that the main thing for a rhetor is not copying other people's thoughts, but his own comprehension of the truth, finding his own path in oratory. His main dialogues on rhetoric are Phaedrus and Gorgias. In them, he noted that the main task of oratory is persuasion, meaning primarily emotional persuasion. He emphasized the importance of a harmonious composition of speech, the speaker's ability to separate the paramount from the unimportant and take this into account in speech. Turning to the analysis of the practice of judicial rhetoric, Plato noted that here the orator should not seek the truth (which is of no interest to anyone in the courts), but strive for the maximum likelihood of his arguments.

Aristotle

(384-322 BC) completed the transformation of rhetoric into a scientific discipline. He established an inextricable link between rhetoric, logic and dialectics, and among the most important features of rhetoric he singled out its “special dynamic expressiveness and approach to the reality of the possible and probabilistic” (A.F. Losev). In the main works devoted to rhetoric ( Rhetoric, Topeka and On sophistical rebuttals), pointed out the place of rhetoric in the system of sciences of antiquity and described in detail everything that formed the core of rhetorical teaching over the following centuries (types of arguments, categories of listeners, types of rhetorical speeches and their communicative goals, ethos, logos and pathos, style requirements, tropes , synonyms and homonyms, compositional blocks of speech, methods of proof and refutation, rules of dispute, etc.). Some of these questions after Aristotle were either perceived dogmatically, or were generally removed from rhetorical teaching. Their development was continued only by representatives of the new rhetoric, starting from the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to theorists in antiquity, an important role was played by practical orators who did not write theoretical works on rhetoric, but whose exemplary speeches were actively used in teaching. The most famous orator was Demosthenes (c. 384-322 BC).

In Greece, two styles of oratory developed - the richly decorated and flowery Asianism and the simple and restrained Atticism that arose as a reaction to the abuse of embellishment.

In the pre-Christian Latin oratory tradition, the most famous theorists of oratory are Cicero and Quintilian.

Cicero

(106-43 BC). The theory of rhetoric is presented mainly in five of his writings: About finding, Topeka- the application of the work of the same name by Aristotle to Roman oratorical practice, Speaker, brutus and About the speaker. In them, Cicero discusses the construction and content of speech, the choice of one of the styles in accordance with the content of speech, the period and sources of persuasion.

Quintilian

(c. 35-100 AD) owns the most complete ancient textbook on eloquence Institutio oratoria or Rhetorical instructions in 12 books. It systematizes all the knowledge accumulated by his time on the art of the orator. He defines rhetoric, characterizes its goals and objectives, writes about the communicative tasks of communication and persuasion, on the basis of which he considers three types of rhetorical organization of the message. Then he considers the main compositional blocks of the message, paying special attention to the analysis of argumentation and refutation, writes about ways to excite emotions and create the right moods, touches on issues of style and stylistic processing of the message. He devotes one of the books to the technique of pronunciation and memorization.

Aurelius Augustine

(354-430), one of the church fathers, taught rhetoric among other things before his conversion to Christianity. Becoming a Christian, he substantiated the importance of eloquence for the interpretation of biblical provisions and for Christian preaching. His reflections on the role of rhetoric in interpreting and explaining Christian doctrine are contained, in particular, in the treatise Dedoctrina christiana (About Christian Doctrine). In many ways, it can be considered his merit that rhetoric was not rejected by Christians and continued to be developed in the Christian era.

In the Middle Ages, rhetoric became one of the "seven free sciences" in Varro's system of sciences, taught in schools and universities. These seven sciences were divided into two groups: trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectics) and quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy). The teaching of the sciences of the trivium continued in theological and secular schools until the 19th century.

Pierre Ramyu

(1515-1572) tried to revise the ancient doctrine of the three styles. He argued that any subject can be written in each of the three styles (which was rejected by the ancient tradition). He used the term "rhetoric" for the three components of communication (diction, memory and action), the purpose of which is persuasion. His followers defined rhetoric as ars ornandi, i.e. the art of embellished speech. As a consequence, after Ramyu, rhetoric began to be reduced to the study of literary form and expression. Ramyu, being himself a logician, nevertheless believed that figures of speech are only ornamental and cannot be characterized as models of reasoning. The spread of his point of view led to the final dissociation of rhetoric from logic and philosophy for that period.

From the beginning of the 17th century the first written Russian rhetorical aids appear. The first Russian rhetoric (1620) is a translation from Latin of the rhetoric of one of the leaders of the Reformation, F. Melanchthon (1497–1560). Another important textbook on eloquence was Rhetoric attributed to Metropolitan Macarius.

The original concept of Russian rhetoric was proposed by M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765) in A short guide to rhetoric(1743) and A short guide to eloquence(1747). In these books, the Russian scientific terminology of rhetoric was finally fixed. From the second half of the 18th to the middle of the 19th centuries. many (according to the bibliography of V.I. Annushkin - over a hundred titles, not counting reprints) textbooks, manuals and theoretical works on rhetoric came out. Largest number The following works have been reprinted: Experience in rhetoric, composed and taught at the St. Petersburg Mining School(1st edition - 1796) by I.S. Rizhsky (1759–1811); General rhetoric(1829) and private rhetoric(1832) by N.F. Koshansky (1784 or 1785–1831), later republished with the participation of K.P. Zelenetsky, known for his own rhetorical writings, and Brief rhetoric(1809) A.F. Merzlyakova (1778–1830). Other theoretically important works of Russian rhetors were also known: Theory of eloquence for all kinds of prose writings(1830) A.I. Galich, who included “psychological, aesthetic and ethical principles in the consideration of rhetoric”, Rules of Higher Eloquence(manuscript 1792, published in 1844) M.M. Speransky, Foundations of Russian literature(1792) A.S. Nikolsky (1755–1834) and Readings about literature(1837) I.I. Davydov (1794–1863).

In the West, the Age of Enlightenment was the era of the decline of rhetoric. Rhetoric acquired the reputation of being a dogmatic discipline of no practical value, and if used, it was only to mislead listeners. Interest in rhetoric was lost. The situation changed only in the first half of the 20th century, under the influence of radical economic and political transformations in the life of society, which put forward new requirements for speech practice.

The revival of rhetoric in the 20th century. started in the USA. He is associated, first of all, with the activities of I.A. Richards and K. Burke. The work of I.A.Richards Philosophy of rhetoric(1936) showed the relevance and social significance of "persuasive" rhetoric, and the works of K. Burke (in particular, Rhetoric of motives) emphasized the importance of literary rhetoric.

The problematics of the new rhetoric was developed in the works of American propaganda theorists G. Laswell, W. Lippman, P. Lazarsfeld, K. Hovland and the founders of the management discipline "public relations" A. Lee, E. Bernays, S. Black and F. Jeffkins. From the very beginning of the rhetorical renaissance in the United States, the emphasis was on the rhetoric of the mass media (since rhetoric was seen as an effective tool for manipulating public opinion, i.e. an instrument of social power) and business rhetoric (negotiating, persuading a partner, etc.). In terms of the level of penetration of practical rhetoric into public life, the United States can be called a rhetorical superpower.

Nevertheless, the emergence of new rhetoric is associated with Europe - with the publication in France of the treatise by H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteka new rhetoric. Treatise on Argumentation(1958). In it, at the modern level of scientific knowledge, primarily logical, the rhetorical system of Aristotle received further critical development. H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tytek examined the connection between logic and argumentation, the concepts of audience, dialogue, ambiguity, presumptions, topoi, normativity, argumentation errors, categorized arguments and analyzed their individual categories in detail.

An important role in the modern theory of argumentation (also loosely called the theory of practical discourse) is occupied by the analysis of value judgments. In addition to H. Perelman and L. Olbrecht-Tyteka, R. L. Stevenson, R. Hare, S. Tulmin, K. Bayer devoted their works to this. These and other aspects of the theory of argumentation are also developed by A. Ness, F. van Eemeren, V. Brokridi and others.

Reputation among researchers is A guide to literary rhetoric(1960) G. Lausberg and methodologically important work General rhetoric(1970) of the Liege group "mu" (J. Dubois with colleagues). After the publication of the work of the Lieges, the new rhetoric is often called "general rhetoric".

In Russia, the crisis of rhetoric turned out to be shifted in time. It began around the middle of the 19th century and ended in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Despite this, in the 20s of the 20th century. in Russia, attempts were made to revive the theory of oratory. The world's first Institute of the Living Word was created with the participation of S.M. Bondi, V.E. Meyerhold, A.V. Lunacharsky, N.A. Engelgardt, L.V. Shcherba, L.P. Laboratory of Public Speech by K.A.Syunneberg. The rhetorical initiative did not receive support from official circles. A strange opposition has formed in the official theory of oratory. Rhetoric as a carrier of bad qualities began to be opposed to Soviet oratory as a carrier of good qualities: "In our time, rhetoric is a condemning definition of a pompous, outwardly beautiful, but little content work, speech, etc." ( Dictionary of literary terms. M., 1974, p. 324). At the same time, an objective and detailed analysis of even Soviet oratory was not encouraged.

Some important theoretical works on rhetoric in the 1960–1970s (S.S. Averintsev, G.Z. Apresyan, V.P. Vompersky and others) became the harbingers of the way out of the “rhetorical crisis”. In modern Russia, a significant number of works on didactic and theoretical rhetoric appear, which allows us to speak of a rhetorical renaissance. The authors of these works can be divided into five groups. The division is distinguished by a certain amount of conventionality, in particular because different works of one researcher sometimes make it possible to attribute him to different groups at the same time.

1. Supporters of the revival of traditional rhetoric as "the art of speaking eloquently", taking into account new scientific achievements. This is a significant part of the scientists involved in the teaching of rhetoric (V.I. Annushkin, S.F. Ivanova, T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, A.K. Mikhalskaya and many others). 2. Developers of the modern theory of argumentation, cognitive linguistics and the theory of speech influence (A.N. Baranov, P.B. Parshin, N.A. Bezmenova, G.G. Pocheptsov, V.Z. Demyankov, E.F. Tarasov and etc.). 3. Developers of individual rhetorical trends - the theory of figures, tropes, the theory of expressiveness (N.A. Kupina, T.V. Matveeva, A.P. Skovorodnikov, T.G. Khazagerov, etc.). 4. Methodologists of rhetoric (S.I. Gindin, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, E.A. Yunina and others). 5. Researchers of "literary rhetoric" - poetic language (M.L. Gasparov, V.P. Grigoriev, S.S. Averintsev, V.N. Toporov, etc.).

Rhetoric Perspectives.

In the future, apparently, one should expect the transformation of rhetoric as a modern semiotic discipline into a more "exact" science, to the extent that the criterion of accuracy is applicable to the humanities. This should be done through a detailed quantitative and qualitative description of the regularities in the structure of all existing types of text and speech genres. It is possible to create detailed catalogs of types of transformations of the expression plan and the content plan, a description of all possible structural types of natural language arguments. It is also interesting to study the predictive potential of rhetoric - to what extent, based on the capabilities of the discipline, it is possible to predict the qualities of new speech genres and types of texts that appear in connection with the emergence of new areas of social practice.

Ethical aspect: rhetoric, when used correctly, is an effective tool in the fight against linguistic aggression, demagoguery, and manipulation. Didactic rhetoric plays an important role here. Knowledge of the fundamentals of the disciplines of the rhetorical cycle will make it possible to recognize demagogic and manipulative propaganda techniques in the media and in private communication, and, therefore, effectively defend against them.

Leon Ivanov

Literature:

Ancient rhetoric. M., 1978
Dubois J. et al. General rhetoric. M., 1986
Perelman H., Olbrecht-Tyteka. L. From the book « New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation". - In the book: Language and modeling of social interaction. M., 1987
Graudina L.K., Miskevich G.I. Theory and practice of Russian eloquence. M., 1989
Toporov V.N. Rhetoric. Trails. Figures of speech. - In the book: Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990
Gasparov M.L. Cicero and ancient rhetoric. - In the book: Cicero Mark Tullius. Three treatises on oratory. M., 1994
Zaretskaya E.N. Rhetoric. Theory and practice of language communication. M., 1998
Ivin A.A. Fundamentals of the theory of argumentation. M., 1997
Annushkin V.I. History of Russian Rhetoric: Reader. M., 1998
Klyuev E.V. Rhetoric (Invention. Disposition. elocution). M., 1999
Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Theory of rhetoric. M., 1999
Lotman Yu.M. Rhetoric is a mechanism for generating meaning(section of the book "Inside the thinking worlds"). - In the book: Lotman Yu.M. Semiosphere. St. Petersburg, 2000



Elena Alexandrovna Kostromina

Elena Kostromina
Rhetoric

Introduction

Knowledge of the basics of rhetoric has become an important aspect in teaching such specialties that require the use of oral public speech in professional activities. V last years Special importance is attached to the communicative education of students, since it is seen as a guarantee of the development of a socially active personality. New economic and social conditions prompted the broad masses of the population to engage in commercial and organizational activities. This circumstance brought to the fore the need for training language forms business communication, increasing the linguistic competence of persons entering into social and legal relations, guiding the actions of people. Under market conditions, linguistic competence becomes an indispensable component of general professional training of managers, municipal employees, referents, social workers, and leaders at all levels.
The practice of professional speech skills is an integral element in the training of specialists in linguo-intensive professions, i.e. those whose activities use the word as their main tool.
The aim of the course is to give knowledge in the field of rhetoric as an applied linguistic science that studies the patterns of speech construction, setting itself the goal of teaching people to speak the language easily and beautifully. Particular attention is paid to business rhetoric, that is, the ability to negotiate, incl. telephone, keep up a business conversation, make a presentation, etc.
The study of the discipline involves the formation of students of the following skills and abilities:
the ability to analyze the speech situation and choose the most effective strategy of speech behavior;
the ability to analyze, control and improve one's speech behavior and speech in each specific speech situation;
the skill of using the system of stages of speech-thought about the object, presented in the rhetorical canon;
basic public speaking skills: audience assessment skills, self-control during speech, fluency in oneself and one's own word, etc.;
basic conversation skills: the skills of assessing the situation of speech and the interlocutor (interlocutors), finding speech contact and maintaining it throughout communication, quick response to the interlocutor’s remark, etc .;
basic active listening skills.
Purpose and place of discipline. Rhetoric is an author's course built on the basis of the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech". The program can be intended for students of all specialties. The course is designed to help students improve their speech culture and oratory skills.

Topic 1.
Rhetoric as a science and art

Eloquence is the art of speaking eloquently about any given matter and thereby incline others to one's own opinion about it.

M.V. Lomonosov

The concept of rhetoric as a science. The subject and tasks of rhetoric

The terms "rhetoric" (Greek rhetorike), "oratory" (Latin oratorare - "to speak"), "oratory" (obsolete, Old Slavonic), "eloquence" (Russian) are synonymous.
In the ancient sense, rhetoric is eloquence, the theory of eloquence, the science of oratory. Rhetoric originated in Greece in the 5th century BC, developed into a system in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC. and was developed in Rome in the 1st century. BC. The foundations of such sciences as philosophy, logic, pedagogy, linguistics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics are considered to be the basis of rhetoric. With the development of these sciences, the concept of rhetoric also changed. In ancient Greece, rhetoric was defined as the art of persuading listeners. In Rome - as the art of speaking well and beautifully (ars bene dicendi). In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was considered as the art of decorating oral and written speech (ars ornandi). In Russian rhetorical science, the ancient Greek tradition of defining rhetoric as the art of persuasion can be traced.
The goals of rhetoric also changed. Ancient rhetoric was born from the practice of socio-political and judicial speeches. In the Middle Ages, rhetoric was focused on writing letters and religious sermons. In the Renaissance, it spread to the entire field of artistic prose, became part of the liberal arts, and mastering the basics of eloquence was considered a sign of high education and culture.
Currently, the term "rhetoric" is used in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, rhetoric is an applied linguistic science that studies the patterns of speech, with the goal of teaching people to speak the language easily and beautifully. The Linguistic Dictionary defines rhetoric as a philological discipline that studies the ways of constructing artistically expressive speech.
Rhetoric in a broad sense is called neo-rhetoric (the term was introduced by the professor of the University of Brussels H. Perelman in 1958) or general rhetoric. Its development is caused by the emergence of new linguistic sciences - text linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, the theory of speech activity, psycholinguistics. Neo-rhetoric is looking for ways to apply these disciplines in practice, being developed at the intersection of linguistics, literary theory, logic, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, and psychology.
In the theory of modern eloquence, the ancient original core is revived - the concept of persuasion, the forms and methods of influence by means of oral and written speech are considered. The purpose of the updated rhetoric is to define the best options, optimal communication algorithms. For example, the roles of the participants in the dialogue, the mechanisms for generating speech, the language preferences of the speakers, etc. are investigated. Thus, neo-rhetoric is the science of persuasive communication.
So, the term "rhetoric" includes the concepts of "eloquence", "skill of public speaking" and "oratory". If eloquence means the ability to speak captivatingly, beautifully, convincingly, then the skill of public speaking is a higher level, which, along with the ability to speak beautifully and convincingly, implies the ability to control the situation of communication, knowledge of the psychology and sociology of the audience, etc.
Rhetoric taught and teaches how to communicate, express and develop thoughts logically and expressively, use words, how to use speech activity in personal life and social activities, how to speak to an audience. The theory of eloquence has always paid primary attention to oral, “live” contact.
Rhetoric as a science performs the following tasks:
1) search for optimal algorithms for communication, mutual understanding in the conditions of modern society;
2) study of the forms and mechanisms of speech;
3) the formation of a linguistic personality;
4) improving the culture of speech;
5) improvement of speech self-expression;
6) modeling of communication processes.

The concept of oratory

Traditionally, rhetoric was also considered an art, compared with poetry, acting on the basis of the importance of creativity, improvisation in speech, the aesthetic pleasure that public “thinking out loud” delivers. Such views are typical, for example, for Aristotle, Cicero, A.F. Horses.
Few are naturally gifted oratory, which is the key to successful practice. However, according to researchers E.A. Nozhina, N.N. Kokhteva, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky and others, every person has a “gene” of rhetorical abilities that can and should be developed.
Oratory in its modern sense is a set of knowledge and skills necessary for preparing and delivering a public speech in order to most fully express the communicative intention of the speaker and produce the desired impression on the audience.
In rhetoric, science and art form a complex alloy, a unity. That is why, after speakers - people who are able to speak beautifully and meaningfully on any proposed topic for an arbitrarily long time, rhetoricians began to appear in Ancient Greece - teachers of eloquence, who developed the theory of rhetoric as a science, and logographers - speechwriters for those who did not have such for nothing.

Genera and types of eloquence

By the volume of the problems under consideration, rhetoric can be divided into general rhetoric, which sets out the rhetorical rules for working on the plan, content and composition of speech, on the linguistic expression of thought and methods of public speaking; and private rhetoric, which deals with the rules of speech in relation to a certain area of ​​human activity: political, scientific, legal, diplomatic, etc.
Modern oratory distinguishes five types of eloquence: socio-political, academic, judicial (legal), social, everyday, theological and church. Some scientists distinguish military eloquence as a separate genus.
Within each genus, genres of oratory are distinguished, which are determined by the target setting of the speech and the composition of the audience (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1. Genera and types of eloquence

Rhetoric operates with concepts: language, speech, word. In the system of language education, rhetoric follows grammar. First they study grammar, then they move on to rhetoric. There is an essential methodological difference between grammar and rhetoric. Grammar, or linguistics, assumes that all people, using this or that language, must know its unity. Rhetoric assumes the opposite thesis: each creator of speech must be individual, not like others, communicate something new, hence the main requirement of rhetoric: obligatory novelty in the message.
Grammar and rhetoric are linked through stylistics. Stylistics is supposed to be both the correctness of speech and its attractiveness.

Rhetorical canon

The system of classical rhetoric covered the process from the initial preparation of a public speech to its execution and consisted of five parts. This structure, which is called the rhetorical canon, can be traced in modern general rhetoric:
1. Invention (lat. discovery, invention) includes the choice of a topic, its name, the collection and systematization of empirical material. It involves understanding the speech, dividing it into a number of subtopics. That is, at the first stage (invention), all wealth, the presence of ideas, is recorded. For this, there are so-called "common places" (tops - semantic models of speech development). Top is a system of concepts that suggests ways of thinking about any speech.
2. Disposition (lat. location) provides for the choice of the genre of public speaking, drawing up a plan, composition of the text. The composition is the logic of the development of the theme. It involves the regrouping of ideas and their construction in the order in which they would fulfill the main task of speech.
Of course, there are no universal rules for constructing a public speech. The composition will change depending on the topic, goals and objectives of the speaker, on the composition of the audience.
The basic rule of composition is the logical sequence and harmony of the presentation of the material.
3. Elocution (lat. verbal expression) is a stage of verbal formation of speech. The third part of rhetoric considers the doctrine of the selection of words and their combination, of tropes and rhetorical figures, of speech styles, of the use of visual means language. The semantic, semantic, stylistic, sound selection of words is important.
4. Memorio (lat. memorization) - the doctrine of the memory of the speaker, methods of memorizing the text and its reproduction.
5. Accio (lat. pronunciation, performance) - speaking in public, mastering the means of expressiveness of oral speech, recommendations for establishing contact with the audience, the behavior of the speaker in the audience. Assumes mastery of the technique of speech.

Ethos, pathos and logos as the main categories of classical rhetoric

The above diagram is a method for preparing oral speech and its pronunciation. There is another scheme in which reality is affected, speech turns into a process of social life.
The terms "ethos", "pathos", "logos" are basic for general rhetoric. ethos it is customary to name the conditions that the recipient of the speech offers to its creator. These conditions relate to the time, place, timing of the speech, and this determines the part of the content of the speech, at least its topic, which the recipient of the speech may consider appropriate or inappropriate. The recipient of the speech has the right to reject inappropriate speech. The main sign of relevance is the topic of speech, provided that the time, place and timing of speech are agreed between the participants in speech communication.
pathos it is customary to call the intention, the intention of the creator of the speech, who has the goal of developing a specific and interesting topic for the recipient. Paphos encourages the audience to experience the subject of speech. Scientists distinguish three main types of rhetorical pathos: sentimental, heroic-romantic and realistic. Paphos is limited to the category of ethos on the one hand, i.e. can be realized only within its place and time. Another limitation of pathos is the verbal means available to the creator to establish contact with the recipient of the speech.
Logos it is customary to name the verbal means used by the creator of speech in this speech in the implementation of the idea of ​​speech. Logos requires, in addition to the embodiment of the idea, to use such verbal means, the understanding of which would be accessible to the recipient of the speech.
Thus, ethos creates the conditions for speech, pathos is the source of creating the meaning of speech, and logos is the verbal embodiment of pathos on the terms of ethos.
Let us illustrate this with examples: Francis of Assisi preached to the birds. His pathos was not constrained by anything, but the birds did not offer the preacher any conditions of ethos, and therefore the very embodiment of pathos into logos in the sermon did not affect anyone. Here is an example of pure pathos.
Gulliver ended up in the Guingm country. The Guingmas are polite creatures, they allowed Gulliver to speak, but he did not know the Guingmas language, so he could not explain his thoughts to them. Here is an example of the need for a logos.
The fool from the fairy tale greeted the funeral procession with the words: "To drag you - not to drag" and was beaten. These words he learned from the people involved in the harvest, and applied inappropriately. Here is an example of ethos.
These are literary examples. Now a real life example. The meeting is scheduled at a specific place, at a specific time and on a specific topic. This is ethos. The idea of ​​speech at the meeting participant should be thought out by him in connection with the time, place and topic of the meeting. This is pathos. Meeting attendees should only use language that everyone understands. Thus, at the Academic Council of Kiev University one can speak both in Ukrainian and Russian, and at the Academic Council of Columbia University one can speak only in English. This is the logo.
The three main categories of rhetoric - ethos, pathos, logos - are in connection with each other and, as it were, pass one into another.

Topic 2
Brief history of rhetoric

Rhetoric in Ancient Greece

The history of rhetoric is associated with the names of the greatest thinkers of mankind. The formation of rhetoric as a science took place in Ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. and was connected with the needs of a democratic society of the highest culture. The republican form of government made eloquence the most important and necessary art. In the Athenian state, almost all political decisions were made by the people's assembly, and the speakers needed to be able to convince the people of the correctness of one or another choice. Prominent political orators were Pericles, Themistocles, Demosthenes. Judicial decisions in Greece also depended on how eloquently the parties could prove their position and tilt the court in their favor.
The development of judicial eloquence in ancient Greece was facilitated by the laws of the Athenian ruler Solon, published in 594 BC, which introduced an adversarial trial. Since the institution of prosecutors did not exist, anyone could act as an accuser, and the accused had to defend himself. Speaking before the judges, who numbered more than 500 people, the accused sought not so much to convince them of his innocence, but to pity them, to win them over to his side. In order to create an impression of objectivity and somehow neutralize the psychological impact, the court session in Athens was scheduled for the evening, when the faces of the speakers were not visible.
The conditions of the judicial procedure in ancient Athens were difficult, besides, not everyone had the gift of speech, and this prompted citizens to learn how to speak to an audience. The greatest court orators were Protagoras (c. 481–411 BC), Lysias (c. 435–380 BC), Gorgias (c. 480–c. 380 BC). e.), Demosthenes (384-322 BC), who, speaking at first only with judicial speeches, then became involved in the political life of Athens. Demosthenes was not only a recognized orator, but also a leading political figure.
The greatest Greek philosophers were also teachers of eloquence: Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC).
Later, a theoretical generalization of oratorical practice began to gradually take shape, a collection of rules and teaching methods. The analysis of a large empirical material was done by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who in 335 BC. wrote "Rhetoric". The work of Aristotle consists of 3 parts: 1) analysis of the principles on the basis of which speech is built; 2) personal properties and abilities necessary for the speaker; 3) speech technique, methods and techniques used in oratory. Aristotle is considered the founder of the argument theory. In rhetoric he distinguished dialectic - the art of arguing in order to find out the truth, eristic - the art of remaining right in an argument at all costs and sophistry - the desire to achieve victory in the dispute through the deliberate use of false arguments.

The development of rhetoric in ancient Rome

Oratory was further developed in ancient Rome in the 1st century BC. BC. In the galaxy of the most famous ancient Roman orators, the star of the first magnitude was Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - the head of the Roman Senate, the author of three treatises: "The Orator", "On the Orator", "Brutus". From the writings of Cicero, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy, and more than 800 letters have been preserved.
Another Roman orator and eloquent theorist is Marcus Fabius Quintilian (AD 35–95), who wrote the Rhetorical Instructions, consisting of 12 books and covering the experience of several centuries. The books reflected problems that were not considered by his predecessors: about the education of a future speaker, about the honor of a citizen speaker, about “decency” in a word.

Rhetoric in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

The Middle Ages is considered the next period in the history of eloquence, reflecting the movements of social thought in its contradictions and diverse attempts to implement it. The traditions of ancient rhetoric have largely been forgotten or even lost. However, oratory did not die. Rhetoric developed in France, Germany, Italy. Spiritual eloquence received special development. In the V-VI centuries. AD Christianity became a huge spiritual force that influenced millions of people. In the 7th-8th centuries, another religion, Islam, spread with incredible speed. Christian and Islamic preaching has become a paramount factor in the development of the spoken word. Major theological speakers grew up in the field of church preaching - Tertullian, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Boethius. Their speeches formed the basis homiletics - theories of church eloquence. The main object of rhetoric was the creation of liturgical texts, the interpretation of various issues of dogma, the technique of conducting theological disputes.
The most significant figure is the famous John Chrysostom (d. 407), who was considered the ideal Byzantine preacher. The very nickname "Chrysostom" indicates a highly respectful attitude to the publicly spoken word and the veneration of people who owned it and knew how to influence listeners through lively speech.
A new serious contribution to the theory of rhetoric was made in the 13th century by Thomas Aquinas, who pointed out the importance of common sense and logic as the foundation on which the building of Christian dogma should be built.
During the Middle Ages, essays on epistolary art and poetics were regularly published.
The next stage in the development of rhetoric is the Renaissance, which is characterized by the appearance of works in national European languages, in contrast to medieval Latin. The dominant feature of the development of rhetoric in this period is its "literaryization". Parts of the rhetorical canon: invention, arrangement, verbal expression, memorization, pronunciation - began to be considered as separate independent areas of rhetorical science. In the works of the French philosopher and logician Pierre de la Rama, such sections as elocution and action were actively developed.

The formation of Russian rhetoric

In the Middle Ages, European rhetorical ideas penetrated into Russia through Poland and Ukraine. The development of Russian rhetoric has acquired particular importance in the history of the normalization of the Russian literary language, in the development of real social and communicative forms of communication between Russians.
In Russia, eloquence was called broadcasting, which developed mainly at public meetings - veche.
In addition to broadcasting, such types of eloquence as solemn (or praiseworthy), military and diplomatic speeches also developed.
The basis of ancient Russian eloquence was folk traditions, and with the adoption of Christianity in 988 - Byzantine and South Slavic samples. Some texts have come down to us that testify to the high culture of oral speech. Ancient Russian eloquence was characterized by such traditions as high respect for verbal skill, moral and instructive pathos, the belief that the gift of the word is a great virtue, God's gift; meekness, humility in public speech and conversation, high emotional intensity of appeals and appeals, complete absence of servility and flattery.
The first Russian manuals on rhetoric were written by Bishop Macarius (1617–1619), M.I. Usachev (1699), Feofan Prokopovich (two works - “De arte poetica” (1705), “De arte rhetorica” (1706). Their rhetoric textbooks were used in schools opened at churches and for teaching future clergy, in particular in the Kiev Theological Seminary.In the XVII-XVIII centuries, with the general development of culture and science, wide use received rhetoric. One of the brightest representatives of the rhetorical tradition of that time was Prototop Avvakum (1612–1682). Avvakum was the ideologist and leader of the Old Believers movement in Russia. We learn about the "word" of Avvakum from his work "Life" and from his correspondence with the noblewoman Morozova.
The rise of rhetoric scientific discipline inseparable from the name of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of A Brief Guide to Eloquence (1748), which was reprinted twice during his lifetime (1759, 1765). This work presents a set of rules that were proposed to be followed in oral and written works on state, social and religious and philosophical topics. Lomonosov's rhetoric played a positive role in the further development of Russian oratory. Lomonosov connected rhetoric with the Russian language, with the Russian tradition, made it a Russian science. In the subsequent period, no work appeared that was equal in scientific merits to Lomonosov's.
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, a rhetorical school of Russian academicians developed, and then a university school of eloquence. The most significant rhetoricians of that time are associated with the names of Academicians M.M. Speransky, A.S. Nikolsky, I.S. Riga.
Speransky's rhetoric was written in 1792 and published in 1844 under the title "Rules of Higher Eloquence". The book is dedicated to the art of church preaching. The rhetoric of academician Rizhsky should be recognized as outstanding for its time. His "Experience in Rhetoric" was published in 1796 and was reprinted several more times. A special place in this book was occupied by questions of the purity and correctness of Russian speech.
In the history of the development of Russian rhetoric, the period of the first half of the XIX century. turned out to be the most productive. Under the influence of N.M. Karamzin, focused on rapprochement with the European tradition, there was a formation of a new stylistic concept of the literary language. This was reflected in the views on rhetoric in the works of N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K. Zelenetsky and others. It is during this period that at least 16 manuals on rhetoric fall, and it is this period that is called the “golden age of Russian rhetoric”.
Special impulses for the development of rhetorical ideas in Russia were given in the 1960s. XIX century, when the formation and formation of judicial eloquence took place, which was facilitated by the judicial reform of 1864. K. Arseniev, A.F. Koni, B. Glinsky, P. Sergeich, F.N. Plevako.
In the first years of Soviet power, there was a rise in and interest in the spoken word. In 1918, the Institute of the Living Word was even created, but it did not last long. The content and form required by rhetoric were replaced by the revolutionary passion and conviction of the orator.
In general, the art of the public word in the XX century. in Russia is associated with the development of academic eloquence.
Intensive development of the problems of domestic eloquence in recent years is due to the fact that the order of society for a thinking and speaking person reappears. Particular attention is paid to persuasive speech and dialogic forms of communication.

Topic 3.
Language, speech, speech activity

The concept of language and speech

The words "language" and "speech" are ambiguous, sometimes they are correlated as synonyms. According to the ideas of modern linguistics, speech is associated with language, but is not identified with it.
Language - it is a system of signs that serves to communicate people; it is an objective, historically established phenomenon of the spiritual life of society. It is customary to call "deputies" of other objects a sign. In addition to language, a natural sign system, there are artificial ones, for example, traffic lights, musical notation, symbolic notations used in mathematics (numbers and symbols; +, -, =) and other sciences. Unlike these artificial systems, the language is capable of transmitting messages of any, unrestricted content, that is, it is universal. Gesticulation and facial expressions - systems of non-verbal communication - give sounding speech only additional emotional and semantic shades.
Any system consists of many elements that are in relationship with each other, form one whole. Language units (signs) are combined into subsystems and form levels (tiers) of the language. Thus, language is a model of hierarchy: the greater includes the lesser as an integral part, the lesser manifests its functions in the greater. Thus, the lowest units of a language (phonemes) realize themselves in units of the next, more complex level, i.e. in morphemes, etc.
Language serves as a means of communication, knowledge, storage and transmission of information, national identity, cultural traditions and history of the people. Language reveals itself only in speech and only through it fulfills its main, communicative, purpose.
Speech is a form of language existence, its embodiment, realization. Speech is understood the use by a person of linguistic wealth in life situations, the result of the process of formulating and transmitting thoughts by means of language. The speech of an individual speaker has features of pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence structure. Thus, speech is concrete and individual.

Types of speech

The following types of speech are distinguished: internal and external, which in turn is divided by written and oral, monologic and dialogical.
Thought begins to form in inner speech. Its mechanism was studied at the beginning of the 20th century by the psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. This speech is silent, unpronounceable, includes images, differs from the external degree of linguistic formation: most of the secondary members of the sentence are omitted, vowels that do not carry a semantic load fall out in the words of the Russian language. The whole spiritual life of a person - his thoughts, plans, disputes with himself, processing of what he saw and heard - proceeds in a hidden form, at the mental level. Inner speech "works" always, except for deep sleep. The translation of inner speech into outer speech is often associated with difficulties. It is about this stage of the generation of the utterance that they say: “It turns on the tongue, but I can’t say.”
External speech exists in oral and written forms. Oral speech can be written down, and written speech can be spoken. For example, a written text, when “voiced”, will acquire some features of oral speech (intonation coloring, rhythm), but will be characterized as written speech in oral form.
In preparing and in the process of public speaking, a contradiction arises between written speech and its oral performance. A.M. Peshkovsky, a well-known linguist, called the oratorical monologue "a fake of written speech for oral speech." The speaker in front of an audience should appropriately combine two types, two "elements". If one of them wins, the performance will sound either too strict, dry, or too free, uninhibited.
Oral speech usually predominates in life, therefore it is considered primary, leading. According to V.G. Kostomarov, in our time, oral speech “acquired an important advantage over written language - immediacy, which is extremely important for the rapid pace and rhythms of the 20th century. And also ... another quality: the ability to be fixed, preserved, preserved and reproduced.
Oral speech has two forms - monologue and dialogic. Monologue is a detailed statement of one person, completed in a semantic sense. The psychological and pedagogical feature of monologue speech is that the reaction of the listeners is guessed, gestures and facial expressions play a lesser role than in dialogue. A monologue is most often a public speech addressed to a large number of people. The oratorical monologue is dialogic.
The speaker, as it were, is talking with the audience, that is, there is hidden dialog. But it is also possible open dialogue, for example, answering questions from those present.
Dialog - This is a direct exchange of statements between two or more interlocutors. Structurally, the dialogue consists of a replica-stimulus and a replica-reaction, closely related in content to each other. Dialogic speech is the primary, natural form of communication. In everyday dialogue, partners most often do not care about the form and style of the statement. Participants in the public dialogue take into account the presence of the audience, build their speech in a literary way.

Speech activity and speech act

Types of speech activity

There are four types of speech activity: two of them produce a text - speaking, writing, while others are hearing(listening) and reading - carry out perception.
These are the components of the system of our "linguistic existence", while their distribution in the stream of life is uneven: we write least of all (9%) and read (16%) (if it is not related to professional activities), most of all we listen (40%) or we say (35%) (this may depend on the personal characteristics of the person).
The processes of speaking and listening are extremely complex. The speaker pursues various communicative goals: agree or refuse, advise, warn, demand, ask, allow, doubt, thank, etc. Depending on this, statements of three types arise: messages, motivations, questions. These are the so-called speech acts.
The speaker's consciousness is focused on the content, logical and compositional structuring of the text, memory gives out the most appropriate lexical options, intuition (repeated repetition of experience in similar conditions) helps to construct a sentence grammatically correctly and pronounce it in accordance with pronunciation norms, linguistic instinct allows you to determine the style, psychological orientation takes into account the reaction of the listeners. Difficulties in speaking are explained by the fact that all of the above operations must be performed simultaneously.
In the absence of linguistic automatism, a dissected mechanism for generating an utterance is observed. Speech sounds intermittent: there are involuntary, longer (compared to the rest) stops, individual words, syllables are repeated, a sound like [e] is “stretched”, expressions are pronounced “how should I say this?”, “well” and the like. These manifestations of speech discontinuity reveal the speaker's difficulties and are characterized as external regulatory actions. Pauses, self-interruptions, disruptions of begun constructions, as well as slips of the tongue often reflect the psychological state of a person, his excitement, lack of concentration when the speech situation becomes more complicated. In the course of a public speech, in conversations with management in the service, mental regulation is hidden, its external manifestations are suppressed by the speaker. But the discontinuity of oral speech is an ambiguous property. If there are few such cases, then this does not interfere with the perception of information, and sometimes activates the attention of the audience, as evidenced, in particular, by the “hints” of those expressions that the speaker is “looking for”.

Listening listening as a type of speech activity

Listening is a process of understanding, comprehension of speech. This communication skill is no less important than speaking; is a condition for the effectiveness of business communication.
Even the philosopher Zeno stated: "Two ears and one tongue are given to us in order to listen more and speak less." And the historian Plutarch advised: "Learn to listen, and you can benefit even from those who speak badly." Good listening facilitates the assimilation of information, promotes the establishment of contacts between people. In the ability to listen, good breeding, respect for another person is manifested, i.e. culture.
The results of a survey of many people indicate that only 10% of them have sufficient listening skills. After listening to a ten-minute message, the "average" listener understands and remembers only half of what was said.
The style of listening depends on the character, interests of the individual, gender, age, physiological state, official position. Subordinates are more attentive and concentrated in a conversation with "bosses", do not always dare to interrupt the opponent. Men, unlike women, tend to listen to themselves, quickly give ready-made answers, interrupt, and focus on the content of the conversation. A woman is more interested in the process of communication itself, they interrupt a partner 2 times less often. The effectiveness of auditory perception is affected by fatigue, which impairs concentration. Full listening can take 20 minutes for contact and 5-7 minutes for remote communication.
The following "roles" of listeners can be distinguished: 1) "simulant" - pretending to listen; 2) "dependent listener" - easily influenced by the opinions and desires of others; 3) "interrupted" - one who unjustifiably interferes in the speech of the interlocutor; 4) "immersed in oneself"; 5) "intellectual" - perceiving information more with the mind, neglecting the emotional and non-verbal aspects of the speaker's behavior.
There are also 2 ways of listening:
1. Non-reflective (passive) consists in the ability not to interfere with the speaker's speech with his remarks, in the ability to be attentively silent. This method requires considerable physical and psychological stress, a certain discipline. Non-reflexive listening is usually used in situations where one of the interlocutors is deeply excited, wants to express his attitude to a particular event.
2. Reflective (active) is active feedback, assisting in the expression of thoughts.
This method is especially appropriate if the communication partner is waiting for support, approval, if it is necessary to deeply and accurately understand the information.
The main methods of reflective listening are:
1) clarification, i.e. turning to the interlocutor for clarifications in order to obtain additional facts, judgments (“I didn’t understand you. Would you repeat it again?”, “What do you mean?”);
2) paraphrasing - “transferring” someone else’s just spoken statement in a different form (“As I understand you ...”, “In your opinion ...”, “In other words, do you think ...”);
3) summarizing - summing up what you heard (“If you summarize what you said, then ...”, “Your main ideas, as I understand it, are ...”;
4) confirmation of contact - an invitation to speak freely and naturally. At the same time, the speech is accompanied by replicas such as “this is interesting”, “yes”, “I understand you”, “it's nice to hear it”.
The key to success in interpersonal and professional relationships is compliance with rules for effective listening:
1. Strive to understand, deeply understand the position of the speaker, make an analysis, conclusions. Learn to find the most valuable information in the information you receive.
2. Try to "catch" the interlocutor's true motives, emotional state, inner world behind the phrases of the interlocutor.
3. Maintain a steady attention to speech, do not allow side thoughts. The latter arise due to the fact that the speed of thinking is 4 times higher than the speed of speaking, and the listener has "free time".
4. Disconnect from external "interference" that distracts you, do not try to listen and do 2-3 more things at the same time.
5. Don't pretend to understand when you really don't. Perhaps the communicator did not leave the necessary pauses between phrases. Optimum for listeners is the pace of their own speaking. Reflective listening techniques will help to change a difficult situation.
6. Plan your listening process logically. "Mental anticipation" of the speech of the interlocutor or speaker is one of the means of tuning to the same wavelength with him and a good method of memorizing speech.
7. Make eye contact with the speaker. Your gestures, facial expressions should reflect the state of an interested listener who delves into speech.
8. Try to empathize with the speaker, look at things through his eyes, try to put yourself in his place.
9. Be patient. Always listen to the interlocutor to the end.
10. Do not succumb to feelings of irritation or anger if you have a negative attitude towards your communication partner or if you have heard “critical” words for you that bring you out of balance.
11. Do not be distracted by the specific features of the speaker (accent, etc.).
12. Be sure to repeat orders and instructions to yourself.
13. Take appropriate notes on paper as you listen.

Topic 4.
Text as a result of speech activity

The concept and main features of the text

Text (from Latin textus - “fabric, plexus, connection”) arises and exists only in the process of communication; it is a speech unit, the embodiment of a communicative act; it is a sequence of verbal signs, the main properties of which are coherence and integrity.
B.N. Golovin defines a text as a verbal, oral or written work, which is a unity of some more or less complete content (meaning) and a form (speech) that forms and expresses this content.
In this way, the main features of the text are the following:
1. Articulation. The text consists of several sentences, is a communicative unit of the highest rank, in comparison with the sentence. However, this position is debatable: some researchers consider one common complete statement, a remark in a dialogue to be a text.
2. Semantic integrity is achieved when the selection of material is subject to the task of conveying the main idea, i.e. sentences of the text should be united by topic and idea.
3. Coherence lies in the fact that the text consists of sentences that are related to each other in meaning and formally - with the help of linguistic means: repeated words, personal and demonstrative pronouns, synonyms, antonyms, coordinating conjunctions etc.

Text types

Centuries of language development have developed the most expressive, economical and accurate ways, schemes, verbal structures for solving problems that the speaker sets for himself. Therefore, such components of monologue speech have long been distinguished as description, narration, reasoning, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of text, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose and content of the statement. This division, dating back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, is conditional. In practice, in a speech, the types of text alternate, giving variety to speech.
Description reveals the signs of an object, its temporal characteristics or permanent properties, qualities, states. Narration reveals closely related events, phenomena, actions as objectively occurring in the past. reasoning aims to explore objects or phenomena, reveal their internal features through argumentation, establishing cause-and-effect relationships. From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of conclusions on some topic, presented in a consistent form. A variant of reasoning is the definition of the concept and the explanation that exist in scientific texts, in the language of mass communication.
Each of the three functional types of speech can be characterized in terms of communicative orientation, typical meaning, compositional features and specific language means, among which the main and defining ones can be distinguished.

Narration

1. Communication goal - tell about something, convey a case, an episode from life, i.e. the center of the narrative is an event that happened to the narrator or other characters. The narrative has a plot, it is dynamic, events are presented as completed and are characterized in terms of temporal correlation and sequence. Questions about the text as a whole: what happened? what's happened?
2. Composition, as a rule, it is three-term: a) the beginning of the event (tie); b) development of action; c) the end of the event (denouement).
3. The main language tool conjugated forms of the perfect past tense verb. The forms of the present tense are used much less frequently and only in the meaning of the present historical.
4.
- nouns with specific lexical meaning;
- animated nouns that call people, animals, including proper names;
- verbs with the meaning of movement, displacement, specific physical action;
- words indicating a change in the situation, mood, signs;
- adverbs of time, place, as well as other word forms and phrases with a similar meaning;
- the predominance of the verbal predicate over the nominal;
- two-part simple sentences, and from one-part - definitely personal;
- contextually incomplete sentences;
- complex sentences with clauses of time, place, purpose and reason, as well as non-union complex sentences with similar semantic relationships between parts;
- the use of dialogue and varieties of someone else's speech: direct, indirect and improperly direct;

Description

1. Communicative goal - draw, reproduce a picture. The object of description can be a person (his appearance, character, state, etc.), an animal, some object, a production process, i.e. any manifestation of reality. The description may be comparative. Description can be static or dynamic. For this type of text, you can ask a question: which? what? what is it?
2. Compositions:
a) an introduction that conveys the general impression of the object of description;
b) the main part, revealing the properties of the object;
c) an ending (often containing an evaluative moment).
Parts a) and c) are sometimes missing.
3. The main language tool conjugated forms of the imperfective present (as a rule), past or future tense, denoting an ordinary, regularly reproduced, recurring (usual) event, action or state.
4. Defining language means:
- nouns with a specific lexical meaning, as well as with an abstract meaning, denoting a property, state;
- the so-called "color" vocabulary;
- qualitative adjectives;
- participles of different grammatical categories;
– adverbs of mode of action, measure and degree, as well as prepositional case word forms with similar semantics;
- nominal predicates;
- passive (passive) syntactic constructions;
- simple sentences complicated by homogeneous, isolated and clarifying members;
- one-part nominative and impersonal sentences;
- complex sentences;
- complex sentences with attributive clauses, place and time;
- multi-level means of expression of comparison;
- a parallel connection between sentences in a complex syntactic whole.

reasoning

1. Communication goal - to prove one's opinion on any topic, any issue, to comment on some phenomenon of reality; to convince the interlocutor or reader of something.
2. Composition, usually tripartite:
a) thesis - an opinion, thought requiring evidence;
b) an argumentative part containing the development of the thesis, evidence of its truth or fallacy;
c) conclusion, that is, confirmation of the correctness of the thesis or an indication of disagreement with it, its refutation.
However, some texts, built according to the type of reasoning, have a two-term structure:
a) a message about any event, phenomenon of reality, fact, problem;
b) reflection on this issue, explanation, commentary on this topic.
3. The main language tool syntax, because the syntactic structure of the sentence and the text as a whole is focused on showing logical relationships (often causal) between phenomena, objects, their properties, etc. This function is performed by:
- simple sentences complicated by introductory words, introductory sentences, plug-in constructions;
- one-part indefinitely personal and generalized personal sentences, as well as impersonal with modal semantics;
- complex sentences with subordinate goals, conditions, causes, consequences, concessions, as well as non-union complex sentences with similar semantic relationships between parts;
- polynomial complex sentences with different types connections (composing and subordinating, subordinating and non-union, etc.);
- rhetorical interrogative sentences;
- a chain connection between sentences in a complex syntactic whole.
4. Defining language means:
- vocabulary with an abstract (abstract) meaning;
- words with evaluative semantics;
– words with modal semantics;
- nouns and pronouns with a generalized meaning in the language and / or in speech;
- verbal forms of conditional and imperative mood;
- conjugated forms of present tense verbs in an expanded sense.

Speech styles

The modern Russian literary language (as, indeed, the literary languages ​​of other peoples) is what is usually called in science a system of its varieties, or, in other words, styles. Why do these varieties (styles) of the literary language arise and develop, and how do they differ from each other? They arise because different types of social activities of people present the language with not all the same requirements, requests. For example, science is in dire need of words and sentences that can accurately convey strictly defined concepts and judgments that are necessary in various areas of knowledge about the world and man. Fiction requires from the language a large number of words and statements that allow a writer or poet to vividly, figuratively present pictures of nature, work and life of people, human passions, experiences and thoughts; the writer and poet "paint with words", and in order to draw, you need not only skill - you also need paints; fiction needs immeasurably more such "colorful" words and statements than, say, science or politics. The state-administrative activity of society presents its requests to the language, and, responding to them, the language creates the words and expressions necessary for the needs of public administration.
Usually, five main functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic (newspaper-journalistic), artistic and colloquial-everyday, which in turn fall into private varieties depending on the manifestation in speech of specific tasks and the situation of communication, genre, etc. d.
How does one style of language differ from others? First of all, the presence of words, expressions, characteristic of it, predominantly used in it, associated with it, and sometimes even grammatical phrases. For example, the style of business speech is characterized by such words and their combinations as application, prescription, statement, notify, inform, raise a question, forward to destination, sum up etc., called clericalisms.
scientific speech characterized by an abundance of words-terms that accurately express and designate scientific concepts: electron, proton, gravity, attraction, repulsion, mass, transformer, nitrogen, helium.
This means that in the language there are such groups of words of a larger or smaller volume, each of which is associated mainly with some one style of the literary language; the words of any such group are used more often, more usually, more habitually only in one of the styles, although they can be used in other styles, but they are perceived as alien or unusual, or inappropriate, or uncharacteristic.
However, it would be wrong to think that language styles exist only thanks to the stylistic groups of vocabulary just mentioned. Firstly, the differences between the styles of the language are by no means reduced to the predominant use of the words of “their own” stylistic group. And secondly, the very existence of styles (varieties) of the same language would be impossible if the styles did not rely on the use of the same words and expressions, the same rules of grammar and phonetics. Such words and rules are usually called stylistically neutral. They combine styles into one literary language. Therefore, the term "system of styles" is used by linguistics. This term refers to a very definite fact of the life of language - namely, that styles are necessarily related to each other, develop together and mutually influence each other. Being inextricably linked, styles, as already mentioned, differ from each other. Firstly, the use of typical for each style, "own" vocabulary. In addition, the share of this (own) vocabulary in the total stock of "neutral" words is not the same in different styles. Dictionary admixtures that consist of "foreign" words, i.e., are not the same in volume in different styles. words drawn into one language style from another. So, words typical of business style - clericalism - are also used in other styles, but their share is very small here. In a similar way, for example, scientific terms are used in artistic or journalistic speech, but their share here is immeasurably less than in scientific style.
Language styles differ from each other and the use of grammatical means - parts of speech, sentences various types etc. For example, in fiction, verbs are used much more often than in scientific works, and nouns are used much less frequently than in newspapers. Incomplete sentences are very common in conversations on topics of everyday work and life, but are very rare in scientific descriptions and reasoning. And vice versa, complex sentences of various types are characteristic of scientific writings, but are alien to colloquial everyday communication.
Styles are closely related to the functioning of the language in the conditions of social activity of people, therefore they are called functional styles.
Thus, language styles are historically developed varieties of the literary language, capable of the best way serve a specific area of ​​human activity.
The basis for the formation of styles are extra-linguistic (non-linguistic) and proper linguistic factors. Extralinguistic factors include the topic of speech (its informative content), the type of work of consciousness and the purpose of communication. The type of work of consciousness correlates with a certain sphere of social activity (science, art, law, politics, etc.). Linguistic factors proper include linguistic means of all levels. The selection and organization of linguistic means are determined by extralinguistic factors. The topic of speech, depending on to whom and for what purpose it is presented, determines the type of work of consciousness, which, in turn, determines the choice of linguistic material. Functional styles are implemented in the corresponding speech genres. So, an article, abstract, monograph belongs to the scientific, and conversation, conversation, dispute, etc. refers to the colloquial and everyday.
The style is based on neutral, general language means, and the originality of each functional style is given by its specific (lexical, derivational, morphological and syntactic) linguistic features.
We consider in detail the stylistic system of the Russian literary language within the framework of the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech".

Topic 5.
The logic of oratory

logical laws

When constructing a speech, it is important to follow the logic of reasoning. The logic of reasoning is the clarity of basic concepts and statements, the absence of contradictions and inconsistencies, the sequence of transitions from one thought to another, a reasoned presentation of the material. It is these qualities of logical reasoning that are regulated by the laws of identity, contradiction, excluded third and sufficient reason known in logic.
Law of Identity states: "Each thought in the process of reasoning must have the same definition, stable content." Observance of this law requires certainty, accuracy of formulations. The significance of the law of identity for oral speech is that it formulates the requirements for its correct construction: before starting a discussion of any issue, it is necessary to clearly establish its exact, definite, stable, concrete, relatively identical content, and during the discussion firmly adhere to the basic definitions this content.
Law of contradiction : "Two opposite thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time, in the same respect, cannot be true at the same time." This means that the law of contradiction does not allow answering the question at the same time in the same sense at the same time "yes" and "no". Thus, this law requires that there should be no contradictory judgments in oral and written speech.
Law of the excluded middle prescribes: "Of two contradictory judgments, one must be true, the other false, and the third is not given." The reasoning here is conducted according to the “either-or” formula, there are no other options. Fulfillment of the requirements of the law of the excluded middle accustoms the speaker to consistency and principled thinking, i.e. the ability to clearly formulate a thesis and select arguments that do not cause double interpretation.
Law of Sufficient Reason refers to the validity of speech and is formulated as follows: "Any thought must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven before." This means that any thought expressed in a speech must be substantiated by facts, scientific provisions, personal experience.
Based on logical laws, we can conclude that logically correct speech should be specific, consistent and justified.

Text composition

Composition(Latin compositio - “composing, composition”) is a regular arrangement of all parts of the text, motivated by the content and intention.
The most common classical text structure is considered to be three-part, including: introduction, main (main) part, conclusion.
In the course of experiments, it was found that what is best remembered and assimilated is what is given at the beginning or at the end of the message, which is explained by the action of the so-called psychological law of the “edge”. Therefore, it is important to consider the content of the introduction and conclusion.
Task entry - prepare listeners for the perception of the topic. According to experienced speakers, you should immediately attract the attention of the audience. There are many “hooks” (A.F. Koni): an interesting or even unexpected example; proverb, saying, catch phrase, quote; a story about any events related to the topic of the speech; questions that allow students to engage in active mental activity.
The introduction is often improvised, but bad improvisation can spoil the whole speech. Here you need to learn a few rules for building an introduction:
1) the introduction should be short;
2) the introduction should be moderately energetic, i.е. not too emotional, otherwise you will have to continue the speech at the same emotional level and the audience will quickly get tired, and the speaker himself is unlikely to have the strength to be emotional until the end of the speech;
3) stylistically, the introduction should not contrast sharply with the main part of the speech, because it may seem that the speaker seeks to draw attention to himself, and not to the topic of speech;
4) in the introduction, formulations and data that are essential for argumentation should be avoided, since the audience enters the speech gradually and the introduction is perceived against the background of internal or external interference;
5) the speaker composes the introduction last, after the main part and conclusion are thought out.
The composition of the main part of the speech will vary depending on the topic, goals and objectives facing the speaker, on the composition of the audience. However, there general principles for constructing a speech which the speaker needs to know and take into account in the process of creating his speech. Let's name the main ones:
The sequencing principle each thought expressed should follow from the previous one or be correlated with it.
The principle of amplification the significance, weight, persuasiveness of arguments and evidence should gradually increase, the strongest arguments, as a rule, are reserved by the end of the argument.
The principle of organic unity - the distribution of material and its organization in speech should follow from the material itself and the intentions of the speaker.
The principle of economy the ability to achieve the goal in the most simple, rational way, with minimum cost effort, time, speech means.
The tasks of the main part are: communication of information, substantiation of a certain point of view, persuasion of the audience, inducing the audience to specific actions.
Modern speech workers use the following methods of presenting the material of the main part, formed on the basis of centuries-old practice:
Inductive method - presentation of the material from particular to general. The speaker begins the speech with a specific case, and then leads the listeners to generalizations and conclusions.
deductive method - presentation of the material from the general to the particular. The speaker at the beginning of the speech puts forward some provisions, and then explains their meaning with specific examples, facts.
Analogy method - comparison of various phenomena, events, facts. Usually a parallel is drawn with what is well known to listeners. This contributes to a better understanding of the material presented, helps the perception of the main ideas, enhances the emotional impact on the audience.
contrast method built on the basis of a comparison of polar, shading each other objects, problems, phenomena, their opposition.
Concentric method - arrangement of material around the main issue raised by the speaker. The speaker moves from a general consideration of the central issue to a more specific and in-depth analysis of it.
step method - sequential presentation of one issue after another. Having considered any problem, the speaker no longer returns to it.
Historical method - presentation of the material in chronological order, description and analysis of the changes that have occurred in a particular person, subject over time.
Usage various methods presentation of the material in the same speech allows you to make the structure of the main part of speech more original, non-standard.
Conclusion should be short and concise. In it, as a rule, the results of what has been said are summed up, generalizations are made; the main theses are briefly repeated, the main idea and importance for the audience of the analyzed topic are emphasized; ways of development of expressed thoughts are outlined; new tasks are set, prospects are outlined, an invitation to express one's opinion, to argue sounds.

Argumentation methods

The truth of any thesis is proved or refuted with the help of arguments. Argumentation is a kind of reasoning, the purpose of which is to form the beliefs of listeners, readers, and researchers. Argumentation - this is the process of bringing certain arguments, grounds for confirming the put forward thesis, statement. Persuasion is achieved by the logical culture of speech, and evidence is the basis for the persuasiveness of a speech.
Proof in rhetoric and logic, it is a means of controlling the thinking of the audience, the interlocutor under the influence of arguments.
Arguments or arguments can serve as:
laws, statutes, governing documents,
well-known theoretical positions,
established facts,
expert opinions,
statistical information
quotes from famous books recognized in a particular area of ​​authority,
worldly axioms,
rules of law.
Additional sources arguments known since antiquity are: “argument to meaning” - the inclusion of an object in a wider area of ​​content, for example, as a part - in a whole; compare, compare it with other objects, determine the spatial and temporal framework; "argument to personality" - an appeal to the individual, moral qualities of a person; "argument to authority" - an appeal to a statement famous person, authority in the field. It is impossible to prove a thought with the help of a reference, but a citation may be appropriate to reinforce the rest of the arguments;
"argument to the public" - means an appeal to public opinion, to the experience of the audience itself, certifying the truth of one or another position.
There are several rules for selecting arguments and their location:
1) the strength of an argument is determined not by what the speaker thinks is right, but by what is convincing and acceptable to the audience;
2) the fewer arguments, the more convincing the position, because any argument is controversial in itself;
3) the more concisely and clearly the argument is formulated, the more impressive it is;
4) in a speech, what is most remembered is what is said at the beginning and at the end of the speech.

Topic 6.
Sounding speech technique

The structure of the human pronunciation apparatus

The sound side of oral speech plays no less important role than its content. It is known that a speech that is brilliant in content loses in many respects if it is uttered sluggishly and inexpressively, with hesitations and speech errors.

End of introductory segment.

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Footnotes

1

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1990. - S. 46.

2

Volkov, A.A. Fundamentals of rhetoric: a textbook for universities / A.A. Volkov. - 2nd ed. - M .: Academic Project, 2005. - P. 19.

3

Kostomarov, V.G. On the distinction between the terms "oral" and "colloquial", "written" and "book" // Problems of modern philology. - M., 1965. - S. 176.