Quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowel sounds. Quantitative reduction of vowels

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

KALUGA STATE UNIVERSITY

them. K. E. TSIOLKOVSKY

FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Specialty: 033200

"Foreign language with an additional specialty"

COURSE WORK

COMPARISON OF REDUCTION PHENOMENA

IN GERMAN AND RUSSIAN

2nd year student

scientific adviser

Professor

Kaluga 2012

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. .......... 3

The phenomenon of reduction .............................................................. .............................................. 4

Vowel reduction. Types of reduction:

qualitative and quantitative reduction .............................................................. .......... 5

Consonant reduction .................................................................. ......................................... 7

Vowel reduction in Russian and German languages............................................ . eight

Qualitative and quantitative reduction in German.

The problem of the German phoneme /ə/ .............................................. ............................ eight

Qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian ............................................. 10

Vowel reduction in Russian and German. The problem of consonant reduction in German ................................................. ............. twenty

Reduction of consonants in Russian .............................................. ................. 22

Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..... 25

Bibliography................................................ ...................................... 26

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INTRODUCTION

This coursework is devoted to the description of the phenomenon of reduction in the German and Russian languages. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are solved in the work:

1. definition of the concept of reduction;

2. consideration of the reduction of vowels in German, the problems of the phoneme /ə/;

3. description of qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian;

4. analysis of the problem of consonant reduction in German;

5. consideration of the reduction of consonants in Russian.

REDUCTION PHENOMENON

There are several points of view on the definition of the concept of reduction. Over time, the views and approaches to the study of this phenomenon have repeatedly changed.

gives the following definition of reduction: “Reduction is the weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables and, above all, the syllabic sounds of these syllables” [Reformatsky 1996, 107]. It would be all necessary in advance. section and compare definitions there. Show how mine is better or worse than Reformed

He formulated the most detailed definition of reduction. It's great, of course, but it could be more modest! In his opinion, reduction is those cases of additional distribution of allophones, when the latter are characterized by a smaller number or less pronounced features (both distinctive and indistinguishable) compared to other allophones of the same phoneme that are in different positions [Zelenetsky 2010, 76] .

1.1 Vowel reduction we give the material in italics, see the requirements for the course. work

The question of reduction is closely related to the question of stress.

In his book Phonetics of the Modern Russian Literary Language, he writes that reduction refers to the qualities of unstressed vowels, which consist in less strength and less energetic articulation, as well as usually less brevity compared to stressed vowels. Therefore, he called the position in unstressed syllables a weak position for vowels. He also noted that at least 2 degrees of reduction differ: a smaller one in the 1st prestressed syllable, and a larger one in other unstressed syllables. [Avanesov 1956,105 - 106].

According to the opinion, the reduction, which consists in a shorter duration and less timbre originality (respectively, quantitative and qualitative reduction) of unstressed allophones compared to stressed ones, is the main type of allophonic variation of vowels is not quite correctly stated [Zelenetsky 2004, 55].

In addition, in his opinion, there are 2 types of reduction: reduction depending on the position of the allophone relative to vertex-forming phonemes (primarily stress) and reduction depending on the position of the allophone relative to the boundary of an unlimited phonological unit (primarily a syllable or word).

An example of the first type of reduction is the so-called unstressed vowels. they do not have their health and therefore cannot lose. If you are referring to me, then try to understand what I have written

There are also quantitative and quality vowel reduction.

quality reduction, as mentioned earlier, consists in a smaller timbre originality of vowels in an unstressed position compared to stressed vowels.

quantitative the reduction consists in the shorter duration of unstressed vowels compared to stressed ones. again 25! You are not using me, but you are stating everything in a purely traditional way. Then write like that. However, with quantitative reduction, unstressed vowels retain their characteristic timbre in any syllable.

In Russian, both quantitative and pronounced qualitative reduction is presented; for German language characterized by quantitative reduction. The only case of timbre originality of an unstressed vowel in German is the allophones of the phoneme /ə/.

1.2 Consonant reduction

Reduction can also affect consonants. In Russian, the reduction of consonants covers the allophones of all noisy ones, except /zh̓/, and in the outcome of the phonological word leads to the neutralization of the opposition to the RP "voicedness". This type of neutralization is actually what is usually called a stun.

Some researchers believe that reduction is also inherent in allophones of sonorants (especially palatal /р̓/, /l̓/, /j ̓/), but in this case, in comparison with the reduction of noisy ones, there is no neutralization [Bulanin 1970,124-125].

believes that the phonological interpretation of a similar phenomenon in German is difficult due to the lack of an unambiguous answer to the question of the anthropophonic nature of the additional RP of German noisy consonants, which was usually considered as “sonority”, and now as “tension, noise” [Zelenetsky, 2004, 60].

2. VOF REDUCTION IN RUSSIAN AND GERMAN

2.1 Qualitative and quantitative reduction in German.

Phoneme problem /ə/

Presented in German quantitative vowel reduction, which is most pronounced in long vowels, which are realized in an unstressed position as semi-long ones. For short vowels this species reduction is manifested to a lesser extent, although they, like long ones, are shorter in the unstressed position than in the stressed position. At the same time, the possibilities of reduction are noticeably limited by secondary stress.

Vowel reduction in German is usually not a neutralization, because the timbre of unstressed vowels (tense or loose) is basically stable.

considers that German non-syllabic vowels and in loan words like Famil i e, Var i ante, Jan u ar, Gen u a etc. also belong to the sphere of quantitative reduction, but alternate with syllable-forming ( Var i ante – var i iren, Gen u a – Gen u ese) and are analogous to mid vowels in words like afr i ka, Sing u lar[Zelenetsky 2004.56].

The only case quality reduction (timbre originality) of unstressed vowels in German are allophones of the phoneme /ə/. С The question of the status of the vowel /ə/ is the most controversial issue in describing the phonological structure of the German language. There are two points of view regarding the question of the phonological status of /ə/.

Representatives of the first point of view (for example, Zinder L.R.) consider the allophones of the phoneme /ə/ as realizations of the phonemes /e:/, and /ε/ or one /ε/. explained his views by the fact that, firstly, not only /ə/, but also /ε/ (prefixes er /εr/, fer /fεr/) are found in unstressed syllables; secondly, the vowels in question alternate as stressed and unstressed in the same morpheme ( /le:bən/ leben - /le:`bεndɪ Ç /lebendig– see [Zinder 2003, 100]). Be careful with the placement of any brackets and spaces

The second point of view is that /ə/ is an independent phoneme. This point of view is shared [Zelenetsky, Monakhov 1983, 37; Raevsky 1983,132]. also argues that the lack of alternation of /ə/ with stressed allophones (due to the fact that /ə/ never appears under stress) is evidence that /ə/ is an independent phoneme with limited distribution, opposed to all other vowels in the syntagmatic aspect. But at the same time, /ə/ is in relation to contrasting distribution, for example, with unstressed / a/symbols of phonemes - directly ( Rose : Rosa, note : Nota). examples in italics That is why he claims that /ə/ can be considered the nineteenth phoneme of the German language with limited distribution, the presence of which is its important characterological feature [Zelenetsky 2004,56].

Understand concepts and terms better. And if you want to express it according to me, then be careful in words like “loses”, “changes”, etc. I always talk about alternations, in your case - allophones. And the reduced allophone appears in the position of reduction, it does not change unreduced, but simply alternates with it (they stand in different positions).

When you redo, give the new text options in blue so that it is immediately visible. Do not delete my comments: I need to see them.

Better re-read the Requirements for the course. work, follow them.

Pay attention to formatting

2.2 Qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian

Unstressed vowels are exposed as quantitative, and quality reduction. Not all Russian vowels undergo reduction to the same extent; in addition, the degree of vowel reduction in a word is different [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 60].

The degree of vowel reduction depends on:

1) places of an unstressed syllable in relation to a stressed one;

2) vowel rise: lower vowels are reduced to the greatest extent, upper vowels are reduced to the least;

3) pronunciation style: in the full style, the reduction is minimal, in the neutral style - a little more, in the colloquial style - the maximum.

An outstanding linguist suggested conditionally assessing the strength of stressed vowels at 3 units, vowels of the first pre-stressed syllable - at 2 units, and vowels of the second pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables - at 1 unit. The Potebnya formula should be understood as the ratio of three positions representing in general form ratio of stressed and unstressed vowels.

Unstressed vowels in the 1st prestressed syllable. is of the opinion that the position in unstressed syllables is a weak position for the vowels of the Russian language, and weak vowel phonemes appear in weak positions.

In the first prestressed syllable, independent, phonetically unconditioned sides of vowels are the distinction between two degrees of rise - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the distinction between the absence or presence of labialization [Ibid.]. As for the vowel row, in the pre-stressed syllable (as well as in the stressed one) it is due to the quality of neighboring consonants, as well as the possible absence of a consonant before a vowel. Thus, in the first pre-stressed syllable, as well as in the stressed one, the vowel row is not phonemically different: it can be very different for the same phoneme in different positional conditions [Ibid., 107].

The effect of the preceding hard or soft consonant on the vowels of the 1st prestressed syllable is generally much greater than in the stressed syllable.

writes that for the vowels of the 1st pre-stressed syllable, the following positions should be distinguished: I - at the beginning of a word, II - after back-lingual ones, III - after paired hard ones, IV - after paired soft ones, V - after hard sibilants.

The quality of allophones of the 1st pre-stressed syllable is presented in the following table: in general, it is better not to give a drawing, but to type. If there is no font, take the pulpit, there is a full set of icons

			· y (ӱ)

At the beginning of a word and after back-lingual ones (positions I, II), [and], [ʌ], [y] are pronounced; the last 2 vowels are also pronounced after hard paired consonants (position III), and the first [and] after soft ones (position IV). Therefore, [and], [ʌ], [y] should be considered the main type of the considered weak phonemes, and non-positional - for [and] the vowel [s], for [ʌ] - the vowel in the 1st prestressed syllable are varieties of one phoneme, and namely, a vowel phoneme of a non-overhead rise in a position after a hard or soft consonant..png" width="18" height="25 src=">] [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 61].

He calls the problem of distinguishing weak vowel phonemes of the 1st pre-stressed syllable after hard sibilants [w], [g] very difficult. This complexity is explained by the origin of the consonants [w] and [g], which were soft in the past and then hardened. The surname in such cases is not repeated

Basic for state of the art Russian literary pronunciation should be considered such a system in which the upper, middle and lower rises are distinguished, and in the upper rise - the presence or absence of labialization:

With this system, characteristic of a distinct, chased type of pronunciation, it is pronounced: [zhyro k] ( fat), [zhura vl̓], [zhhttps://pandia.ru/text/78/220/images/image005.png" width="21" height="25 src=">rsha vъi̯] ( rough), [shypy], [noise], [shhttps://pandia.ru/text/78/220/images/image006.png" width="20" height="25 src=">].

Some of the words of foreign origin have the following features in the vocalism of the 1st pre-stressed syllable.

1. In separate words of foreign origin at the beginning of a word, after vowels and after solid consonants in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, it is pronounced (or can be pronounced) [o]: [oa z̓ is], [boa ], [outpost]; the same applies to foreign proper names: [shopen n], [ash]. Such pronunciation leads to a violation of the akanya principle - to the distinction between [o] and [ʌ] in the 1st prestressed syllable.

2. In words of foreign origin, after solid paired consonants, [e] can be pronounced; at the same time, the vowel [e], being after a solid consonant, is moved back somewhat - it is pronounced [e]: [integral l], [modera tar].

Unstressed vowels in the 2nd prestressed syllable. writes that the position in the 2nd prestressed syllable is a weak position of the 2nd degree for vowels, because in this position (under certain conditions in relation to the previous consonant) the reduced phonemes [b] and [b] appear, and also because that some of the distinct vowels are not clearly delineated from each other, not clearly opposed to each other.

At the beginning of a word and after backlingual ones in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable, two degrees of tongue elevation are phonemically distinguished - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the presence or absence of labialization:

at the beginning of a word	after back-lingual

For example, at the beginning of a word: [gameʌvo i̯], [ang ʌvo i̯], [ʌdeaf t̓]; after back-lingual ones: [harʌsho], [kurʌpa tk], [k̓ yrʌs̓ in].

does not distinguish between vowels [b] and [and] in the second prestressed syllable and considers them varieties of the same phoneme [and] (namely [b] is a variant of the phoneme [and]).

writes that after solid consonants (both paired and sibilant) in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable, two degrees of tongue elevation are also phonemically distinguished - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the presence or absence of labialization. The weak phoneme upper non-labialized appears in its more posterior version [s], however, in a very short, reduced form. The degree of reduction [s] in the 2nd prestressed syllable is much greater than in the 1st prestressed one. The weak upper labialized phoneme is also pronounced as a vowel with the highest degree of reduction, and therefore with a lower rise of the tongue and a slightly lower degree of labialization than [y] not only in the stressed syllable, but also in the 1st pre-stressed syllable. A weak phoneme, non-labialized, of the lower rise is pronounced as a reduced vowel [ъ] [Ibid., 117]:

For example, [rukʌvo m], [shyrʌta], [shtuny], [joker ik̓ i], [soapʌvar], [dbʌvl̓ a t̓].

In some words of foreign origin, there are the following deviations from the system of vocalism of the 2nd pre-stressed syllable:

1. After solid consonants, it is possible to pronounce [o] instead of the usual one in this position [b]: [bol̓ eroʹ].

2. After paired consonants, the vowel [e] can be pronounced: [dekʌda ns].

Vowels of stressed syllables. believes that in different stressed syllables the degree of reduction may not be the same. In his opinion, the reduction is stronger in a stressed non-final syllable and, on the contrary, somewhat weaker in a final, especially an open syllable. In a stressed final syllable, the reduction is stronger when the syllable is closed. However, despite the differences in the degree of reduction of vowels, the position in all stressed syllables represents a weak position of the 2nd stage for them: as in the 2nd prestressed syllable, reduced vowels [b] and [b] appear in stressed ones, and differing non-labialized weak vowel phonemes are not always clearly delineated from each other.

After back-lingual in stressed syllables, high vowels are distinguished - non-labialized [and], labialized [y], and non-high vowel [b]:

For example, [vygul], [u gl], [you buy it], [may], [you kas̓ il], [vykpatt̓].

After solid consonants (paired and sibilant), high vowels are also distinguished - non-labialized [s] and labialized [y] and a non-high vowel [b]. The ratios between [and] and [s] in post-stressed syllables, as well as pre-stressed and stressed ones, are entirely determined by the position after certain categories of consonants: after back-lingual and soft sounds [and], after hard paired and sibilant - [s]:

For example, [about try], [vy blew], [vy dl], [vy gnl], [you m'ch̓il], [release].

The system of stressed vowels in the position after soft consonants is very complex. Here, vowels of upper and non-high rise are also distinguished, and in the first - labialized and non-labialized, namely, upper non-labialized [i] or [b], labialized [y], non-top - [b]:

writes that the complexity of stressed vocalism after soft consonants is determined by the extreme breadth of fluctuations in the pronunciation of the vowel within the same morpheme, the non-delimitation of [b] and [b]. For example, [bu d̓ im] and [bu d̓ um] (from wake up and be), [cry ch̓ ut], [for n̓ ut].

In some words of foreign origin, there are the following deviations in the above-described system of percussive vocalism.

1. After solid consonants and after vowels, it is possible to pronounce the vowel [o] in a stressed syllable: [embargo], [kha os].

2. After paired solid consonants, the vowel [e] can be pronounced: [ʌda pter], [codex].

When considering the vocalism of a stressed final syllable, it should be noted that, as in stressed syllables, there are differences in the pronunciation of vowels, due to the position after soft consonants, backlingual, hard sibilant and paired hard consonants. Common to the vocalism of the stressed final open syllable is the distinction of three degrees of elevation, while distinguishing the absence or presence of labialization only in the upper row.

In a position after soft consonants, the vocalism of a stressed final open syllable can be represented in the following scheme:

For example, [o kun̓ and], [v-o kun̓ 94 " style="width:70.45pt;border-collapse:collapse">

For example, [mu х̓ i] (im. p. pl.), [mu хъ] (im. n. unit h), [mu х̓ 84 "style="width:62.85pt;margin-left:- 25.45pt;border-collapse:collapse">

For example, [puddles](named p.pl. and gen.p.s.), [v-luzh92" style="width:69.2pt;margin-left:10.75pt;border-collapse :collapse">

For example, [kʌnaʌnaʌ], [kʌnaʌna you], [kʌnaʌnaʌna], [f-kʌnaʌna ̓ 659 " style="width:494.45pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none">

(I p / y, abs. Start,

abs. the end)

(II p / y, s / y)

notes that after soft consonants, shades of four phonemes can appear: [a], [e], [y] and [i]. For [y] and [and], the difference between the first and second positions remains relevant. For [a] and [e], the opposition of pre-stressed and stressed (including the absolute end) syllables comes to the fore. Thus, he writes that, in general, for unstressed vocalism after soft ones, the first and second positions cannot be established sequentially.

Unstressed shades of vowel phonemes after soft consonants are presented in the following summary table:

II p / y
abs. the end

The extremely complex unstressed vocalism of the Russian language has not been fully studied to date. In addition, scientists belonging to different phonological schools adhere to certain points of view on the phenomenon of reduction, which at some points do not coincide.

3. CONSONANT REDUCTION IN RUSSIAN AND GERMAN

3.1 The problem of consonant reduction in German

In contrast to the reduction of vowels, due to their position relative to stress, the reduction of German consonants is primarily associated with their position relative to the boundaries of non-limiting phonological units: a syllable and a phonological word.

In this regard, the reduction of consonants in the outcome of a syllable is mentioned first of all. For instance: Kin d , We g , o b gleich, A b scheu, mö g lich, lau b reich. Traditionally, such cases are considered as stunning, but due to the lack of an unambiguous solution to the question of the anthropophonic nature of the additional RP of German noisy ones, which in Lately interpreted as “tension, noisiness”, and not “sonority”, their interpretation turns out to be rather complicated. considers that the main difficulty lies in an adequate assessment of the degree of tension of the reduced initial consonant; and in this regard, the most balanced solution seems to him, according to which both tense ~ non-tense and voiced ~ unvoiced (deaf) noisy consonants are not distinguished in the outcome of a syllable [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 339]. In modern German, a truly voiced consonant is permissible only at the beginning of a non-initial syllable after a vowel or sonorant, that is, in an intervocalic position; For example: ba d en, we g en, in G ang, in d en W ald.

The described type of reduction also includes cases of the type sa g t, schrei b st, ja g t, le b t, lä d t etc., where the confluence of noisy forms the outcome of the word. Some phoneticians, for example, [Milyukova, Nork 2004, 55; Kozmin 2004, 34] traditionally interpret these cases as regressive assimilation by deafness, which is not only excessively complex, but also contradicts the progressive direction of consonant assimilation typical of the German language. But zd. I would like to explain what typical direction of assimilation in German does not exclude that one can see a certain relationship between the reduction of consonants in the outcome of a syllable and its tendency to be closed [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 339].

At the beginning of a word, after a pause, it seems possible to see an undoubted reduction of noisy in voicing, which is traditionally called semi-voiced and even received a special designation in transcription ([*b], [*d], [*g]). At the same time, the corresponding deaf people are realized in this position as aspirated, tense (noisy), which served as the basis for interpreting them as marked members of the opposition. The strongest aspiration is present at the beginning of a stressed syllable before a vowel or sonorant and at the end of a stressed syllable, for example: P elz, P latte, T on, t rinken, t o t , sta tt , K atze, Sa ck , i.e., in those positions where the opposition of noisy in sonority (sonority) is weakened. In unstressed syllables between two vowels, as well as before vowels after sonorants, aspiration is much weaker ( ra t en, Su pp e, ba ck en, Tem p o, Dan k en). believes that such a distribution of allophones is most naturally subsumed under the concept of reduction [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 340]. At the same time, the practical absence of aspiration in noisy combinations, especially in the groups [ʃp-], [ʃt-] (for example: Pa kt , Hef t , Hau pt , S t irn, s p ü len etc.) significantly limits the explanatory power of the proposed interpretation, since it is rather difficult to interpret the dependence of the degree of aspiration on the quality of neighboring allophones as a reduction. It is possible that in this case there is a specific combination of reduction with assimilative-dissimilative variation in noisy groups [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 340].

It's very nice that you remember me all the time, but it should be less

There are a few rules for formatting (spaces, etc.), you will see. It’s nice to re-read yourself, but still try more of your own.

3.2 Reduction of consonants in Russian

The reduction of consonants in Russian covers the allophones of all noisy ones, except /zh̓/, and in the outcome of the phonological word leads to the neutralization of the opposition according to the RP “voicedness” (this type of neutralization is called stunning).

Most complete this phenomenon described in his book Phonetics of the Modern Russian Literary Language. He argues that the position at the end of a word is a weak position for paired consonant phonemes, and defines these phonemes as weak in deafness-voicedness. For example: [h̓ep] ( bread), [r̓ap̓] ( ripples), [rof] ( moat), [krof̓] ( blood), [sklat] ( warehouse), [с̓а̓] ( sit down), [voice] ( eye), [mas̓] ( ointment), [wear] ( knife), [pluk] ( plow). The presence of only deaf paired consonants at the end of a word in Russian is explained by the weakening of the pronunciation of the end of the word that took place (after the loss of the reduced ones) and, as a result, the loss of voice by noisy consonants (stunning).

notes that the voiced noisy is not combined with the next pause. In other words, words cannot end in voiced noisy [Panov 1967, 87]. and But he didn’t write a piece on phonetics, look more precisely in the preface to that! consider that a voiceless consonant is pronounced at the end of a word not only when it is an absolute end (i.e., an isolated pronunciation of a word or cases where the end of a word is also the end of a phrase or part of a phrase separated from another phrase or part of it by a pause), but and when the given word is pronounced together with the next word, i.e., in the absence of a pause between them. [Avanesov 1956, 164 – 165; Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 75]. In this position, the deaf variant of a consonant phoneme that is weak in deafness-voicedness is pronounced not only before the next deaf consonant, but also before the next vowel, sonorant and [v], [v̓]. Before enclitics ( already, whether this is a matarial, etc.), enclitic or weakly stressed forms of pronouns starting with these sounds, also pronounce a voiceless variant of a phoneme weak in deafness-voicedness..png" width="11" height="26 src=">.png" width= "18" height="25 src=">.png" width="12" height="26 src=">.png" width="11" height="26 src=">.png" width="15 " height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">.png" width="11" height ="26 src=">.png" width="11" height="26 src=">ku̯ъ].

The deafness-voicedness of the labio-dental does not differ from the voiced labio-dental: in the place of the first labio-dental, a deaf version of the consonant phoneme [f] or [f̓], weak in deafness-voicedness, is pronounced: [kʌrhttps://pandia.ru/text/78 /220/images/image012.png" width="15" height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">ry].

Prepositions near, through,against,against,around and particles after all,already are pronounced with a deaf variant of consonant phonemes that are weak in deafness-voicedness at the end not only before the deaf consonants of the next word, but also before vowels, sonorants and [v], [v̓]..png" width="11" height="26 src =">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=" >.png" width="12" height="26 src=">ktyrych̓] . In such cases, the surname is not put in the link, pay attention to the formatting, space after the comma

The deafness-voicedness of the labio-dental at the junction of names and patronymics does not differ from the voiced labio-dental ones: before the voiced labio-dental, a voiceless version of the consonant phoneme [f] or [f̓], weak in deafness-voicedness, is pronounced: [l̓https://pandia.ru /text/78/220/images/image010.png" width="12" height="26 src=">mirouch].

Just like names with patronymics, names are pronounced with surnames:

believes that the pronunciation of deaf variants of consonant phonemes that are weak in deafness-voicedness at the end of a word is explained by the fact that, despite the continuous pronunciation, the word retains its syllabic structure, namely, it retains its final closed syllable. i.e..png" width="11" height="26 src=">.png" width="10" height="26 src=">.png" width="11" height="26 src= "> ззъръ] the junction between words is at the same time a syllable section, which determined the stunning of the voiced consonant, as a result of which a weak position was formed in deafness-voicedness.

Some researchers believe that the reduction in the outcome of the word? inherent in allophones of sonorants, especially palatal ones /r̓/, /l̓/. states that "Russian sonants in the position of the absolute end appear in the form of noisy consonants and in most cases are completely deaf" . No, there someone else writes that the general tendency of the Russian language - to stun final consonants - is partially manifested in consonant sonants [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 73].

also considers that the consonant /j/ what is this transcription?, which at the end of a word can only be after a vowel, is stunned, like other smooth ones, for example: [mou̯][dau̯][krau̯] .

Changes are shown in blue. to contact the author of the chapter on phonetics in the grammar of the year 60. Pay attention to my formatting fixes, first of all - spaces.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of the phenomenon of reduction in the German and Russian languages, performed in the framework of this course work, allows us to draw the following conclusions:

1. quantitative reduction of vowels is presented in German;

2. The only case of qualitative reduction of vowels in German is the allophones of the phoneme /ə/.

3. In Russian, vowels undergo both quantitative and qualitative reduction. But not all vowels undergo reduction to the same extent; in addition, the degree of reduction of the vowel in the word is different.

4. The reduction of German consonants is connected primarily with their position relative to the boundaries of nonlimiting phonological units: the syllable and the phonological word.

5. The reduction of consonants in Russian covers the allophones of all noisy ones, except /zh̓/, and in the outcome of a phonological word leads to stunning.

Bibliography

Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language.- M .: Publishing House of Moscow University, 1956.

Bulanin of the modern Russian language. - M .: Publishing House "Higher School", 1970.

Grammar of the Russian language, volume 1. Phonetics and morphology. – M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960.

Zelenetsky in general and particular linguistics. The most difficult topics of the course. - M .: Eastern book, 2010.

Novozhilov of German linguistics. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2003.

Zinder L. R . Theoretical course of phonetics of the modern German language. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2003.

Kozmin of the German language. - M .: Higher. school, 2004.

Milyukov of the German language. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2004.

Panov phonetics. - M .: Publishing house "Enlightenment", 1967.

On the problem of the status of the German reduced vowel and its functions // Vestn. Moscow University. Ser. H. Philology. - 1983. - No. 1.

Reformed in Linguistics. – M.: Aspect Press, 1996.

The sounds of speech that are part of more complex units of the language (morphemes, words, etc.), in the formation of different grammatical forms or other words with the same root, can be modified, replaced by one another.

The interchange of sounds (alternation) in some cases is associated with certain phonetic conditions (cf. the alternation of root vowels in the words old - old man - old), in other cases, it is in no way connected with the phonetic conditions of their use in the modern language (cf. alternation consonants in the words friend - friend). On this basis, the alternations of sounds are divided into two types - alternations phonetic (or phonetically conditioned) and non-phonetic (or phonetically unconditioned). Phonetic alternations of sounds are sometimes called positional, allophonemic, live. Non-phonetic alternations of sounds are most often called historical, less often - traditional, non-positional, phonemic, morphological, grammatical, dead, etc.

Phonetic alternations of sounds are phonetically conditioned, depend on the phonetic position (position) of the sound in the word (hence the name “positional alternations”). In this case, sounds related to the same phoneme alternate, i.e., different backgrounds (or allophones, allophonemes) of this phoneme (hence the name "allophonemic alternations").

Phonetic alternations of sounds “depend on one or another neighborhood of consonants (combinatorial alternations) or on the position in the word (positional alternations).

Phonetic alternations are widely represented in modern Russian, where vowels usually alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants.

Obviously, we can talk about the phonetic alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants) with the absence of sound, or zero sound.

Vowel reduction - weakening and changing the sound quality in unstressed syllables. There are two weak positions in the Russian literary language:

I position - the first pre-stressed syllable,

II position - all other unstressed syllables, where the reduction is stronger than in the first.

There are two types of reduction: quantitative and qualitative.

With quantitative reduction, vowels lose part of their longitude, but do not change their main quality. High vowels and, s, u in Russian do not change their quality regardless of their location in the word. Quantitative reduction in phonetic writing is not indicated.

With a qualitative reduction, there is not only a weakening of the sound, but also a change in its characteristic features, its quality. The vowels o, a, e are subjected to qualitative reduction in Russian. Qualitative reduction is indicated in phonetic writing: after solid consonants in the I pre-stressed syllable a and o as /, e as ye, in other syllables a, o, e - as b. After soft consonants, the reduction of vowels a, e is indicated in the I prestressed syllable as ie, in other syllables as b.

Reduction (Latin reducere to reduce) - linguistic term, denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to others - percussive elements. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels.

Quantitative reduction - reduction in the number of vowels (that is, a strong reduction, up to the complete elimination of sound). Quantitative reduction - reduction in the time of articulation of the sound, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of the sound of pre-stressed from all stressed ones, for example, in the word [caravans]. At the same time, the sound quality can still be heard.

Qualitative reduction - a change in sound, the "transformation" of the phoneme.

Positional changes in sounds

Reduction (Latin reducire to reduce) is a linguistic term denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to others - percussive elements. In linguistics, the greatest attention of researchers is usually riveted to the description of the process of vowel reduction, since it is vowels that are the main syllabic element, although not the only one. The reduction of consonants - stunning (linguistics) - is also very common in a number of languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the world (Russian, German).

Vowel reduction types

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels. Quantitative reduction - reduction in the number of vowels (that is, a strong reduction, up to the complete elimination of sound). Qualitative reduction - a change in sound, the "transformation" of the phoneme.

Quantitative reduction of vowels

Quantitative reduction - reduction in the time of articulation of the sound, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of the sound of pre-stressed from all stressed ones, for example, in the word [caravans]. At the same time, the sound quality can still be heard.

Qualitative vowel reduction

Quantitative reduction often leads to qualitative reduction, that is, the sound loses its clarity and turns into a neutral sliding vowel due to the speaker’s failure to complete the full articulatory program of an unstressed vowel for a number of reasons (vernacular, fast speech, etc.). In a number of languages, the qualitative reduction of sounds turns into a linguistic law, that is, it takes on a regular phonetic character. A typical example is the Portuguese language, where unstressed vowels of folk Latin have a clear transition system: [a] > [ə], [e] > [s], [o] > [y].

The system of vowel reduction in Russian has a mixed qualitative and quantitative character. After hard consonants, vowels [e], [o] and partially [s] in unstressed syllables are reduced to [s e] / [b] and [b], and after soft consonants, vowels [e], [o], [a] and [and] are reduced to [and e ]/[b]. The vowel [y] is mainly subject to quantitative reduction.

9. combinatorial changes in sounds

The influence of sounds on each other causes combinatorial changes that occur in phonetic processes: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diaeresis, epenthesis, haplology. Reduction is a weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables and syllabic sounds of these words. Accommodations (similarity) occur between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side, and consist in the fact that the excursion of the subsequent sound adapts to the recursion of the previous sound - progressive accommodation; on the contrary - regressive accommodation, while sliding transitional sounds (glide) may occur. Assimilations (similarity) arise between sounds of the same kind, and therefore can be complete, i.e. As a result of assimilation, 2 different sounds can become completely similar and become the same, therefore, they distinguish between complete and incomplete assimilation. Dissimilations (dissimilations) occur between sounds of the same type and are based on a tendency opposite to assimilation, from 2 identical or similar sounds, 2 different or less similar sounds are obtained; (contact, distact, regressive and progressive). Diareses have an assimilative basis, for example, the elimination of iota between vowels when they strive to become like each other or merge into one sound. Epentheses have a dissimilative stem (e.g. insertion of consonants). Prostheses are a kind of epentheses, only prostheses are not inserted in the middle of the word, but are attached in front to the beginning of the word (eight). Haplology - when one of two identical or similar syllables is thrown out (standard-bearer instead of standard-bearer). Metatheses are more common when a word from 1 language passes into another language, when words move into a dialect.

10. general concept of oppositions of phonemes

Phonemes are always members of a given phonetic system characteristic of a certain language, and it is the content of each phoneme that is determined by its position in the system. For this, you need to consider different types oppositions of phonemes in the language system.

First of all, each phoneme is opposed to zero, i.e. the absence of this phoneme, for example, cattle - cat, chair - chair, couple - couples.

The easiest way to establish oppositions is to select words that differ from each other in only one phoneme. If there is no such pair, you can match the word with part of the word. The resulting rows of oppositions are distributed according to differential characteristics - deafness / sonority, hardness / softness, etc.

Phonemes enter into the following types of oppositions:

• correlative opposition - such an opposition, the members of which differ only in one feature, in all others they coincide
• closed - the opposition is exhausted by two members, forming a closed pair, for example deaf || voiced: [n] || [b]
• non-closed - consist of more than two members
• stepped (gradual) - in a series of phonemes, any sign is enhanced, for example [u] || [ů] || [ü] in Norwegian: back, middle and front u
• non-stepped - there is no increase or decrease of the attribute; three or more members change one of the signs
• chains - form a sequential row, for example [p] labial, [t] anterior lingual, [k] posterior lingual
• bundles - a similar ratio that does not form a sequential series, for example [c] affricate, [t] explosive, [c] fricative
• non-correlative - members of such an opposition differ in several ways, for example [p] || [a]

Some oppositions are accompanied in parallel by others, for example: [n] || [b] - [t] || [d] - [k] || [G]; others remain isolated: [c] || [h].

To determine the number of phonemes in a language, an understanding of positions is necessary, since the phoneme count can only be carried out on the basis of a comparison of strong positions. In those cases when it is established that these sounds cannot be equally in strong positions, but replace the sound of a strong position in weak ones by alternation, in the same morphemes in the same places, we are dealing with variations of the same phoneme.

14. Parts of speech. principles of their selection

Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical categories of words, united by semantic, morphological, derivational (word-forming features) and syntactic commonality.

Parts of speech are groups of words that have:

1. the same generalized lexical meaning;

2. the same generalized grammatical meaning, or the same set of morphological features;

3. the same syntactic functions.

Parts of speech are traditionally divided into significant (independent - it is characterized by the fact that the words of these parts of speech have lexical meaning, have articulation and grammatical categories, have verbal stress and logical stress, act as members of a sentence) and non-significant (do not have lexical. meanings, segmentation, grammar categories, often do not have verbal stress, they are not members of the sentence). The ambiguous include service parts of speech (unions, prepositions - they express relationships), particles (cat. Emphasize the meanings of other words), modal words (cat. Express the attitude of the speaker to the statement), interjections (cat. Express feelings and motives), onomatopoeia ( cat. transmit various sounds).

Functional words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not the names of objects, features, processes, but serve to express the relationship between the phenomena of reality, which are called significant words. Because of this, service words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words. Service words are not members of a sentence, but are used as formal grammatical means of the language: prepositions appear in subordinating phrases, unions - with homogeneous members and in complex sentences, particles - with individual words and in interrogative and exclamatory sentences

Modality is the relation to reality. There are words in Russian that specifically serve to express modality. They are traditionally called modal words. Their main function is to express the speaker's attitude to reality and to the content of speech.

Interjections are words that directly express feelings, experiences and expressions of will, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech in that they do not have a naming function, that is, a nominative function, since they are, as it were, speech signs, signals used to briefly express a person’s reaction to various events of reality or to express a requirement, a person’s desire .Expressing feelings and will, the interjection is nevertheless recognized by all speakers of the given language and is understood by everyone, since a certain semantic content is assigned to the interjection. But the meaning of interjections can usually be understood only from the context, because the same interjections can serve to express different feelings.

15 syntax as a grammatical doctrine

Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section that considers a larger syntactic whole - the union of sentences in coherent speech.

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words that are related in meaning and grammatically and are complex names for phenomena of objective reality, for example: a student meeting, an article on dialectology. Another basic syntactic unit is a sentence. A sentence is the smallest unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness. Being a unit of communication, the sentence is at the same time a unit of formation and expression of thought, in which the unity of language and thinking finds its manifestation. The sentence correlates with a logical judgment, but is not identical to it.

Syntactic connection - serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence, forms syntactic relations, i.e. varieties of syntactic correspondence that are regularly distinguished in syntactic units, regardless of their level.

There are three main types of syntactic connection: subordinating connection, or subordination, composing connection, or composition, and predicative connection, or predication.

Subordination, or subordination - the relationship of syntactic inequality between words in a phrase and sentence, as well as between predicative parts complex sentence. Types of subordination in a phrase and sentence:

• agreement
  - a type of subordinating connection, in which the dependent word is likened in the expression of grammatical meanings (in gender, number, case) to the dominant word; There is complete and incomplete agreement.
  Examples: a little boy, on a summer evening; our doctor, at Lake Baikal.
  Sometimes a special type of agreement is distinguished - correlation - such a connection in which the forms of the number and gender of the dependent word are more likely to coincide with the forms of the dominant word, rather than due to them.
  Examples: female astronaut, excellent student.
• control
  - a type of subordinating connection, in which the dependent word (noun or its equivalent) is put in a certain case form, due to the lexical and grammatical meaning of the dominant word or the meaning of the statement.
  Examples: writing poetry, faith in victory, happy with the answer.
• contiguity
  - a type of subordination in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning (word order, lexically and intonation).
  Examples: listen carefully, very interesting, too late.

The composition differs from subordination, which is defined as an unequal connection, a one-sided dependence of one component of the connection (word or sentence) on another. According to the meaning, the coordinative connection is divided into the following types:

• adversative connection ("a", "yes" (meaning "but"), "but", "on the other hand", "however", "however", "still"),
• connecting connection ("not only - but also"),
• separating bond ("or", "or... or", "either", "this... that", "either... either", "not that... not that").

In a simple sentence, the essay appears in a mandatory combination with the category of homogeneity: it connects elements that are in the same relation to any other member of the sentence (father and mother came; the teacher is strict but fair; there are not only adults in the hall, but also children; let's meet today or tomorrow). The composition occupies a peripheral place here and serves the purpose of expanding the sentence, increasing the number of syntactic positions of the same type in it.

predicative connection

The connection between the subject and the predicate, a form of expression of predicative relations,

Predicative relations - a type of semantic-grammatical relations between individual structural components of the statement, which allows you to correlate the content of the statement with the described situation of reality and, thus, is necessary for the formulation of the statement into an integral communicative unit (relatively complete thought). Formally, predicative relations are expressed as a predicative connection.

Predicative connection - a type of syntactic connection, built according to the laws of a particular language and representing a formal expression of predicative relations between the components of a speech segment (in predicative pairs).

16.Main types of offers

General information
There are various types of sentences in Russian. According to the nature of the attitude to reality expressed in them, sentences of real and unreal modality with various shades differ. modal values: realities and unreality, assumptions, doubts, certainties, possibilities, impossibilities, etc.
Proposals are considered affirmative or negative, depending on the indication in them of the presence or absence of a connection between objects and their features in reality.
According to the purpose of the utterance and the intonation depending on this purpose, sentences are divided into narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences. Each of the sentences of these three groups can become exclamatory with a corresponding emotional coloring, expressed in a special exclamatory intonation.
The structural characteristic of proposals is built on the basis of taking into account various features of this structure. So, sentences can be simple and complex, depending on the number of predicative units - one or more.
Simple sentences are divided into one-part and two-part, i.e. having one or two main members as organizing centers of supply.
By the presence or absence of secondary members, sentences are common and non-common. (A sentence consisting only of the main members - the subject and the predicate is called non-common, for example: She did not answer and turned away). (Sentences that have, along with the main, secondary members, are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun rose quite high).
Both one-part and two-part sentences are considered complete if all the necessary members of a given sentence structure are present, and incomplete if one or more necessary members of a given sentence structure are omitted due to context or setting.
The lack of the possibility of dividing certain types of proposals, i.e. identifying individual members in their structure leads to the allocation of a special type of sentences - inseparable (word-sentences).
When making a sentence, intonation is of great importance, which performs both a grammatical function and a stylistic one. With the help of intonation, the completeness of the sentence is conveyed and its division into syntactic units is carried out, the emotionality of speech, volitional impulses, as well as various modal shades of meanings are expressed.
Sentences can have paradigms based on the correlation of predicate forms in temporal and modal terms. For example: He is a good teacher; He will be a good teacher; He was a good teacher; He would be a good teacher; He could be a good teacher.

A complex syntactic integer is understood as syntactic unit, greater than the offer. This is the largest unit of syntax, which is a structural and semantic unity.

A complex syntactic whole is found in a connected text. This is a combination of several sentences, characterized by the relative completeness of the topic (micro-theme), semantic and syntactic cohesion of the components.

Separate sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole are united by interphrase links, which are carried out with the help of lexical continuity, as well as special syntactic means.

A complex syntactic whole differs from a complex sentence (including a polynomial one) by a less close connection between the parts, their formal syntactic independence. However, these qualities do not prevent the components of a complex syntactic whole from being combined into a semantic and even structural unity, which makes it possible to single out this unit in syntax.

17.grammatical and logical sentence structure

Words and phrases - according to the grammatical rules and laws inherent in a given language - are combined into sentences.

The specific content of sentences cannot be the subject of grammatical consideration. Grammar studies only the structure of a sentence, the typical forms of sentences inherent in a particular popular language in its historical development.

The construction of a sentence is one of the most important, most essential elements of the grammatical structure of a language. The grammatical forms of a sentence and its members are specific to a particular language or a group of related languages. Studying the laws of construction of speech in which a thought is realized and expressed, grammar usually puts the doctrine of the sentence as the basis of syntax.

A sentence is a holistic (i.e., indivisible further into speech units with the same basic structural features) unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. Language as a tool for communication and exchange of thoughts between all members of society uses the sentence as the main form of communication. The rules for the use of words in the function of sentences and the rules for combining words and phrases in a sentence are the core of the syntax of a particular language. Based on these rules, different types or types of sentences are established that are characteristic of this particular language. The sentence expresses not only a message about reality, but also the attitude of the speaker to it.

Each sentence from a grammatical point of view is an internal unity of its verbally expressed members, the order of their location and intonation. The sentence as the main grammatical form of expression and communication of thought in the process of communication first served as the basis for the logical analysis of judgment as a form of thinking. Therefore, already in ancient grammar, the theory of sentence and the theory of judgment were intertwined, and sometimes even directly mixed. This confusion was partly expressed in the fact that the term "sentence" (propositio, proposition, cf. German Satz), for example, in Russian for a long time served to designate both the judgment and the form of its verbal expression. On the basis of such a mixture, on the basis of the ancient theory of sentence-judgment, it was created in the 17th-18th centuries. a universal scheme of a sentence and its members, which has long been used to analyze sentences in all languages ​​of the world. In each sentence (often even in an impersonal or subjectless one), in abstraction from its grammatical structure, the subject (subject) was found by purely semantic, logical considerations, i.e., what in question, and a predicate (predicate), that is, what is said about the subject of speech, and then the object or objects (complement) - the names of other objects, except for the subject, and attributes (definitions). From attributive (defining) and partly object words, circumstances later began to be distinguished as members of a sentence denoting time, place, condition, purpose, reason, image and mode of action, and sometimes also contradictory or counteracting factors (circumstances of concession). The traditional school theory of the sentence finally took shape on the basis of logical doctrines of judgment in the 18th century. [*one]

The logical direction in the West, based on the idealistic philosophy of Kant and Hegel and especially closely associated with the name of Becker, came to a complete identification of grammatical and logical categories. F. Becker developed an anti-historical and cosmopolitan doctrine of a single path for all languages ​​of the ideal development of the sentence structure, replacing the internal laws of language development with the laws and forms of logic. According to Becker, in language the logical form of the concept and judgment (thought) is merged with the grammatical form. In this regard, the syntactic relations within the sentence, which Becker identifies with the logical concepts of the subject, predicate, attribute and object, were considered by him as metaphysical "all-time" categories and forms of thinking of the "self-positing spirit".

In our domestic grammar, the foundations of the theory of the sentence, developed in the logical-grammatical (and stylistic) plan, were laid by M.V. Lomonosov and deepened by his student prof. A. A. Barsov. Then A. Kh. Vostokov, who put forward the idea of ​​a simple verbal and compound verbal-nominal predicate, and especially A. A. Potebnya and A. A. Shakhmatov, who developed their original theories of sentences, laws of changes in sentence forms, made their contribution to the development of the doctrine of the sentence. in Russian and determined the variety of types of simple sentences.

18. suggestion and judgment. The main features of the offer

Most types of sentence, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical proposition. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predication (predication) finds its expression, i.e. disclosure of the content of a logical subject by a logical predicate.

The relationship between subject and predicate in a judgment finds its parallel in the predicative relationship between subject and predicate in a sentence, which expresses the relationship between the subject of thought, denoted by the subject, and its attribute, denoted by the predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting.

Predicative relations can only be in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativity to be such a general, basic feature of a sentence, understanding it as the relation of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of tense, person, mood, and various types of intonation (intonation of a message, question, motivation, etc.).

Since, while expressing his thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of what is being expressed (its desirability or undesirability, obligation or conditionality, etc.), modality is also an essential feature of the sentence. The means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, are the category of mood (indicative, imperative, conditional-desirable) and special lexical and grammatical means (the so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles).

Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonations of a message, a question, an urge, etc., differ.

Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the relation of the speaker to the expressed), predicativity (the relation of the content of the sentence to reality), intonation and relative semantic completeness.

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, which serves to dismember the designation of a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.).

The phrase is considered as a unit of syntax that performs a communicative function (included in speech) only as part of a sentence.

It is generally accepted that word combinations include compounds of words based on a subordinate connection (connection of the main and dependent members). Some researchers also recognize coordinating phrases - combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence.

Phrases are not

1. grammatical basis
2. homogeneous members of the sentence
3. official part of speech + noun
4. phraseological unit
5. word repetitions

19. morpheme. Classification of morphemes by location relative to the root

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.

From the point of view of the morphological structure, the words of the Russian language are divided into words that have forms of inflection and those that do not have forms of inflection. The words of the first group fall into two parts: the stem and the ending, or inflection; the words of the second group are pure stem.

The stem is the part of the word that expresses its lexical meaning. The stem is distinguished by subtracting the ending.

The ending, or inflection, is the modified part of the word, which indicates the relationship given word to others, i.e. is a means of expressing the syntactic properties of a word in a sentence.

The basis of the word breaks up into separate significant parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix.

The root of the word - the common part of related words - is distinguished when comparing the words of one nest, i.e. single-root words. The root can attach various affixes to itself. An affix is ​​a common name for all significant parts of a word, with the exception of the root.

Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, or prefixes, - parts of the word that stand before the root, suffixes - parts of the word that stand between the root and the ending, and endings.

Each significant part of a word - prefix, root, suffix, ending - is called a morpheme.

As the names of one of the significant parts of the word, the term postfix is ​​sometimes used (as applied to the affix -sya, -s: work, wash). This morpheme holds a special name because it is often placed after other parts of the word, including endings.

In most compound words, another part of the word stands out - the connecting vowel (interfix).

As part of the word, affixoids are also distinguished - root morphemes that act as an affix. These include prefixoids: semi- (shoes, half-open, reclining), daily (daily, monthly) and suffixoids: -var (soap maker), -ved (local historian), -vod (beekeeper), -voz (timber truck).

Words that come from the same root form a derivational nest.

A special place in the classification of affixes is occupied by zero affixes:

Zero endings - endings that are not represented by sounds are not materially expressed, but this sound absence is significant.

Zero suffixes - suffixes that are not expressed by sound, are not materially represented, but with the help of which new words are formed: exit - exit

20. The concept of the word. Its difference from sentence and morpheme

So, the word is a significant independent unit of the language, the main function of which is the nomination (naming); unlike morphemes, the minimum meaningful units of a language, a word on its own (although it can consist of one morpheme: suddenly, kangaroo), is grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only a real, but also a lexical meaning1; unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication2, the word, as such, is not communicative (although it can act as a sentence: It's dawning. No.), but it is from words that sentences are built for communication; at the same time, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign, whereby the words differ, forming separate units of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression (became - table - chair - cold; volume - house - scrap - rum

21. word as a nominative unit of language

The subject of study of lexicology is the word as a linguistic unit. As you know, the word is studied in morphology and word formation, but in other aspects. In these sections of linguistics, words turn out to be a means of studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models of the language. The word is the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of the language, which serves to name and communicate knowledge about the phenomena of reality. Words in the language are called specific objects ( computer, phone) and abstract concepts ( beauty, study, well-being), human emotions are expressed ( rejoice, be frightened, tenderness, indignation) and much more. The word as a linguistic unit correlates with units of other levels of the language: phonetic, since it is framed with the help of sounds - school [school]; derivational, since words consist of morphemes: school(root, ending). Words with non-derivative stems serve as the basis for the formation of new words: school - school - n-th; morphological, because words form certain grammatical classes: words with a common objective meaning are nouns, words with a common feature meaning are adjectives, etc., school- noun; syntactic, since words are used in phrases and sentences - new school. Being associated with different levels of the language, the word holds together, cements the general language system. Despite the reality and evidence of the word as a linguistic unit, it is difficult to define. This is due to the diversity of words in terms of structure and meaning. A word is such a unit of a language that is both a phonetic, lexico-semantic, and morphological whole, and therefore can be characterized with different parties, taking into account properties that are different in nature. Usually a word as a unit of language is characterized through its differential features. So, N.M. Shansky identifies 12 such properties:

22. polysemy of a word

Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sma - sign), is a property of words when they are used in different meanings. The ways of forming the meanings of words are different. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring the name according to the similarity of objects or their features, i.e. metaphorically (from Gr. metaphora - transfer). For instance; by the similarity of external features, the shape of objects, by the similarity of sensations, assessments, etc. It is also possible to transfer names according to the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): pen (goose) - pen (steel).

A new value may arise as a result of adjacency associations. For example, the name of the material is transferred to a product made of this material: bronze chandelier (name of material) - An antique bronze was sold in an antique shop (an item made of this material). In a metonymic way, various kinds of connotations also arise, i.e. the name in one word of the action and its result, cf .: to do embroidery - an exhibition of artistic embroidery; parts and the whole (and vice versa), cf .: Pea coats with peakless caps and gray overcoats flashed (i.e. sailors and infantrymen; in this case, a person is named after a piece of clothing), etc.

In the event of a break or complete loss of semantic links between different meanings, it becomes possible to name already famous word completely different concepts, objects, etc. This is one of the ways to develop new words - homonyms.

The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning. The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For instance:

Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.

2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple- eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

23. Homonymy

Homonymy is the sound coincidence of different language units, the meanings of which are not related to each other. Causes of homonymy-1. Sound changes. Phonetic laws can lead to partial or complete coincidence of phonemes, and hence words that include these phonemes.2. homonyms arise when borrowing foreign words.3. a break in the originally unified semantics of a polysemantic word.

Home > Lectures

1. Phonetic processes. In a speech stream, sounds interact with each other and, therefore, change. This change in sound is called phonetic processes, which are divided into 2 types:

positional processes- change in sounds caused by general conditions of pronunciation; combinatorial processes- this is a combination of sounds associated with the interactions of sounds, with the influence of sounds on each other.

2. Positional processes. Positional Processes- changes in sounds caused by general conditions of pronunciation. These processes are divided into several groups. 1. Stun voiced consonant at the absolute end of a word. This process characteristic of all Slavic languages, even loanwords are stunned. Stunning is due to the weakness of the position in which the consonant finds himself. For instance: friend - [druk], oak - [dup], ice - [l, from]. 2. Prosthesis - extension - the appearance of an additional sound at the absolute beginning of a word. This phonetic process is found in dialect words and vernacular. 3 sounds can be prosthetic: For instance: cattail → Caterpillar. For instance: osto (Latin) → eight (Old Slavic) → eight (Russian). For instance: abolla (Latin) → ablka (Bol.) → apple tree (Russian). 3. Reduction - this is the weakening and change of vowels in an unstressed position. Reduction happens quantitative and quality.

Quantitative reduction - this is a weakening of the vowels [and], [s], [y] in an unstressed position, in which the vowels weaken, become shorter, but do not change their quality. Qualitative reduction- this is not only a weakening, but also a change in the vowels [a], [o], [e] in an unstressed position.

Remember:- the position under stress is called strong position without stress - weak;- vowel sounds under stress reduction are not subject to; - vowels in unstressed position are pronounced differently, it depends on the distance from the stressed syllable; - first syllable before stress- it first prestressed syllable(I) or first pre-strike position, rest syllables - this is the second pre-shock or stressed syllable(position). - at quality reduction sounds change a lot, so we use a special system of signs - transcription. - after solid and soft consonant vowels undergo reduction differently.

	II pre-stressed position (syllable)	I pre-stressed position (syllable)	Striking position (strong)	II stressed position (syllable)	II stressed position (syllable)
After hard consonants
			<о>
After soft consonants			<э>

3. Combinatorial processes. combinatorial processes- this is a combination of sounds associated with the interactions of sounds, with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial processes are subjected to combinations of sounds. These include: 1. accommodation - adaptation of one sound to another.

Adaptation of front vowels [and], [e]

If the sounds [and] appear after a solid consonant, then it turns into a sound [s].

For instance: play - play [playٰ a T , ] hut - under the hut [pd yzboy]

In a position between soft consonants under stress, the sounds [and], [e] become closed, tense

For instance: mesh - network mother - mint

Change of non-front vowels [a], [o], [y]

Under the influence of a soft consonant, non-front vowels become more front either in excursion, or in recursion, or throughout the articulation. The adaptation of a vowel to a soft consonant is indicated by a dot.

Excursion- moving accommodation back. recursion- promotion of accommodation forward. Accommodation may be:

progressive– vowels become more front in excursion.

For instance: mint - [m , a tb]

regressive– vowels become more front in recursion.

For instance: mother - [m a T, ]

progressive-regressive- vowels become more front throughout the articulation

For instance: wrinkle - [m, at,] 2. assimilation(similarity) is the likening of homogeneous sounds: vowels to vowels, consonants to consonants. In Russian, assimilation of consonants occurs more often. Consonants can assimilate in all respects:

by place of education

For instance: sew - [shsht , ] (changing dental [c] to palatal [w])

by way of education

For instance: the male – [musch andнъ] (change of slotted [g] and locking [h] in slotted [w , ])

deafness

For instance: bus – [^ft O bus] (change of voiced [v] into deaf [f])

by softness

For instance:leaf - [l , and With , T , ik](change of solid [c] to soft [c , ]) Signs of assimilation: - in the direction of the process:

progressive Va nka - Vankya [Va n , To , a] regressive sew - [shsht , ]

- according to the location of the sounds:

contact - sounds are located nearby PO rides - [nO yst] distact - interacting sounds are separated by other sounds nowa with - [chicha With]

- by result:

full - sounds become the same O rest - [O ddyh] partial - sounds acquire common features, but remain different lO dka - [lO tk]

3. dissimilation - this is the process of dissimilarity of sounds, i.e. sounds that had some common feature become different according to this feature. Dissimilation is more characteristic of dialects and vernacular. For instance: who - [who] Dissimilation often occurs in the formation of new and borrowed words. In Russian, dissimilation takes place only in a nutshell. For instance: soft - [m, ah, k, ii] light - [l, oh, k, uy] 4. diarrhea - the process of simplifying a group of consonants, i.e. throwing out one of the consonants. For instance: l e stnitsa - [l , uh With , n , itz] etc a zdnik - [pr a h , n , hic] Answer the questions: Lecture 7 Topic: The concept of a phoneme Dictionary: perceptual function, significative function, phoneme, phonemic features, non-phonemic features, phoneme realization (allophone, variant), phoneme type, neutralization position, integral features, differential features, opposition (phonemes), phonological schools. Plan: 1. sound and phoneme. Phonemic and non-phonemic features. 2. phoneme options. 3. Differential and integral signs of phonemes. 4. Phonological schools. 1. Sound and phoneme. Phonemic and non-phonemic features. Each speech sound has 3 aspects:

physiological- participation of the speech apparatus in the formation of sounds; acoustic- speech sounds as physical phenomena that have height, strength, amplitude; linguistic (phonemic)- speech sounds are considered as units involved in distinguishing the sound shells of words, i.e. in terms of distinction.

For instance:[so] - [ta n To] Every sound of speech is performed 2 main functions:

perceptual(perception function) significative(semantic function)

All the sounds that make up a word are called semantic shell of the word. Thanks to it, we distinguish one word from another, but not all qualities of sound are involved in sound discrimination. There are qualities that are due to the position. For instance: The resulting series of vowels is position-dependent. Each of these sounds can only be in its position. If the change of a vowel depends on the position, then this vowel does not participate in the semantic distinction of words. This sound quality is called non-phonemic. There are other qualities that are not due to position. For instance: The sounds are in the same position, but their quality does not depend on this position. Sound quality that is not dependent on position is called phonemic (meaningful). This means that in the process of distinguishing a sound, and, consequently, the sound shells of words, the phonemic features of words participate. Those qualities of sounds that are involved in semantic differentiation form a special sound unit - phoneme. Background - it is a minimal, indivisible, quality-independent sound unit that distinguishes the sound shells of words and is realized in speech in different options. 2. Variants of phonemes. Under various phonetic conditions, a phoneme can be realized in different sounds or variants. To distinguish a phoneme from a sound, special brackets should be used:

< > - to designate phonemes, - to designate sounds.

The phoneme can be realized in different ways. For instance: phoneme realization < о >

Bosom →	[l O n] →	[O] →
Water →	[in , and uh n O . th] →	[O . ] →
Linen →	[l , . O n] →	[ . O] →	< о >
Lenya →	[l , . O . n , b] →	[ . O . ] →
Water →	[v ^ d a] →	[ ^ ] →

One of the realizations of a phoneme that is least dependent on position is called main type of phoneme. All other varieties of phonemes are called allophones or her options. 3. Differential and integral signs of phonemes. Phonemes are in certain relationships, i.e. form a system. In each system, there are certain types of relations (similarities, oppositions). For a system of phonemes, the main relations are the relations of opposition to each other according to certain characteristics. The opposition of phonemes is called oppositions, i.e. phonemes in linguistics are studied by their opposition. For instance:

phonemes < т > - < д > are in opposition in deafness, hardness; phonemes < т > - < ж > are in opposition in deafness, sonority, in the method and place of formation.

The signs by which phonemes are opposed are called differential. Features that do not participate in discrimination are called integral. The system of phonemes is studied by a special branch of linguistics, which is called phonology.

phonetics		phonology
learning the sounds of speech
differences
studies the physiological and acoustic aspects of the formation of sounds.		studies the linguistic aspect, i.e. how sound is involved in practical communication.

4. Phonological schools. There are 2 main phonological schools:

Moscow school		Leningrad school
Representatives
Reformatsky, Avanesov, Kuznetsov		Shcherba, Matusevich, Kodukhov
Composition of vowel phonemes
It is believed that there is a 5-phonemic composition of vowels, a phoneme < ы > considered as an option < и >		phoneme < ы > isolated as an independent, i.e. believed that there are 6 phonemic composition of vowels
Justification of the theory
1. does not stand at the absolute beginning of a word; 2. possible only after a solid consonant, i.e. in a certain position, replaces a phoneme in this position < и > ; 3. used in the endings of nouns along with < и >, those. differ in hard and soft options; 4. < ы > < и > in one position is not possible.		1. the substitution of another vowel destroys the connection between sound and meaning, i.e. if instead of silt substitute al, ol , then each of these vowels performs an identification function; 2. < ы > easy to pronounce in isolation; 3. can be used at the beginning of a word.

Answer the questions: Lecture 8 Topic: Dictionary: sound units, segmental units, supersegmental units, syllable, non-syllabic vowels, syllable structure, measure, pause, proclise, enclise, syntagma, phrase, stress, intonation. Plan: 1. The division of sound units of the language 2. Sound division of the speech stream 1. Division of sound units of the language The sound units of a language constitute a certain system that underlies sound speech. The sound system has two types of units:

segment units - sounds and syllables (linear units); supersegmental units - stress and intonation.

2. Sound division of the speech stream The minimum unit of speech flow is sound. The next larger unit is syllable- This is a set of sounds pronounced by a push of extruded air. Syllable is a physiological-acoustic phenomenon:

With physiological point of view - the syllable corresponds to one muscular tension of the speech apparatus; With acoustic point of view - a syllable is a combination of a more sonorous sound (the presence of a voice in a sound compared to noise) with a less sonorous one.

A louder sound is called syllabic or syllabic. These are all vowels and some sonorous sounds. Syllables can form vowels and consonants. Consonants can be non-syllabic. By its structure syllables can be:

open– ending in a vowel - t a; closed- ending in a consonant - a t; naked- starting with a vowel - t at; covered- beginning with a consonant - a t; semi-open- ending in sonorant - a t.

Tact (phonetic word)- this is a larger unit of speech flow, these are several syllables united by one stress. The beat is determined by pauses. A measure is equal to a word if it includes several words. For instance: They did / talked / for two hours. If the words are not significant (functional), they are adjacent to the main word in front or behind. Front connection is called proclise, adjoining behind is called enclise. Syntagma - a unit of speech flow, something connected, an intonation-semantic segment of speech. This concept was introduced by L.V. Shcherboy. Syntagma is a phonetic unity that expresses a single semantic whole in the process of speech, thought. For instance: Tomorrow evening / our tourist group / in full force / returns to the base This phrase is divided into 4 syntagmas. The largest unit is phrase. It is equal to a sentence or includes several sentences. There is no single concept of a phrase in linguistics. Phrase is a segment of speech that includes a complete message. Answer the questions:

What two types of units does the sound system of a language have? Define the term syllable. What is a syllable from a physiological and acoustic point of view? How are sounds divided according to their structure? Define the term tact. Define the terms enclise and proclise. Define the concept of syntagma. Define the term phrase.

Lecture 9 Topic: Stress and its types Dictionary: Stress, monotonic stress, polytonic stress, quantitative stress, constant and free stress. Plan: 1. The concept of stress. 2. Types of stress. 1. The concept of stress. stress- this is the selection of a sound, syllable or word by the effort of muscular tension and the pressure of an air stream or by changing the pitch of the voice. 2. Types of stress. Not all syllables in a word are pronounced the same. In a word consisting of two or more syllables, one syllable must be distinguished. The separation of a syllable in a word is called accent. The stress in a word is called verbal. In addition to word stress, there is also logical, or semantic when not a specific syllable is highlighted, but a whole word (sometimes several words) of a speech tact or phrase. For instance: phrase To whom / is not familiar / this / picture! four phonetic words and, therefore, four word stresses; in addition, in pronunciation, they stand out, carry a logical stress, words who is not familiar because they are the verbal center of a phrase. In logical stress, intonation plays the main role: the speaker manages to emphasize the meaning of a word (or words) by raising and lowering the tone of voice. Selecting a syllable in a word different languages is achieved by special linguistic means: 1) by force or intensity, articulation - this power or dynamic stress; 2) pronunciation length is quantitative (quantitative or longitudinal) stress; 3) the movement of tone (increasing or decreasing, or a combination of raising and lowering the tone) against the background of a neutral tone of pronunciation of other syllables - this musical or tonic accent. Purely dynamic stress occurs in Czech; musical - in Chinese, Japanese, Korean; purely quantitative stress - in modern modern Greek. In most languages, these phenomena are combined together. Among such languages ​​is Russian, in which the stress is quantitative-force , or quantitative-dynamic. stressed syllable in Russian it is characterized by the greatest longitude (lengthening) of the vowel, which is a feature of Russian stress. In addition, it is pronounced more clearly, distinctly (unstressed ones are weakened, pronounced fuzzy). If in most languages ​​the stress is attached to a certain syllable or a certain part of a word, then in Russian the stress is free. It can fall on any syllable and on any part of the word. Another feature of Russian stress is its mobility: in different grammatical forms the same word can be stressed With one word part to another: assa be- ha gave - asked, pI am th -fiveYu . Answer the questions:

Practice Questions

Topic 1: Theoretical and applied, general and particular phonetics.

What is linguistics? What branches of linguistics exist? What is phonetics? What is the subject of phonetics? What are speech sounds? What are the two functions of sound? Give examples. What divisions of phonetics exist? Explain what is the material side of the language?

Topic 2: Oral and written forms of speech. Orthoepy. literary pronunciation.

Define the term "language". Define the word "speech". Define the term "speech act". Define the term "text". Define the term "orthoepy". What two features does the pronunciation norm have?

Topic 3: Sound means of language. Phonetic and phonological aspects of the language. Phonetics and phonology.

What are the sound means of language? What are phonetic units? What are phonetic units? What are phonetic signs divided into, what do they characterize? What are phonetic units for phonetic features? What does the phonetic aspect study, what does it study? What does the phonological aspect study? What are the divisions of phonetics? What is the unit of phonetics? What is the unit of phonology? What is the unit of sound? What is the phoneme the unit of?

Topic 4: Aspects of the study of speech sounds. The device of the speech apparatus. Articulation of sounds.

List the main aspects of studying sounds. What organs does the speech apparatus consist of? What are the types of organs of speech? List the stages of articulation? Give a definition to each of them.

Topic 5: Vowels and consonants. Classification of sounds.

How are speech sounds divided? How are speech sounds different? What are the sources of sounds? What are the features of the formation of vowel sounds? What are the features of the formation of consonants? What sounds do we call mouth openers and mouth closes?

Why are they called that?

What sounds are called tones? Why? What are the principles for classifying vowels? How are vowels divided according to the method of formation? How are vowels divided according to the place of formation? How are vowel sounds divided according to the participation of the lips? What sounds are called open and closed? What are the main characteristics of consonants? What groups are consonant sounds divided into by noise level? What groups are consonants divided into according to the method of formation? What groups are consonants divided into according to the place of formation? How are voiced and voiceless consonants defined? How are hard and soft consonants formed?

Topic 6: phonetic processes.

Define the term "phonetic processes". Define the concept of positional processes. Define the term "combinatorial processes". List the main positional processes? Define the term "stupefaction". Give examples. Define the term "prosthesis". Give examples. Define the term "reduction". Give examples. What is the reduction? What sounds are subject to quantitative reduction? What sounds are subject to qualitative reduction? What sounds are subject to qualitative reduction? What is a strong position? List the main positional processes? Define the term "accommodation". Give examples. Define the term "assimilation". Give examples. Define the term "dissimilation". Give examples. Define the term "diarrhea". Give examples.

Topic 7: The concept of a phoneme

What are the functions of sounds? What is a phoneme? What signs are called phonemic? What signs are called non-phonemic? What qualities of sounds make up a phoneme? what is an allophone? What is opposition? What are the basic relationships for the phoneme system? What signs are called differential? What signs are called integral? What phonological schools do you know?

Topic 8: Sound articulation of the speech flow.

What two types of units does the sound system of a language have? Define the term syllable. What is a syllable from a physiological and acoustic point of view? How are sounds divided according to their structure? Define the term tact. Define the terms enclise and proclise. Define the concept of syntagma. Define the term phrase.

Topic 9: Stress and its types

Define the term stress. Define the word stress. Define the concept of logical or semantic. Define the concept of force or dynamic stress. Define the concept of quantitative (quantitative or longitudinal) stress. Define the concept of musical or tonic stress. Define the concept of mobility of stress. Give examples.

List of sources used

1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language: Uch. allowance / N.F. Alefirenko. - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2005. 2. Bryzgunova E.A. Sounds and intonation of Russian speech. - M: "Russian language", 1997. 3. Zindler L.R. General phonetics. - M., 2001. 4. Knyazev S.V., Pozharitskaya S.K. Modern Russian language. Phonetics, graphics, spelling, orthoepy. - M.: Academic prospectus, 2005. 5. Kozdasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. General phonetics. - M., 2001. 6. Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. - M., 1996. 7. Veshchikova I.A. Orthoepy. Fundamentals of theory and applied aspects. /books/element.php?pl1_cid=143&pl1_id=1431

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General linguistics: subject and objectives of the course

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The object of linguistics is the natural language of man. The regularities of the device, development and functioning of the language are the subject of the science of language. These regularities m.