Expressive words in Russian. Abstract expressive means of speech

Speech. Expression analysis.

It is necessary to distinguish tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Usually, in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets either in one word, or in a phrase in which one of the words is italicized.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words close in meaning	soon - soon - the other day - not today, tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are opposite in meaning	they never said you to each other, but always you.
phraseological units- stable combinations of words close in lexical meaning to one word	at the edge of the world (= "far"), the tooth does not fall on the tooth (= "frozen")
archaisms- obsolete words	squad, province, eyes
dialecticism- vocabulary common in a certain territory	kuren, gutarit
bookstore, colloquial vocabulary	daring, companion; corrosion, management; waste money, hinterland

Trails.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.

Types of trails and examples for them in the table:

metaphor- transfer of the meaning of a word by similarity	dead silence
impersonation- assimilation of any object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison- comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions like, like, like, comparative adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy- replacement of a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e., based on real connections)	Fizz of frothy glasses (instead of: frothy wine in glasses)
synecdoche- using the name of the part instead of the whole and vice versa	the lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship)
periphrase- replacement of a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of "Woe from Wit" (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet- the use of definitions that add imagery and emotionality to the expression	Where are you galloping, proud horse?
allegory- the expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales - justice, cross - faith, heart - love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of what is described	in one hundred and forty suns the sunset was blazing
litotes- understating the size, strength, beauty of what is described	your spitz, adorable spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense of the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule	Where, clever, are you wandering, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora- repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other	I would like to know. Why am I titular counselor? Why exactly titular counselor?
gradation- construction of homogeneous members of the sentence to increase the meaning or vice versa	came, saw, conquered
anaphora- repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other	Irontruth - alive to envy, Ironpistil, and iron ovary.
pun- play on words	It was raining and two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) - an exclamation, interrogative sentence or a sentence with an appeal that does not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing, swaying, a thin rowan? Long live the sun, let the darkness hide!
syntactic parallelism- the same structure of sentences	young people have a road everywhere, the elderly are honored everywhere
multi-union- repetition of redundant union	And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger Years have spared the winner ...
asyndeton- building complex sentences or a number of homogeneous members without unions	They flash past the booth, women, Boys, benches, lanterns ...
ellipsis- omission of an implied word	I'm behind a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion- indirect word order	Our amazing people.
antithesis- opposition (often expressed through the conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where the table was of food, there is a coffin
oxymoron- combination of two conflicting concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation- transfer of other people's thoughts, statements in the text, indicating the author of these words.	As stated in the poem by N. Nekrasov: "Below a thin blade of grass you have to bow your head ..."
questioningly-reciprocal the form expositions- the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again the metaphor: "Live under minute houses ...". What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the proposal- enumeration of homogeneous concepts	He was awaited by a long, serious illness, retirement from sports.
parceling- a sentence that is divided into intonational-semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Above your head.

Remember!

When completing assignment B8, it should be remembered that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it constantly renews itself and thus enables billions of passengers to travel over millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying in a spacecraft through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we put this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship cosmonauts will fidgety to cut the wires, unscrew the screws, drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They are wound up, multiply, teeming with microscopic beings on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and deep ulcers and various growths immediately appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to bring a drop of harmful (from the point of view of land and nature) culture into the green fur coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barrack, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their job, eating up the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning rivers and oceans with their poisonous substances, the very atmosphere of the Earth.

(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication of a person with nature, with the beauty of our land, turn out to be just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, twitched by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this outside world itself is brought into such a state that sometimes it does not invite a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use a trope such as ________. This image of the "cosmic body" and "cosmonauts" is key to understanding the author's position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ ("scurry, multiply, do their job, eating up the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning rivers and oceans with their poisonous substances, the very atmosphere of the Earth") convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that the author is far from indifferent to everything said. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the reasoning a sad ending that ends with a question. "

List of terms:

epithet
litotes
introductory words and plug-in constructions
irony
expanded metaphor
parceling
question-answer form of presentation
dialecticism
homogeneous members of a sentence

We divide the list of terms into two groups: first - epithet, litota, irony, detailed metaphor, dialecticism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parceling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous terms of the sentence.

It is better to start the assignment with omissions that do not cause difficulty. For example, gap number 2. Since the whole sentence is presented as an example, it is likely that some syntactic facility is implied. In a sentence "Scurry, multiply, do their job, eating up the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans with their poisonous substances, the very atmosphere of the Earth" rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, depleting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “pass” in the review indicates that the word in the plural should be in place of the omission. The list contains plural introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous term sentences. Careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass number 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the proposal.

In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately "discarded", since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There remain introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In the place of the last pass, it is necessary to substitute the masculine term, since the adjective "used" must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example " original "... The terms masculine are epithet and dialectic. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Referring to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "Original disease"... Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, therefore we have an epithet in front of us.

It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, humans, is reinterpreted as the image of the cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not a lithote, but rather the opposite, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the catastrophe. Thus, the only possible option remains - a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another on the basis of our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, sang on his accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: "Valery Petrovich, higher!" (H) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet-red, like a clown's. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said: "He looks like Ksyushkin's dad!"

(6) And I, first in kindergarten, and then in school, bore the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who have some kind of fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play for myself at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often confused, he gave a thin, feminine oykal, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink into the ground out of shame and behaved emphatically cold, showing by my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I got otitis media. (13) I was screaming in pain and hitting my head with my palms. (14) Mom called ambulance and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver screeching like a woman began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed shrilly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: "What a fool I am!" (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: "We need all the courage!" (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a blizzard of a snowflake. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed shut behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, clanging its jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car rocked in gusts of wind, snow was crumbling down the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don't know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by the bright light of headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and hugged me. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I was dozing in his arms and in my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And he suffered from bilateral pneumonia for a long time.

(32) ... My children are perplexed why, decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and lays his head on the button accordion, as if furtively wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and I also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read the fragment of the review based on the text that you analyzed in assignments A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some of the terms used in the review are missing. Insert the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list in the spaces of the blanks. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.

The sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in answer form No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("Terrible blizzard", "Impenetrable darkness "), gives the picture depicted expressive force, and such tropes as _____ (" the pain circled me "in sentence 20) and _____ (" the driver shrieked like a woman began to scream "in sentence 15) convey the drama of the situation described in the text ... A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) increases the emotional impact on the reader. "

1. Maintaining.

2. Expressive means of language

3. Conclusion

4. References

Introduction

The word is the subtlest touch to the heart; it can become both a delicate, fragrant flower, and living water, restoring faith in good, and a sharp knife, picking the delicate tissue of the soul, and a red-hot iron, and lumps of dirt ... kind word brings joy, stupid and evil, thoughtless and tactless - brings trouble, in a word you can kill - and revive, injure - and heal, sow confusion and hopelessness - and spiritualize, dispel doubts - and plunge into despondency, create a smile - and cause tears, generate faith in a person - and plant mistrust, inspire to work - and numb the strength of the soul.

V.A. Sukhomlinsky

Expressive means of language

The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant updating in speech of the principles, methods, signs of combining words taken from various groups within the whole text, hide in themselves the possibility of updating speech expressiveness, its types.

Expressive possibilities of the word are supported and enhanced by associativity figurative thinking reader, which largely depends on his previous life experience and psychological characteristics work of thought and consciousness in general.

Expressiveness of speech are such features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can quite definitely talk about the conditions under which the speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.

The second is his interest in what he is talking about or writing about. The third is a good knowledge of the expressive capabilities of the language. The fourth is the systematic deliberate training of speech skills.

The main source of increasing expressiveness is vocabulary that gives whole line special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, lithotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. The syntax has great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech, the so-called stylistic figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion ( reverse order words), plurality, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These pictorial and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to find the individuality of style. However, there are also common language paths that arose as the author's, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: "time heals", "battle for the harvest", "war thunderstorm", "conscience spoke", "curl up", "like two drops water ".

In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our representation. The trope can develop into a speech stamp if it is used too often. Compare the expressions that define the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word "gold" - "white gold" (cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (furs), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - appendix - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed with a full and short adjective, noun and adverb: "Do I wander along noisy streets, enter a crowded temple ..." (A.S. Pushkin)

"She is alarming, like leaves, she, like a gusli, is multi-stringed ..." (A.K. Tolstoy) "Frost-voivode patrols his possessions ..." (N. Nekrasov) "Irresistibly, uniquely everything flew far and past ... "(S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:

1) constant (typical for oral folk art) - "kind
well done "," red girl "," green grass "," blue sea "," dense forest "
"The mother of cheese is the earth";

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as their author sees them) -

“The crowd is a multicolored fast cat” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey feelings, the mood of the author) -

"Evening black eyebrows raised ..." - "A blue fire swept around ...", "Uncomfortable, liquid moon ..." (S. Yesenin), "... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly" (A. Pushkin ).

Comparison is collation (concurrency) or

opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or several common features: “Your mind is deep like the sea. Your spirit is high, that mountains "

(V. Bryusov) - "It is not the wind that rages over the forest, the streams did not run from the mountains - the frost of the voivode is patrolling his possessions" (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity, pictoriality. This trope, unlike others, is always two-term - it names both compared or opposed objects. 2 In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

1 Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and culture of speech for technical universities. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2002. p. 171

2 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: 2000 p. 67.

For example, in M. Lermontov's line "Whiter than snow mountains, clouds go to the west ..."

1) a comparative turnover with the conjunctions "how", "like", "if", "how
as if "," exactly "," what ... so ":" Crazy years, extinguished fun

It's hard for me, like a vague hangover, "But, like wine, the sorrow of the past days In my soul, the older, the stronger" (A. Pushkin);

2) the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: "there is no beast worse than a cat";

3) a noun in the instrumental case: "A white drift rushing along the ground like a snake ..." (S. Marshak);

“My dear hands - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair ...” (S. Yesenin);

“I was looking at her with might and main, as children look ...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.

And stars fell from the firmament in a silent rain ”(V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds ...” (V. Vysotsky).

"Like an Eternal Flame, the summit sparkles with emerald ice during the day ..." (V.

Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means the transfer of the name of an object

(actions, qualities) based on similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of hidden comparison. If the epithet ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a word in speech, then the more true is the statement: a metaphor ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can drive a nail into the wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head ~ a metaphor appears, crude but expressive.

There are three elements in a metaphor: information about what is being compared; information about what is being compared with; information about the basis of comparison, that is, about a feature common in the compared objects (phenomena).

The verbal actualization of the semantics of the metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires in order for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself. Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared to, the metaphor contains only the second component. This gives imagery and

compactness of the trail. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of traits: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, expanded and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to one common feature - “the dawn is burning”, “the sound of waves”, “the sunset of life”.

A detailed metaphor is built on various associations of similarity: “Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them from a sweep in wild rage on the cliffs, breaking emerald masses into dust and splashes” (M. Gorky).

Lexical metaphor - a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - "steel pen", "clock hand", " doorhandle", "paper". Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another based on external or intercom between them. Communication can be

1) between the object and the material from which the object was made: "Amber smoked in his mouth" (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: "Pen by his revenge
breathes "

5) between the place and the people who are in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A kind of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-understanding) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1) a part instead of a whole: "All flags will visit us" (A. Pushkin); 2) a generic name instead of a specific one: "Well, why, sit down, shine!" (V. Mayakovsky);

3) a specific name instead of a generic one: “Take care of a penny more than anything else” (N. Gogol);

4) the singular instead of the plural: “And it was heard before
dawn, as the Frenchman rejoiced ”(M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of the only one: “A bird does not fly to him, and
the beast does not exist ”(A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification consists in attributing to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - "I will whistle, and obediently, timidly a bloody villainy will creep in to me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, in them my sign, reading my will" (A. Pushkin); "And the heart is ready to run to the top from the chest ..." (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting of a figurative exaggeration - "they swept a stack above the clouds", "wine flowed like a river" (I. Krylov), "At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed" (V. Mayakovsky), "The whole world in the palm of your hand ..." (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be copyright and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - I saw (heard) a hundred times, "scared to death", "strangle in my arms", "dance until you drop," "repeat twenty times," etc. The stylistic device opposite to hyperbole is litota (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) is a stylistic figure, consisting in an understated understatement, humiliation, reticence: "a boy with a finger", "... You need to bow your little bit of grass ..." (N. Nekrasov).

Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

MEIOSIS is a trope of understating

intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: "wow", "okay", "decent *," tolerant "(about good)," unimportant "," hardly suitable "," leaving much to be desired "(about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating variant of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. " old woman"-" a woman of Balzac's age "," not of the first youth "; "Ugly man" - "it is difficult to call a handsome man." Hyperbole and litota characterize the deviation in one direction or another of the quantitative assessment of the subject and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song "Dunya the thin-weaver" it is sung that "Dunya spun a kudelyushka for three hours, strained three threads", and these threads are "thinner than a knee, thicker than a log." In addition to the author's, there are also common language litoty - "the cat cried", "at hand", "not to see beyond your own nose."

Periphrase (from Greek periphrasis - from around and I say) is called

a descriptive expression used instead of a word ("writing these lines" instead of "I"), or a trope consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of them specific traits("The king of beasts is a lion", "foggy Albion" - England, "Venice of the North" - St. Petersburg, "the sun of Russian poetry" - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek. Allegoria - allegory) consists in an allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete, life image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is tales of animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A.Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope consisting in the use of a name or a whole statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment, which the speaker (writer) rejects. "Split, smart, are you delirious, head?" - asks the hero of one of the fables I.A. Krylov at the Donkey. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see the story of AP Chekhov "The Chameleon", characterization of the dog).

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) -union, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or lines of poetry.

Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm,

A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes)

The winds were not blowing in vain

The thunderstorm was not in vain. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by odd and couple

I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin)

Conclusion

In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that the expressive means, stylistic figures that make our speech expressive, are diverse, and it is very useful to know them. Word, speech is an indicator of the general culture of a person, his intellect, his speech culture. That is why mastering the culture of speech, its improvement, especially at the present time, is so necessary for the present generation. Each of us is obliged to cultivate in ourselves a respectful, reverent and careful attitude towards our native language, and each of us should consider it our duty to contribute to the preservation of the Russian nation, language, culture.

List of used literature

1. Golovin I.B. Foundations of the culture of speech. Saint Petersburg: Slovo, 1983.

2. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics. Moscow: Knowledge, 1987.

3. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of stylistics: the rules of good speech M .: Knowledge, 1991.

4. Farmina L.G. Learning to speak correctly. Moscow: Mir, 1992.

5. Dansev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and culture of speech for technical universities. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2002.

6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova- M .: Gardariki, 2000.

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Expression of speech

Anaphora

synth.

Same start of several adjacent sentences

Take care of each other,
Warm me with kindness.
Take care of each other,
Let’s not offend. (O. Vysotskaya)

synth.

Comparison of sharply contrasting or opposing concepts and images to enhance the impression

"Sleep and Death" by AA Fet, "Crime and Punishment" by FM Dostoevsky.

Assonance

sound.

One of the types of sound writing, repetition of the same vowel sounds in the text

Me lo, me lo on sune th se mle
In the sune NSe de ly.
Ste cha mountainse la on the tablee ,
Ste cha mountainse la ... (B. Pasternak)

lex.

Artistic exaggeration

wide trousers with the width of the Black Sea (N. Gogol)

Gradation

synth.

Arrangement of words, expressions in ascending (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance

Howl, sang, took off a stone under the sky,
And the whole quarry was covered with smoke. (N. Zabolotsky)

Nominative themes

synth.

A special type of nominative sentences, calls the topic of the statement, which is revealed in subsequent sentences

Bread!.. What could be more important than bread ?!

Inversion

synth.

Violation of direct word order

Drops the forest your scarlet dress,
Rip up the frost withered field ... (A. Pushkin)

Irony

lex.

Subtle mockery, use in the opposite sense of the direct

Count Khvostov,
The poet loved by heaven
I was already singingimmortals verses
The misfortune of the Neva banks ... (A. Pushkin)

Composite joint

synth.

Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it

At dawn, the zoryanka began to sing. She sang and miraculously combined all the rustles, rustles in her song ... (N. Sladkov)

Lexical repetition

lex.

Repetition in the text of the same word, phrase

Around the city on the low hills stretchedforests , mighty, untouched. Vforests there were large meadows and deaf lakes with hugepine trees along the banks.Pines they made a quiet noise all the time. (Yu.Kazakov)

Litotes

lex.

Artistic understatement

"Tom Thumb"

lex.

Similarity-based figurative meaning

Sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok). Snowdrifts white calves (B. Akhmadulina)

lex.

Replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts

Here on new waves
All flags will visit us. (A.S. Pushkin)

Multi-Union

synth.

Deliberate use of a repeating union

There is coal, uranium, rye, and grapes.
(V. Inber)

Occasionalisms

lex.

Some stunning absurdities began to take root in our midst, the fruits of the New Russianeducation ... (G. Smirnov)

synth.

A combination of opposite words

Tourists in their hometown. (Teffi)

lex.

Transfer of human properties to inanimate objects

Silent sorrow will be comforted,
And joyfulness will ponder ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Parcelling

synth.

Deliberate division of a sentence into meaningfully meaningful segments

He loved everything beautiful. And he understood a lot about this. A beautiful song, poetry, beautiful people... And smart.

lex.

Replacing a word (phrase) with a descriptive turnover

"people in white coats" (doctors), "red cheat" (fox)

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

synth.

Statement expression in interrogative form;
to attract attention;
increased emotional impact

Oh Volga! My cradle!
Did anyone love you as I do? (N. Nekrasov)

Rows, paired connection of homogeneous members

synth.

Using homogeneous members for greater artistic expression text

Amazing combinationyou just anddifficulties , transparency anddepths in Pushkinpoetry andprose ... (S. Marshak)

Sarcasm

lex.

Caustic, stinging mockery, one of the techniques of satire

The works of Swift, Voltaire, Saltykov-Shchedrin are saturated with sarcasm.

lex.

Replacing quantitative relations, using the singular instead of the plural

Swedish, Russian pricks, chops, cuts ... (A. Pushkin)

Syntactic concurrency

synth.

Similar, parallel construction of phrases, lines

To be able to speak is an art. To be able to listen is culture. (D. Likhachev)

Comparison

lex.

Comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have common feature

Yes, there are words that burnlike a flame. (A. Tvardovsky)

Default

synth.

An interrupted utterance, which makes it possible to conjecture, reflect

This fable could be further explained - Yes, so as not to tease the geese ... (I.A. Krylov)

Ellipsis

synth.

Abbreviation, "skipping" of words that are easily reconstructed by meaning, which contributes to the dynamism and conciseness of speech.

We sat down - in ashes, hails - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows. (V.A. Zhukovsky)

lex.

A figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon

But I love springgold ,
Your solidwonderfully mixed noise...
(N. Nekrasov)

synth.

The same ending of several sentences

Conjure the springsee off the winter .
Early, earlysee off the winter.

?
Content

Introduction

2. What are trails?

4. Stylistic figures
5. Using someone else's speech

Introduction

We can convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts with the help of words, and expressiveness allows us to do this.

Expressiveness is associated with its imagery, i.e. allows using words not only in their direct, but also in a figurative sense. With the concept of figurative use of words, artistic means as paths.
Paths are the turns of a speech word in a figurative sense, and it is the paths that give expressiveness in our speech. There are many types of trails:
metaphor, metonymy, epithet, comparison, hyperbole, litota, personification, paraphrase, etc. The main function of tropes - expressive-pictorial in this sense, serve as a means of speech culture.
The main condition for expressiveness of speech is the ability of a person to think independently. Expressiveness, brightness of speech depends on a good knowledge of the features of language styles (such as, for example, artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial and everyday life, etc.).

1. The main characteristic of the expressiveness of speech

MV Lomonosov, a brilliant orator of his time, theorist of oratory, wrote: "Eloquence is the art of speaking about any given matter and thus incline others to your opinion about it."
In this definition, a characteristic feature of the culture of speech is called and it is emphasized that speaking "red" (figuratively, expressively, emotionally) is important for this, in order to more forcefully influence the listeners.
The expressiveness of speech enhances its effectiveness: bright speech arouses interest, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, affects the mind and feelings of a person, on the imagination of listeners.
This applies not only to public speaking, not only to reports and lectures, but also to everyday speech, home conversation. There are times when one student speaks gray, disinterestedly about the same day spent at school: “There was nothing special. Fine. The teacher talked about Demosthenes. There was such a speaker. They didn’t ask me, they didn’t call me. Everything is fine". Another vividly, interestedly told what he had learned about Demosthenes, remembered how a classmate at a biology lesson said: "The cholera embryo is very dangerous," after which the teacher's glasses climbed over his forehead. And then it turned out that several people in the class did not know that the causative agent of cholera is called "vibrio", and embryo means "fetus."
People have different characters: some are “silent” since childhood, while others are “talkers”, some have the gift of eloquence, others do not. However, theorists of oratory argue that any person, if desired, can overcome the innate tendency to "silence" and learn to speak figuratively, expressively.
For this, first of all, you need to know what means of expressiveness the language possesses, which makes speech figurative, colorful. Then learn how to use these tools and create them yourself.
The resources of expressive means in the language are inexhaustible. They are found at all its levels, especially at the lexical level. This is due to the fact that the word not only names an object, quality, state, but is also capable of conveying the speaker's attitude, his assessment (positive, negative), his emotions (disapproval, neglect, affection, love, delight), to indicate the degree of manifestation recognized, actions, i.e. be expressive.

2. What are trails?

The expressiveness of speech largely depends on the degree to which the creator is familiar with artistic techniques traditionally called tropes and figures.
Paths are words and expressions used not in the usual, direct sense, but in a figurative sense. The trail is based on the comparison of phenomena that are similar in some way or in some way related, correlated with each other.
Paths include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, comparison, epithets, paraphrase, allusion, parable, personification, irony, hyperbole, lithote, etc.
And in typology, and even in the definition of tropes, there is no complete unity among researchers, and there were many of them for two thousand years. Therefore, here for a long time not a single definition of the path, but the properties of the paths, which do not always appear stereotypically, will be indicated.
1. Trails, unlike other figures, always create an image - visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. Figures such as antithesis, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, also create images, and this makes it difficult for both.
2. The image created is based on comparison, which generates a new, figurative meaning.
3. Trails different types can be arranged according to the increasing degree of metaphoricity, allegory. This property is put in the basis of typologies as the main one, along with others.
4. Structurally, a trope as a figure appears almost always in the form of a two-part phrase, one of the members of which can be used only at the mental level. A person does not speak - this is a reed, but a thinking one, a high-ranking trope makes the listener trace the similarity in thoughts and marvel at the charm of such an unintelligible comparison.
5. The trope is based on a common property of linguistic units that expands the boundaries of their use. Here is a model of this process:
The meaning of the word> comparison of the phenomena indicated by words> trope, for example, a metaphor> consolidation of the figurative meaning of the word> the appearance of a shade of the meaning of this word> its polysemy, recognized in the lexical norm. Through figurative meanings, for example, the following meanings were formed: House ("building")> house ("housing")> house ("family, people living together")> house ("dynasty of monarchs").
Often in everyday life, a person uses and even creates paths himself, increasing the expressiveness of his speech. These paths are fixed: the clock is running, the clock has stopped, the moon is young, the sun is blazing, nature has fallen asleep.
In Russia of the twentieth century. the trails were explored by GG Shpet, AN Veselovsky, VN Toporov, and others. Understanding of the essence of trails is still unstable; in the light of semiotics, tropes are defined as a semantic transposition from a present sign to an absent sign, prompted by a microtext.

3. Means of speech expression

Metaphor is one of the main, most commonly used tropes. Apparently, a metaphorical ability is inherent in human nature, which is confirmed by examples from the speech of preschool children: The sun has gone to sleep; the dog sunbathes in the sun; metaphors in proverbs, sayings: Get off your thin life; trouble is not far off; Thin - in armfuls, good - in a pinch (V.I.Dal). And in everyday speech at every turn there are frozen metaphors: the stream sings; the songs are ringing; all year round, the sunset is blazing, etc.
Metaphors are diverse both in terms of the structure of the combination of words, and in the degree of development, novelty, originality, unusualness, allegoricality, symbolism.
A gradation of metaphor is possible from an almost straightforward comparison to a detailed allegory, parable, grotesque, carnival.
In the metaphor, words, combinations, fragments of text come close to realities by similarity, it is based on analogy. The word, the turn of speech becomes metaphorical in an allegory, an image. And although in the origins of the metaphor - the comparison is not straightforward, but veiled: the object being compared is significantly distant, it is not always easy to recognize. Here's an example of interweaving metaphors:
Who created you, O Rome? The genius of people's freedom!
If a mortal, forever bowing under the yoke,
In his heart he extinguished the eternal fire of Prometheus,
If in the world everywhere the human spirit fell, -
Here the sacred stones of ancient Rome would have cried:
"Mortal, immortal your spirit: man is equal to the gods!"
(D. S. Merezhkovsky)
Here are metaphors: the creator of Rome - the genius of people's freedom; obeyed - bowed his neck (neck) under the yoke; an extreme degree of protest - the sacred stones would have cried out to ancient Rome; man is great by the strength of his spirit - equal to the gods; general meaning: only a free person becomes equal to the gods.
The use of metaphors does not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. "Too brilliant style," wrote Aristotle, "makes both characters and thoughts invisible."
Metonymy, in contrast to metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two similarly named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, should be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words class, school, auditorium, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.
A word can be called a material and a product made of this material (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: "Gold and silver went to our athletes, bronze went to the French."
Geographic names are often used in metonymic meaning. For example, the names of the capitals are used in the meaning of "the government of the country", "the ruling circles": Negotiations between London and Washington, Paris is worried, Warsaw has made a decision, etc. Geographical names also refer to the people living in the area. Thus, the name Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which lies in what is called a part instead of a whole, a singular is used instead of a plural, or, conversely, a whole instead of a part, a plural is used instead of a single.
An example of a synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian person. Using the word man, and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray
the overcoat that did not hesitate to give the last piece of bread and
front-line thirty grams of sugar, orphaned in the terrible days of war
child, a person who selflessly covered
comrade, saving him from inevitable death, a man who squeezed
teeth, endured and will endure all hardships and hardships, going for a feat in the name of
Homeland.
Good name Ivan!
Allegory is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete life image. This technique is used especially actively in fables and fairy tales. With the help of animal images, various human vices(greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance), goodness, courage and justice are glorified.
So, in folk tales the fox is an allegory of cunning, the hare is cowardice, the donkey is stubbornness, etc.
Allegory allows you to better understand one or another idea of the speaker, to understand the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation.
Comparison. Any comparison of the new with the previously known is intended to evoke in the mind of the listener, the reader, an association, usually accompanied by emotions, a flash of imagination, which, together, contributes to the emergence of an image.
The comparison can be logical, it is devoid of any allegory; according to KD Ushinsky, such a comparison is the basis of human cognition in general: everything is cognized through comparing the new with the already cognized; comparison is the path to understanding. Examples of logical comparison: compare a cat and a dog, i.e. find the similarities and differences between them.
The following types of comparison-tropes are distinguished.
1. Comparison is not yet divorced from the syntax, it is introduced with the help of union words as if, as if, as if, as if, like, etc.:
Debt days are short, black and clear,
The branches in the sky are crossed, Like cracks in the sky.
(N. Matveeva)
An amazingly strong image, it evokes not only visual associations, but also a feeling of universal anxiety. Indeed, the resemblance is truly tragic.
2. comparison is introduced by the form of creative case.
Crosses stand after the battle
Simple addition signs.
(S. Kirsanov)
Such an eerie comparison is symbolic of the innumerable deaths.
3. Comparison is introduced by the form of the genitive: the tongue of the flame.
The flame is likened to tongues: they lick the wooden walls of a building, and they catch fire.
4. Comparison is introduced as a separate turnover, appendix.
My hands are a pair of swans -
In the gold of my hair they dive.
(S. Yesenin)
5. Negative comparison is not quite the usual type: the effect is achieved by the principle of opposition:
Not a flock of crows flew
On the chest of smoldering bones
Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights
The daring gang was gathering.
(A.S. Pushkin)
This type of comparison came to literature from folklore, is distinguished by poetry, melodiousness, carries an image: a flock of ravens, bonfires - a complex picture.
Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. Please note which expressive epithets finds A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, now thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, now sparkling with bright dazzling greenery, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling stone demantoid, which was so valued abroad - the traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana and Persia. A whole range of tones connects the slightly greenish or bluish beryls with the deep green dark aquamarines of the Ilmen mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is unparalleled.
Epithets, like other means of speech expression, should not be overused.
Speech practice has also developed such a concept as a constant epithet: the sea is blue, the clouds are black, the maiden is red, Odysseus Cunning, Koschey the Immortal. The epithet can fulfill syntactic function not only definitions, but also sentences: Zeus the Thunderer, beautiful maidens, and circumstances: voices sounded excited; thunder rumbles deafeningly.
A complete and generally accepted theory and classification of epithets does not yet exist. In scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: bitter frost, quiet evening); folk poetry (used in oral folk art: red maiden, clear field); individual author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev)).
The periphery is the replacement of the word with a descriptive turn: Japan, the land of the rising sun, greeted us with rain and wind. Here the word Japan itself may well be missing. For example: ... And he raises the cup of health for his teachers (Peter after the Battle of Poltava) - here A.S. Pushkin quotes Peter himself, who, not without reason, called the Swedes his teachers.
A periphery is not always a turnover, a combination of words, it can also be one-word: Aurora - morning dawn:
Towards the morning Aurora
Appear as the star of the north.
Here Pushkin introduces two paths: Aurora and the Star of the North.
There is a well-known paraphrase in parodies. An example is D. Minaev's parody on the poems of A.A. Feta:
Whisper. Timid breathing. Cold. Dirty villages
Nightingale trills ... Puddles and fog ...
An allusion is a hint that is not clear to everyone, but usually only to close friends and associates of the speaker; it establishes a connection between the communicators. The illusion is always colored positive emotions, humor, and sometimes light irony.
For example - from "Eugene Onegin":
Onegin, my good friend,
Born on the banks of the Neva,
Where shone, my reader;
I once walked there too:
But the north is bad for me.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Here the word north is harmful - an ironic allusion to the exile to Pushkin, about which not everyone knew at that time, but only a relatively narrow circle of friends and admirers.
The illusion can be unintentional, it is like a password, known only to two. In V. Kaverin's novel "Two Captains", eight-year-old Sanya read letters from the bag of a drowned postman; some were remembered. As it turned out later, one of the letters was from a polar study - from Captain Tatarinov, who soon died, to his wife Maria ...
Years passed, and fate brought Sanya to Maria Tatarinova, already in completely different lands; remembering the name of the captain, he reads the letter from memory, but Maria, all in tears, does not believe him. Straining his memory, Sanya recalls that the letter was signed: Your Mongotimo Hawkclaw. And then Maria corrects him: Not Mongotimo, but Montigomo Hawk's Claw. That's what I called him.
A parable is essentially a genre that gave birth to fable and other allegorical works. It carries with it a lesson. The Gospel parables are widely known - about the sower, the Prodigal Son, as well as the “Proverbs of Solomon”. Numerous folklore works, proverbs, and some fairy tales are close to parables. Proverbs are found in the works of Old Russian literature.
Impersonation is a variant of the path in which plants, animals, inanimate objects are endowed with the feelings, thoughts and actions of a person.
Irony as a figure is also a trope, since it imposes a satirical allusion to the direct meaning of words, turns of speech, a subtle mockery, expressed not only verbally, but also intonationally. Irony gives the words the opposite meaning: Silenus! - about the frail; Well, you ume-e-en! - about stupid.
Hyperbole is a technique that is used to create an exaggerated mood in the audience about the subject of speech: "You are always late."
Litota - the opposite of hyperbole is used to create an understatement presented about a subject of speech. Litota is often used in communication between adults and children: not a hand, but a pen; pointing to a huge electric locomotive, grandfather says to his grandson: Look, what kind of electric locomotive, etc.
Paths enrich our speech, make it more expressive, figurative. At the same time, one must be able to use them, namely, they must be used sparingly and to the point.

4. Stylistic figures

To revitalize speech, impart emotionality, expressiveness, imagery, methods of stylistic syntax are also used, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. For example, Mark Tullius Cicero made several speeches against Lucius Sergei Catiline, a patrician by birth who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites, Cicero said:
A sense of honor fights on our side, on that side - insolence; here -
bashfulness, there is debauchery; here is fidelity, there is deceit; here-
valor, there is crime; here is a private name, there is a shame; here -
restraint, there is licentiousness; in a word, all valor is fighting
injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness,
all sorts of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty,
decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - arrogance, bashfulness - debauchery, fidelity - deceit, valor, crime, steadfastness - fury, honest name - shame, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of the audience, evokes in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. This technique, based on the comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called an antithesis.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: "The courageous one blames himself, the faint-hearted one blames his comrade"; "Great in body, but small in deed", "Labor always gives, but laziness only takes." To compare the two phenomena in proverbs, antonyms are used - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, work - laziness. Many lines from fiction, journalistic, and poetic works are based on this principle. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
A valuable means of expressiveness in a performance is inversion, i.e. changing the usual order of words in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose. So if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this strengthens the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the object. Here is an example of such a phrase: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality, constantly evolving, with reality, ever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to a particular member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to the placement of the predicate in the narrative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The whole team honored the hero of the day.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even one consisting of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several variants of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades. Naturally, when rearranging, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the statement, give speech, dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Begin several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called anaphora, which in translation from Greek means monotony. The repeated words are service units, for example, unions and particles. By repeating, they perform an expressive function. Here is an excerpt from their lecture by A.E. Fersman "Stone in the culture of the future."
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, and make the pivotal thought contained in them more evident.
In oral speech, repetitions are found at the end of a phrase. As in the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a figure is called an epiphora.
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is a question-and-answer course. It consists in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself, and answers them himself. The question-and-answer course turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes the listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and involves them in the scientific search for truth. Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-and-answer course is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques.
The question-and-answer course is also used as an effective means in latent polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubts among the listeners, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-and-answer method.
In addition to the question-and-answer technique, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves for an emotional affirmation or denial of something. Asking a question to an audience is an effective technique. A rhetorical question spoken by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement.
However, not all of the questions encountered in the speeches relate to the means of expression. They can also perform a compositional function, i.e. delimit one part of the speech from another.

5. Using someone else's speech

The means of expressiveness include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quote. Sometimes, it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides that need to be considered. For example, some are perplexing, i.e. listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, there is an abundance of quotations, since it is difficult to hear by ear which of what has been said belongs to the author, and which to those whom he quotes. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, original or less well-known from the quotes selected for the speech.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in context.
You cannot change the text arbitrarily, i.e. rearrange words, enter another word instead of one, change grammatical form words.
The quote must be accurate.
You need to know who owns the quoted words, from what source they are taken, what is the output of the source. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the used literature is called, or when answering questions from the audience, if any of those present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which one has to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about the feelings of people, approximate direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, and attracts the attention of the audience.
Experienced orators not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, define their attitude towards it, and sometimes act in polemics with a specific person whose speech is quoted.
As a form of transferring someone else's utterance in a speech, indirect speech is also used, transmitting someone's words from a third person. Indirect speech is less expressive and expressive in comparison with direct speech. A skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the presentation gives a good effect.

List of used literature

1. Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G. Culture and the art of speech. Contemporary rhetoric... Rostov-on-Don. Phoenix Publishing House. 2007 - 576 p.
2. Gabdulkhakov V.F. rhetoric. Textbook for students of the Tatar school. - Kazan: Magarif, 2006 .-- 143 p.
3. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics. M .: "High school", 2007.
4. Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture: Textbook. for universities on specials. "Russian language and lit." - 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Higher. shk., 2008.
5. Golovin I.B. Foundations of the culture of speech. St. Petersburg: Word, 2007
6. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2008.
7. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary... M .: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 2006.
8. Lvov M.R. Rhetoric. A culture of speech. Textbook for students of humanitarian universities. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 272 p.
9. Ozhegov SI Lexicology. Lexicography. A culture of speech. Textbook. manual for universities. M .. "High School", 2007.
10. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics. M .: Knowledge, 2008
11. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of stylistics: the rules of good speech M. Knowledge, 2009
12. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook. for universities / Ed. V.D. Chernyak. - M .: Higher school, 2008 .-- 509 p.
13. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. V.I. Maksimova. - M .: Gardariki, 2007 .-- 413 p.
18

You have probably heard more than once that the Russian language is one of the most difficult. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Means of expressiveness make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without the use of special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.

Let's figure out what means of expressiveness of the Russian language are and where to find them.

Perhaps at school you did not write essays well: the text “didn’t go”, the words were chosen with a scratch, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a intelligible thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are put into the head with the reading of books. However, they alone are not enough to write interesting, colorful and easy. You need to develop your skill in practice.

Just compare the next two columns. On the left - text without expressive means or with their minimum amount. On the right is a text rich in expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.

It would seem that there are three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! The expressive means of language help the viewer to see the picture that you are trying to describe. Using them is a whole art, but it is not difficult to master it. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.

For example, in the paragraph of the text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the object instantly appears bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat cat-commander? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. Yes, and there will not be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly turn white, but the reader has long imagined him gray!

So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, substantiate, draw information and use the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for writing, but also for speaking. Especially if the speech or text is compiled in. However, both there and there the means of expressiveness in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of wading through such a "jungle".

Existing expressive means

There are a lot of such special techniques, and you hardly know everything about them. To begin with, you don't need to use all means of expression right away - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but do not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.

Traditionally, they are divided into several groups:

phonetic - most often found in poems;
lexical (paths);
stylistic figures.

Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient plates - you can print and hang on the wall to re-read from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.

Phonetic techniques

Among the phonetic devices, two are most often encountered - alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case consonants are repeated, in the second - vowels.

This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. And poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to "see" the picture.

Suppose we want to describe a swamp. There are reeds that rustle in the swamp. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but it is not enough for a complete picture.

Do you hear how the reeds rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonants are repeated.

Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. By this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. The table will help in explaining what assonance is.

Lexical devices (paths)

Lexical techniques are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that often people use them unconsciously. For example, we might say that our heart is lonely. But the heart actually cannot be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize deep meaning said.

The main lexical techniques include the following paths:

epithet;
comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech;
metaphor;
metonymy;
irony;
hyperbole and litota.

Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into the speech of everyone - this means of expressiveness has firmly entered into daily life, so you need to use it wisely.

Metaphor - more interesting shape comparisons, because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes using the word "as if". We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression "dry clouds". Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. The epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text, it is important not to confuse them.

Hyperbole and litota are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred bonfires” is an obvious hyperbole. And "quietly, quieter than a brook" - litota. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.

Metonymy and paraphrase - interesting phenomena... Metonymy is an abbreviation for what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as "books written by Chekhov." You can use the expression "Chekhov's books", and this will be a metonymy.

And paraphrase is a deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.

Although, with the proper skill, tautology can also be a means of expressiveness!

Also, lexical means of expressiveness in speech include:

archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
neologisms (new vocabulary);
phraseological units;
dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Epithet	A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively.	Bloody sky. (It is said about the sunrise).
Comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech	Matching objects to each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa.	Expressive means, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech.
Metaphor	"Hidden comparison" or figurative. More complex than simple comparisons, comparative conjunctions are not used.	Boiling anger. (The man is angry.) Sleepy city. (Morning city that has not yet woken up).
Metonymy	Replacing words in order to shorten an understandable sentence or avoid tautology.	I read Chekhov's books (not “I read books by Chekhov's authorship”).
Irony	An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery.	You are a genius, of course! (Ironically, "genius" is used to mean "stupid").
Hyperbola	Deliberate exaggeration of what was said.	Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning. (Dazzling, bright show).
Litotes	Deliberate reduction of what was said.	Weak as a mosquito.
Periphrase	Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word.	The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of beasts, etc.
Allegory	An abstract concept that helps to reveal the image. Most often it is a well-established designation.	Fox in the meaning of cunning, wolf in the meaning of strength and rudeness, turtle in the meaning of slowness or wisdom.
Impersonation	Transfer of the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one.	The lantern seemed to swing on a long, thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack.

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures often contain specific grammatical constructions. The most commonly used are:

anaphora and epiphora;
compositional joint;
antithesis;
oxymoron or paradox;
inversion;
parceling;
ellipsis;
rhetorical questions, exclamations, addresses;
asyndeton.

Anaphora and epiphora are often referred to as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora - the same beginning of several lines, epiphora - the same endings. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize the drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.

The compositional joint is a deliberate "escalation" of the conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The word helped me become who I am. Such a technique is called a compositional joint.

Antithesis is the opposition of two concepts-antipodes: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Of the interesting techniques, one can note parceling, which is used to build up conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - skipping a sentence member. It is often used in exclamations, calls.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Anaphora	Same beginning of multiple lines.	Let's join hands, brothers. Let's join hands and unite our hearts. Let's take up the swords to end the war.
Epiphora	The same ending of several lines.	I erase it wrong! I am ironing wrong! All wrong!
Composite joint	One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it.	I didn't know what to do. To do in order to survive this storm.
Antithesis	Contrast	I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama).
Oxymoron	Using concepts that contradict each other.	Hot ice, peace war.
Paradox	An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning.	The dead man's hot hands were livelier than all others. Hurry up as slowly as possible.
Inversion	Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence.	I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in the world.
Parcelling	Breakdown of words into separate sentences.	He waited. Again. Stooping, crying.
Ellipsis	Deliberate omission of a word.	Go ahead, get down to business! (the word "let's take it" is missing).
Gradation	Increasing expression, the use of synonyms by the degree of increase.	His eyes, cold, unfeeling, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama).

Features of the use of expressive means

It should not be forgotten that gestures are also used in oral Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than the usual means of expression, but in a skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and vibrant.

Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many jewelry, which makes you uninteresting. Means of expressiveness are like a skillfully chosen accessory. It happens that you don't even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.