Space exploration today. The history of the development of Russian cosmonautics
On April 12, our country celebrated the 50th anniversary of space exploration - Cosmonautics Day. This is a national holiday. It seems familiar to us that spaceships are launched from Earth. Spacecraft docking take place in high celestial distances. Astronauts live and work in space stations for months, automatic stations leave for other planets. You might say "what's so special about that?"
But not so long ago, space flights were spoken of as fantasy. And so on October 4, 1957 began new era- the era of space exploration.
Constructors
Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich -
Russian scientist who was one of the first to think about space flight.
The fate and life of a scientist is unusual and interesting. The first half of Kostya Tsiolkovsky's childhood was ordinary, like all children. Already in old age, Konstantin Eduardovich recalled how he liked to climb trees, climb onto rooftops, jump from great heights in order to experience the feeling of free fall. The second childhood began when he fell ill with scarlet fever, almost completely lost his hearing. Deafness caused the boy not only domestic inconvenience and moral suffering. She threatened to slow down his physical and mental development.
Kostya suffered another grief: his mother died. The family was left with a father, a younger brother and an illiterate aunt. The boy remained on his own.
Deprived of many joys and impressions due to illness, Kostya reads a lot, constantly comprehending what he read. He invents something that was invented a long time ago. But - he invents himself. For instance, lathe... In the courtyard of the house, windmills built by him are spinning in the wind, self-propelled sailing carts run against the wind.
He dreams of space travel. Voraciously reads books on physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics. Realizing that his capable, but deaf son would not be accepted into any educational institution, the father decides to send sixteen-year-old Kostya to Moscow for self-education. Kostya takes off a corner in Moscow and sits in free libraries from morning till night. His father sends him 15 - 20 rubles a month, while Kostya, eating brown bread and drinking tea, spends 90 kopecks a month on food! The rest of the money buys retorts, books, reagents. The years that followed were also not easy. He suffered a lot from bureaucratic indifference to his works and projects. He was ill, lost heart, but he got ready again, made calculations, wrote books.
Now we already know that Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky is the pride of Russia, one of the fathers of cosmonautics, a great scientist. And with surprise, many of us learn that the great scientist did not go to school, did not have any scientific degrees, last years lived in Kaluga in an ordinary wooden house and no longer hearing anything, but the whole world is now recognized as a genius who was the first to outline the path for mankind to other worlds and stars:
Tsiolkovsky's ideas were developed by Friedrich Arturovich Tsander and Yuri Vasilievich Kondratyuk.
All the most cherished dreams of the founders of cosmonautics were realized by Sergei Pavlovich Korolev.
Friedrich Arturovich Zander (1887-1933)
Yuri Vasilievich Kondratyuk
Sergey Pavlovich Korolev
Tsiolkovsky's ideas were developed by Friedrich Arturovich Tsander and Yuri Vasilievich Kondratyuk. All the most cherished dreams of the founders of cosmonautics were realized by Sergei Pavlovich Korolev.
On this day, the first artificial Earth satellite was launched. The space age has begun. The first satellite of the Earth was a shiny ball from aluminum alloys and was small - 58 cm in diameter, weighing 83.6 kg. The device had a two-meter antenna mustache, and two radio transmitters were located inside. The satellite's speed was 28800 km / h. In an hour and a half, the satellite circled the entire Earth, and during the day of the flight, it made 15 revolutions. There are many satellites in orbit now. Some are used for television and radio communications, others are scientific laboratories.
Scientists were faced with the task of putting into orbit Living being.
And the way into space for humans was paved by dogs. Animal testing began as early as 1949. The first "cosmonauts" were recruited in: gateways - the first squad of dogs. A total of 32 dogs were caught.
They decided to take the dogs as test subjects, because scientists knew how they behave, understood the structural features of the body. In addition, dogs are not capricious, they are easy to train. And the mongrels were chosen because the doctors believed that from the first day they were forced to fight for survival, moreover, they are unpretentious and very quickly get used to the staff. Dogs had to meet the set standards: no heavier than 6 kilograms and no more than 35 cm tall. Remembering that the dogs would have to "show off" on the pages of newspapers, they selected "objects" that were prettier, more built and with clever faces. They were trained on a vibration stand, centrifuge, in a pressure chamber: For space travel, a pressurized cabin was made, which was attached to the nose of the rocket.
The first dog's start took place on July 22, 1951 - the mongrels Dezik and Gypsy passed it successfully! Gypsy and Dezik climbed 110 km, then the cabin with them freely fell to an altitude of 7 km.
Since 1952, they began to practice flights of animals in spacesuits. The spacesuit was made of rubberized fabric in the form of a bag with two blind sleeves for the front paws. A removable transparent plexiglass helmet was attached to it. In addition, they developed an ejection cart, which housed the dog tray, as well as the equipment. This design at high altitude was fired from the falling cockpit and descended by parachute.
On August 20, it was announced that the descent vehicle had made a soft landing and the dogs Belka and Strelka returned safely to the ground. But not only, 21 gray and 19 white mice flew.
Belka and Strelka were already real astronauts. What were the astronauts trained in?
The dogs have passed all kinds of tests. They can stay in the cab for quite a long time without moving, they can tolerate large overloads, vibrations. Animals are not afraid of rumors, they can sit in their experimental equipment, making it possible to record the biocurrents of the heart, muscles, brain, blood pressure, breathing patterns, etc.
On television, footage of Belka and Strelka's flight was shown. It was clearly visible how they tumbled in weightlessness. And, if Strelka was wary of everything, then Belka was happily furious and even barked.
Belka and Strelka became everyone's favorites. They were taken to kindergartens, schools, orphanages.
There were 18 days left before manned space flight.
Male composition
In the Soviet Union, only January 5, 1959. it was decided to select people and prepare them for a flight into space. The controversial question was who to prepare for the flight. Doctors argued that only they, the engineers, believed that a person from their midst should fly into space. But the choice fell on fighter pilots, because they really are closer to space from all professions: they fly at high altitudes in special suits, endure overloads, have a parachute jump, keep in touch with command posts. Resourceful, disciplined, know jet planes well. Of the 3,000 fighter pilots, 20 were selected.
A special medical commission was created, mainly from military doctors. The requirements for astronauts are as follows: first, excellent health with a double or triple safety margin; secondly, a sincere desire to do a new and dangerous business, the ability to develop the beginnings of creative research activities; thirdly, to meet the requirements for certain parameters: age 25–30 years, height 165–170 cm, weight 70–72 kg and no more! Were weeded out ruthlessly. The slightest disturbance in the body was removed immediately.
The management decided to allocate several people out of 20 astronauts for the first flight. On January 17 and 18, 1961, the cosmonauts were given an exam. As a result, the selection committee allocated six to prepare for flights. Here are portraits of cosmonauts. It included in the order of priority: Yu.A. Gagarin, G.S. Titov, G.G. Nelyubov, A.N. Nikolaev, V.F. Bykovsky, P.R. Popovich. On April 5, 1961, all six cosmonauts flew to the cosmodrome. It was not easy to choose the first of the cosmonauts equal in health, training, courage. This problem was solved by specialists and the head of the cosmonaut group N.P. Kamanin. It was Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin. On April 9, the decision of the State Commission was announced to the cosmonauts.
Veterans of Baikonur claim that on the night of April 12, no one slept at the cosmodrome, except for the cosmonauts. At 3 o'clock in the morning on April 12, the final checks of all systems of the Vostok ship began. The rocket was illuminated by powerful searchlights. At 5.30 am, Evgeny Anatolyevich Karpov raised the astronauts. They look cheerful. We started physical exercises, then breakfast and a medical examination. At 6.00 a meeting of the State Commission, the decision was confirmed: Yu.A. Gagarin. They sign him a flight mission. It was a sunny, warm day, tulips were blooming around in the steppe. The rocket blazed brightly in the sun. There were 2-3 minutes for parting, and ten minutes passed. Gagarin was put into the ship 2 hours before the start. At this time, the rocket is being refueled with fuel, and as the tanks are filled, it “dresses” like a snow coat and soars. Then they give power, check the equipment. One of the sensors indicates that there is no good contact in the cover. Found ... done ... Close the lid again. The site is empty. And the famous Gagarin's "Let's Go!" The rocket slowly, as if reluctantly, spewing an avalanche of fire, rises from the start and swiftly goes into the sky. Soon the rocket disappeared from view. There was an agonizing expectation.
Female composition
Valentina Tereshkovawas born in the village of Bolshoye Maslennikovo Yaroslavl region in a peasant family of immigrants from Belarus (father - from near Mogilev, mother - from the village of Eremeevshchina, Dubrovensky district). As Valentina Vladimirovna herself said, as a child, she spoke Belarusian with her relatives. Father is a tractor driver, mother is a worker in a textile factory. Drafted into the Red Army in 1939, Valentina's father died in the Soviet-Finnish war.
In 1945, the girl entered the secondary school number 32 in the city of Yaroslavl, seven classes of which she graduated in 1953. To help the family, in 1954, Valentina went to work at the Yaroslavl tire factory as a bracelet, at the same time enrolling in the evening classes of a school for working youth. Since 1959 she was engaged in parachuting at the Yaroslavl flying club (performed 90 jumps). Continuing her work at the Krasny Perekop textile mill, from 1955 to 1960 Valentina underwent correspondence courses at the light industry technical school. Since August 11, 1960 - the released secretary of the Komsomol committee of the Krasny Perekop plant.
In the cosmonaut corps
After the first successful flights of Soviet cosmonauts, Sergei Korolev had the idea to launch a woman astronaut into space. At the beginning of 1962, the search for applicants began according to the following criteria: a parachutist, up to 30 years old, up to 170 centimeters tall and weighing up to 70 kilograms. Five out of hundreds of candidates were selected: Zhanna Yorkina, Tatyana Kuznetsova, Valentina Ponomareva, Irina Solovyova and Valentina Tereshkova.
Immediately after being accepted into the cosmonaut detachment, Valentina Tereshkova, along with the rest of the girls, was called up for urgent military service with the rank of privates.
Training
Valentina Tereshkova was enrolled in the cosmonaut corps on March 12, 1962 and began to undergo training as a student-cosmonaut of the 2nd detachment. On November 29, 1962, she passed her final examinations in OKP with excellent marks. Since December 1, 1962, Tereshkova has been a cosmonaut of the 1st Detachment of the 1st Division. From June 16, 1963, that is, immediately after the flight, she became an instructor-cosmonaut of the 1st detachment and was in this position until March 14, 1966.
During her studies, she underwent training for the body's resistance to the factors of space flight. The trainings included a heat chamber, where one had to be in a flight suit at a temperature of + 70 ° C and a humidity of 30%, an isolation chamber - a room isolated from sounds, where each candidate had to spend 10 days.
Zero gravity training took place on the MiG-15. When performing a special aerobatics figure - a parabolic slide - zero gravity was established inside the aircraft for 40 seconds, and there were 3-4 such sessions per flight. During each session, it was necessary to complete the next task: write the name and surname, try to eat, talk on the radio.
Particular attention was paid to parachute training, since the cosmonaut ejected and landed separately by parachute just before landing. Since there was always a risk of splashdown of the descent vehicle, training in parachute jumping into the sea was also carried out, in a technological, that is, not fitted in size, spacesuit.
Savitskaya Svetlana Evgenievna- cosmonaut of Russia. Born on August 8, 1948 in Moscow. Daughter of twice Hero of the Soviet Union, Air Marshal Yevgeny Yakovlevich SAVITSKY. After graduating from high school, she entered college and at the same time sits at the helm of the plane. She mastered the following types of aircraft: MiG-15, MiG-17, E-33, E-66B. I was engaged in parachute training. She has set 3 world records in group skydiving from the stratosphere and 15 world records in jet aircraft. Absolute world champion in aerobatics on piston aircraft (1970). For her sporting achievements in 1970 she was awarded the title of Honored Master of Sports of the USSR. In 1971 she graduated from the Central Flight Technical School under the Central Committee of the DOSAAF of the USSR, and in 1972 - from the Moscow Aviation Institute named after Sergo Ordzhonikidze. After graduation, she worked as an instructor pilot. Since 1976, having completed a training course at the school of test pilots, test pilot of the Ministry of Aviation Industry of the USSR. During her work as a test pilot, she has mastered more than 20 types of aircraft, has the qualification "Test pilot of the 2nd class". Since 1980 in the cosmonaut corps (1980, Group of women cosmonauts No. 2). She completed a full training course for space flights on ships of the Soyuz T type and the Salyut orbital station. From 19 to 27 August 1982, she made her first flight into space as a research cosmonaut of the Soyuz T-7 spacecraft. She worked on board the Salyut-7 orbital station. The flight duration was 7 days 21 hours 52 minutes 24 seconds. From 17 to 25 July 1984 she made her second flight into space as a flight engineer of the Soyuz T-12 spacecraft. While working on board the Salyut-7 orbital station on July 25, 1984, the first of the women made an exit to open space... The time spent in open space was 3 hours 35 minutes. The duration of the space flight was 11 days 19 hours 14 minutes 36 seconds. For 2 flights into space flew 19 days 17 hours 7 minutes. After the second space flight, she worked at NPO Energia (Deputy Head of the Chief Designer Department). He is qualified as instructor-test cosmonaut of the 2nd class. In the late 80s, she was engaged in public work, was the first deputy chairman of the Soviet Peace Fund. Since 1989, he has been increasingly involved in political activities. In 1989 - 1991 she was a People's Deputy of the USSR. In 1990 - 1993 she was a People's Deputy of the Russian Federation. In 1993 she left the cosmonaut corps, and in 1994 she left NPO Energia and concentrated entirely on political activities... Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation of the first and second convocations (since 1993; the Communist Party faction). Member of the Defense Committee. From January 16 to January 31, 1996, she headed the Interim Commission for Control over the Electronic Voting System. Member of the Central Council of the All-Russian social and political movement "Spiritual Heritage".
Elena Vladimirovna Kondakova (born 1957 in Mytishchi) was the third Russian woman-cosmonaut and the first woman to make a long flight into space. Its first flight into space took place on October 4, 1994 as part of the Soyuz TM-20 expedition, and returned to Earth on March 22, 1995 after a 5-month flight at the Mir orbital station. Kondakova's second flight - as a specialist on the American Space Shuttle Atlantis as part of the Atlantis STS-84 expedition in May 1997. She was included in the cosmonaut corps in 1989.
Since 1999 - Deputy The State Duma RF from the United Russia party.
Space exploration began from the most ancient times, when a person was just learning to count by the stars, highlighting the constellations. And only just four hundred years ago, after the invention of the telescope, astronomy began to develop rapidly, bringing new discoveries to science.
The 17th century became a transitional century for astronomy, then the scientific method began to be applied in space exploration, thanks to which it was discovered Milky Way, other star clusters and nebulae. And with the creation of a spectroscope, which is able to decompose the light emitted by a celestial object through a prism, scientists have learned to measure data from celestial bodies, such as temperature, chemical composition, mass and other measurements.
Starting from the end of the 19th century, astronomy entered the phase of numerous discoveries and achievements, the main breakthrough of science in the 20th century was the launch of the first satellite into space, the first manned flight into space, spacewalk, landing on the moon and space missions to the planets of the solar system. The inventions of super-powerful quantum computers in the 19th century also promise many new studies, both of already known planets and stars, and the discovery of new distant corners of the universe.
Space exploration.
Yu.A. Gagarin.
In 1957, under the leadership of Korolev, the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile R-7 was created, which in the same year was used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite.
November 3, 1957 - the second artificial satellite of the Earth, Sputnik-2, was launched, which for the first time launched a living creature into space - the dog Laika. (USSR).
January 4, 1959 - the Luna-1 station passed at a distance of 6,000 kilometers from the lunar surface and entered a heliocentric orbit. She became the world's first artificial satellite of the Sun. (USSR).
September 14, 1959 - the Luna-2 station for the first time in the world reached the lunar surface in the Sea of Clarity region near the craters Aristides, Archimedes and Autolycus, delivering a pennant with the USSR coat of arms. (USSR).
October 4, 1959 - Luna-3 is launched, which for the first time in the world has photographed the side of the Moon invisible from Earth. Also during the flight, for the first time in the world, a gravity assist was carried out in practice. (USSR).
August 19, 1960 - the first ever orbital flight of living beings into space was made with a successful return to Earth. The dogs Belka and Strelka made an orbital flight on the Sputnik-5 spacecraft. (USSR).
April 12, 1961 - the first manned flight into space (Yu. Gagarin) was made on the Vostok-1 spacecraft. (USSR).
August 12, 1962 - the world's first group space flight was completed on the Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 spacecraft. The maximum approach of the ships was about 6.5 km. (USSR).
June 16, 1963 - the world's first space flight of a woman-cosmonaut (Valentina Tereshkova) was made on the Vostok-6 spacecraft. (USSR).
October 12, 1964 - the world's first multi-seat spacecraft Voskhod-1 flew. (USSR).
March 18, 1965 - the first ever manned spacewalk took place. Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov made a spacewalk from the Voskhod-2 spacecraft. (USSR).
February 3, 1966 - AMS Luna-9 made the world's first soft landing on the lunar surface, panoramic images of the moon were transmitted. (USSR).
March 1, 1966 - Venera-3 reached the surface of Venus for the first time, delivering a pennant to the USSR. This was the world's first flight of a spacecraft from Earth to another planet. (USSR).
October 30, 1967 - the first docking of two unmanned spacecraft Kosmos-186 and Kosmos-188 was performed. (CCCP).
September 15, 1968 - the first return of the spacecraft (Zond-5) to Earth after flying around the Moon. There were living creatures on board: turtles, fruit flies, worms, plants, seeds, bacteria. (USSR).
January 16, 1969 - the first docking of two manned spacecraft Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 was performed. (USSR).
September 24, 1970 - the Luna-16 station took and then delivered to the Earth (by the Luna-16 station) samples of lunar soil. (USSR). She is also the first unmanned spacecraft that delivered rock samples to Earth from another space body (that is, in this case, from the Moon).
November 17, 1970 - soft landing and start of operation of the world's first semi-automatic remotely controlled self-propelled vehicle controlled from the Earth: Lunokhod-1. (USSR).
October 1975 - soft landing of two spacecraft Venera-9 and Venera-10 and the world's first photographs of the surface of Venus. (USSR).
February 20, 1986 - launching into orbit of the base module of the orbital station [[Mir_ (orbital_station)] Mir]
November 20, 1998 - launch of the first block of the International space station... Production and launch (Russia). Owner (USA).
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50 years of the first manned spacewalk.
Today, March 18, 1965, at 11.30 am Moscow time, during the flight of the Voskhod-2 spacecraft, a man entered outer space for the first time. On the second loop of the flight, the co-pilot, cosmonaut, Lieutenant Colonel Leonov Alexei Arkhipovich in a special spacesuit with autonomous system life support made an exit into outer space, retired from the ship at a distance of up to five meters, successfully carried out a set of planned research and observations and returned safely to the ship. With the help of the on-board television system, the process of Comrade Leonov's exit into outer space, his work outside the ship and his return to the ship were transmitted to Earth and monitored by a network of ground points. Comrade Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov feels good during his stay outside the ship and after returning to the ship. The commander of the ship, Comrade Pavel Ivanovich Belyaev, is also feeling well.
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Today is characterized by new projects and plans for space exploration. Space tourism is actively developing. The manned astronautics is going to return to the moon again and turned its gaze to other planets of the solar system (primarily to Mars).
In 2009, the world spent $ 68 billion on space programs, including $ 48.8 billion in the US, $ 7.9 billion in the EU, $ 3 billion in Japan, $ 2.8 billion in Russia, and $ 2 billion in China.
February 12, 1961 - Passage of Venus by the automatic interplanetary station "Venera-1"; May 19-20, 1961 (USSR).
April 12, 1961-The first flight around the Earth of the cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin aboard the satellite "Vostok" (USSR).
August 6, 1961-Daily flight around the Earth of the cosmonaut GS Titov on the Vostok-2 satellite (USSR).
April 23, 1962-Photographing and reaching the surface of the Moon on April 26, 1962 by the first automatic station of the Ranger series (USA).
August 11 and 12, 1962-The first group flight of cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and P. R. Popovich aboard the Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 satellites (USSR).
August 27, 1962 Venus flyby and its exploration by the first automatic interplanetary station "Mariner" December 14, 1962 (USA).
November 1, 1962-Passage of Mars by the automatic interplanetary station "Mars-1" June 19, 1963 (USSR).
June 16, 1963-Flight around the Earth of the first woman-cosmonaut VV Tereshkova on the Vostok-6 spacecraft (USSR).
October 12, 1964-Flight around the Earth of cosmonauts V. M. Komarov, K. P. Feoktistov and B. B. Egorov on the three-seat ship "Voskhod" (USSR).
November 28, 1964-Mars flyby on July 15, 1965 and its exploration by the automatic interplanetary station "Mariner-4" (USA).
March 18, 1965-Cosmonaut A. A. Leonov's exit from the satellite "Voskhod-2", piloted by P. I. Belyaev, into open space (USSR).
March 23, 1965-The first maneuver in orbit of the satellite "Gemini-3" with cosmonauts V. Griss and J. Young (USA).
April 23, 1965-The first automatic communications satellite in synchronous orbit of the Molniya-1 series (USSR).
July 16, 1965-The first automatic heavy research satellite of the "Proton" series (USSR).
July 18, 1965-Repeated photographing of the far side of the Moon and transmission of the image to the Earth by the automatic interplanetary station "Zond-3" (USSR).
November 16, 1965-Reaching the surface of Venus on March 1, 1966 by the automatic station "Venera-3" (USSR).
December 4 and 15, 1965-Group flight with close approach of the satellite ships Gemini-7 and Gemini-6, with cosmonauts F. Borman, J. Lovell and W. Shirroy, T. Stafford (USA).
January 31, 1966 - First soft moon landing on February 3, 1966 automatic station"Luna-9" and the transmission of the lunar photo panorama to the Earth (USSR).
March 16, 1966-Manual docking of the Gemini-8 satellite spacecraft, piloted by astronauts N. Armstrong and D. Scott, with the Agena rocket (USA).
August 10, 1966-Launching of the artificial lunar satellite into orbit of the first automatic station of the Lunar Orbiter series.
January 27, 1967 - During the tests of the Apollo spacecraft at launch, a fire broke out in the spacecraft's cabin. Astronauts V. Grissom, E. White and R. Chaffee (USA) were killed.
April 23, 1967-Flight of the Soyuz-1 satellite spacecraft with cosmonaut V. M. Komarov. During the descent to Earth due to the failure of the parachute system, the cosmonaut died (USSR).
June 12, 1967-Descent and research in the atmosphere of Venus October 18, 1967 by the automatic station "Venera-4" (USSR).
June 14, 1967 Venus flyby on October 19, 1967 and its exploration by the automatic station "Mariner-5" (USA).
September 15, November 10, 1968 - A flyby of the moon and return to Earth of the Zond-5 and Zond-6 spacecraft using ballistic and controlled descent (USSR).
December 21, 1968 - A flyby of the moon with an exit on December 24, 1968 into the orbit of the lunar satellite and the return to Earth of the Apollo-8 spacecraft with cosmonauts F. Borman, J. Lovell, W. Anders (USA).
5, 10 January 1969-Continuation of direct exploration of the atmosphere of Venus by the automatic stations Venera-5 (May 16, 1969) and Venera-6 (May 17, 1969) (USSR).
January 14, 15, 1969-The first docking in the Earth satellite orbit of the manned spacecraft Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 with cosmonauts V. A. Shatalov and B. V. Volynov, A. S. Eliseev, E. V. Khrunov ... The last two cosmonauts went into space and transferred to another ship (USSR).
February 24, March 27, 1969-Continuation of the exploration of Mars during its passage by the automatic stations Mariner-6 on July 31, 1969 and Mariner-7 on August 5, 1969 (USA).
May 18, 1969-A flyby of the moon by the Apollo-10 spacecraft with cosmonauts T. Stafford, J. Young and Y. Cernan with the exit on May 21, 1969 into a selenocentric orbit, maneuvering on it and returning to Earth (USA).
July 16, 1969 First landing on the moon of the manned spacecraft Apollo 11. Cosmonauts N. Armstrong and E. Aldrin spent 21 hours 36 minutes on the Moon in the Sea of Tranquility (July 20-21, 1969). M. Collins was in the command compartment of the ship in a selenocentric orbit. After completing the flight program, the cosmonauts returned to Earth (USA).
August 8, 1969-Fly around the Moon and return to Earth of the Zond-7 spacecraft using a controlled descent (USSR).
October 11, 12, 13, 1969 - Group flight with maneuvering of the Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8 satellites with cosmonauts GS Shonin, VN Kubasov; A. V. Filipchenko, V. N. Volkov, V. V. Gorbatko; V. A. Shatalov, A. S. Eliseev (USSR).
October 14, 1969-The first research satellite of the "Interkosmos" series with scientific equipment of the socialist countries (USSR).
November 14, 1969-Landing on the moon in the Ocean of Storms manned spacecraft Apollo-12. Cosmonauts Ch. Konrad and A. Bean spent 31 hours 31 minutes on the moon (November 19-20, 1969). R. Gordon was in a selenocentric orbit (USA).
April 11, 1970 - A flyby of the moon with the return to Earth of the Apollo 13 spacecraft with cosmonauts J. Lovell, J. Swidgert, F. Hayes. The planned flight to the moon was canceled due to an accident on a ship (USA).
June 1, 1970-425-hour flight of the Soyuz-9 satellite with cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and V. I. Sevastyanov (USSR).
August 17, 1970 Soft landing on the surface of Venus of the automatic station "Venera-7" with scientific equipment (USSR).
September 12, 1970 - The automatic station "Luna-16" performed on September 20, 1970 a soft landing on the moon in the Sea of Abundance, carried out drilling, took samples of lunar rock and delivered them to Earth (USSR).
October 20, 1970 - A flyby of the Moon with a return to Earth from the Northern Hemisphere of the probe "Zond-8" (USSR).
November 10, 1970 - The automatic station "Luna-17" delivered to the Moon a self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1" with scientific equipment, radio-controlled from the Earth. Within 11 lunar days the lunar rover traveled 10.5 km, exploring the region of the Sea of Rains (USSR).
January 31, 1971-Landing on the moon in the area of the Fra-Mauro crater of the manned spacecraft Apollo 14. Cosmonauts A. Shepard and E. Mitchell spent 33 hours 30 minutes on the Moon (February 5-6, 1971). S. Rusa was in a selenocentric orbit (USA).
May 19, 1971-Reaching the surface of Mars for the first time by the descent vehicle of the automatic station "Mars-2" and its entry into orbit of the first artificial satellite of Mars on November 27, 1971 (USSR).
May 28, 1971-The first soft landing on the surface of Mars of the descent vehicle of the automatic station "Mars-3" and its entry into orbit of an artificial satellite of Mars on December 2, 1971 (USSR).
May 30, 1971-The first artificial satellite of Mars - the automatic station "Mariner-9". Launched into satellite orbit on November 13, 1971 (USA).
June 6, 1971 - Flight lasting 570 hours of cosmonauts G. T. Dobrovolsky, V. N. Volkov and V. I. Patsayev on the Soyuz-11 satellite and the Salyut orbital station. During the descent to Earth, as a result of the depressurization of the spacecraft cabin, the cosmonauts died (USSR).
July 26, 1971-Landing on the moon by the spacecraft "Apollo-15". Cosmonauts D. Scott and J. Irwin spent 66 hours 55 minutes on the moon (July 30 - August 2, 1971). A. Warden was in a selenocentric orbit (USA).
October 28, 1971-The first English satellite "Prospero" launched into orbit by a British launch vehicle.
February 14, 1972-The automatic station "Luna-20" delivered to the ground lunar soil from a section of the mainland adjacent to the Sea of Abundance (USSR).
March 3, 1972-Passage of the automatic station "Pioneer-10" of the asteroid belt (July 1972 - February 1973) and Jupiter (December 4, 1973), followed by an exit outside the solar system (USA).
March 27, 1972 Soft landing on the surface of Venus automatic station "Venera-8" July 22, 1972. Study of the atmosphere and surface of the planet (USSR).
April 16, 1972 Apollo 16 moon landing. Cosmonauts J. Young and C. Duke spent 71 hours 02 minutes on the moon (April 21-24, 1972). T. Mattingly was in a selenocentric orbit (USA).
December 7, 1972-Landing on the moon by the spacecraft "Apollo 17". Cosmonauts Y. Cernan and H. Schmitt stayed on the Moon for 75 hours 00 minutes (December 11-15, 1972). R. Evans was in a selenocentric orbit (USA).
January 8, 1973 - The Luna-21 automatic station delivered Lunokhod-2 to the Moon on January 16, 1973. During 5 lunar days, the lunar rover covered 37 km (USSR).
May 14, 1973 - Long Term Manned orbital station Skylab. Cosmonauts Ch. Konrad, P. Weitz and J. Kerwin spent 28 days at the station from 25 May. On July 28, the crew arrived at the station: A. Bean, O. Garriott, J. Luzma for a two-month work (USA).
Introduction:
In the second half of the XX century. mankind has stepped on the threshold of the universe - has gone into outer space. Our Motherland opened the way to space. The first artificial Earth satellite to open the space age was launched by the former Soviet Union, the first cosmonaut in the world is a citizen of the former USSR.
Space is a huge catalyst modern science and technology, which in an unprecedentedly short period of time has become one of the main levers of the modern world process. It stimulates the development of electronics, mechanical engineering, materials science, computer technology, energy and many other areas of the national economy.
In scientific terms, mankind seeks to find in space the answer to such fundamental questions as the structure and evolution of the Universe, the formation of the Solar system, the origin and development of life. From hypotheses about the nature of planets and the structure of the cosmos, people moved on to a comprehensive and direct study of celestial bodies and interplanetary space using rocket and space technology.
In space exploration, mankind will have to study various areas of outer space: the moon, other planets and interplanetary space.
The current level of space technology and the forecast of its development show that the main goal scientific research with the help of space means, apparently, in the near future there will be our solar system... At the same time, the main tasks will be the tasks of studying solar-terrestrial relations and the Earth-Moon space, as well as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and other planets, astronomical research, biomedical research in order to assess the impact of the duration of flights on the human body and its working capacity.
Basically development space technology should be ahead of "Demand" associated with the solution of pressing national economic problems. The main tasks here are launch vehicles, propulsion systems, spacecraft, as well as support facilities (command-measuring and launch complexes, equipment, etc.), ensuring progress in related branches of technology, directly or indirectly related to the development of astronautics.
Before flying into world space, it was necessary to understand and use in practice the principle of jet propulsion, learn how to make rockets, create a theory of interplanetary communications, etc.
Missile technology is far from a new concept. Man went to the creation of powerful modern launch vehicles through millennia of dreams, fantasies, mistakes, searches in various fields of science and technology, accumulation of experience and knowledge.
The principle of operation of the rocket lies in its movement under the influence of the recoil force, the reaction of the flow of particles thrown from the rocket. In a rocket. those. apparatus equipped with a rocket engine, the outflowing gases are formed due to the reaction of the oxidizer and the fuel stored in the rocket itself. This circumstance makes the operation of the rocket engine independent of the presence or absence of a gaseous medium. Thus, the rocket is an amazing structure capable of moving in an airless space, i.e. not supporting, outer space.
A special place among Russian projects for the application of the jet principle of flight is occupied by the project of N.I.Kibalchich, a famous Russian revolutionary who, despite his short life (1853-1881), left a deep mark in the history of science and technology. Having extensive and deep knowledge of mathematics, physics and especially chemistry, Kibalchich made homemade shells and mines for the People's Will. The Aeronautical Instrument Project was the result of a long research work Kibalchich over explosives. He, in fact, was the first to propose not a rocket engine adapted to any existing aircraft, as other inventors did, but a completely new (rocket-dynamic) apparatus, a prototype of modern manned space vehicles, in which the thrust of rocket engines serves to directly create a lifting force supporting the apparatus in flight. Kibalchich's aircraft was supposed to function like a rocket!
But since Kibalchich was sent to prison for the attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II, then his project aircraft was discovered only in 1917 in the archives of the police department.
So, by the end of the last century, the idea of using jet devices for flights received large scales in Russia. And the first who decided to continue research was our great compatriot Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935). He became interested in the reactive principle of motion very early. Already in 1883 he gave a description of the ship with jet engine... Already in 1903, Tsiolkovsky for the first time in the world made it possible to design a scheme for a liquid-propellant rocket. Tsiolkovsky's ideas received universal recognition back in the 1920s. And a brilliant successor of his work, S.P.Korolev, a month before the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, said that the ideas and works of Konstantin Eduardovich would more and more attract attention as the development of rocket technology, in which he was absolutely right!
The beginning of the space age
And so, 40 years after the project of the aircraft created by Kibalchich was found, on October 4, 1957. former USSR launched the world's first artificial Earth satellite. The first Soviet satellite made it possible for the first time to measure the density of the upper atmosphere, to obtain data on the propagation of radio signals in the ionosphere, to work out the issues of launching into orbit, thermal conditions, etc. The satellite was an aluminum sphere 58 cm in diameter and 83.6 kg in mass with four whip antennas 2 long, 4-2.9 m. The equipment and power supplies were located in the sealed body of the satellite. The initial parameters of the orbit were: perigee height 228 km, apogee height 947 km, inclination 65.1 degrees. the 3rd of November Soviet Union announced the launch of a second Soviet satellite into orbit. In a separate pressurized cabin there were Laika the dog and a telemetry system for recording its behavior in zero gravity. The satellite was also equipped with scientific instruments for studying solar radiation and cosmic rays.
On December 6, 1957, an attempt was made in the United States to launch the Avangard-1 satellite using a carrier rocket developed by the Navy Research Laboratory. After ignition, the rocket rose above the launch pad, but after a second the engines turned off and the rocket fell on the table, exploding from the impact ...
On January 31, 1958, the Explorer 1 satellite was launched into orbit, the American response to the launch of Soviet satellites. By size and
mass, he was not a candidate for record holders. Less than 1 m long and only ~ 15.2 cm in diameter, it weighed only 4.8 kg.
However, its payload was attached to the fourth, final stage of the Juno-1 launch vehicle. The satellite together with the rocket in orbit had a length of 205 cm and a mass of 14 kg. It was equipped with external and internal temperature sensors, erosion and shock sensors to determine the flows of micrometeorites, and a Geiger-Muller counter to register penetrating cosmic rays.
An important scientific result of the satellite's flight was the discovery of the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. The Geiger-Muller counter stopped counting when the device was at its apogee at an altitude of 2530 km, the perigee height was 360 km.
On February 5, 1958, a second attempt was made in the United States to launch the Avangard-1 satellite, but it also ended in an accident, like the first attempt. Finally, on March 17, the satellite was launched into orbit. In the period from December 1957 to September 1959, eleven attempts were made to put Avangard-1 into orbit, only three of them were successful.
In the period from December 1957 to September 1959, eleven attempts were made to put Avangard
Both satellites have introduced a lot of new things into space science and technology ( solar panels, new data on the density of the upper atmosphere, accurate mapping of the islands in Pacific etc.) On August 17, 1958, the USA made the first attempt to send a probe with scientific equipment from Cape Canaveral to the vicinity of the Moon. It turned out to be unsuccessful. The rocket rose and flew only 16 km. The first stage of the rocket exploded on 77 seconds of flight. On October 11, 1958, a second attempt was made to launch the Pioneer-1 lunar probe, which was also unsuccessful. The next few launches were also unsuccessful, only on March 3, 1959, the Pioneer-4, weighing 6.1 kg, partially fulfilled its task: it flew past the Moon at a distance of 60,000 km (instead of the planned 24,000 km).
Just as with the launch of the Earth satellite, the priority in launching the first probe belongs to the USSR; on January 2, 1959, the first man-made object was launched, which was launched into a trajectory passing close enough to the Moon, into the orbit of the Sun satellite. Thus, "Luna-1" for the first time reached the second cosmic speed. Luna-1 had a mass of 361.3 kg and flew past the Moon at a distance of 5500 km. At a distance of 113,000 km from Earth, a sodium vapor cloud was released from a rocket stage docked to Luna-1, forming an artificial comet. Solar radiation caused a bright glow of sodium vapor and optical systems on Earth photographed the cloud against the background of the constellation Aquarius.
Luna-2, launched on September 12, 1959, made the world's first flight to another celestial body. In the 390.2-kilogram sphere, devices were placed, which showed that the moon did not have magnetic field and the radiation belt.
The automatic interplanetary station (AMS) "Luna-3" was launched on October 4, 1959. The weight of the station was 435 kg. The main purpose of the launch was to fly around the Moon and photograph its reverse, invisible from Earth, side. The photographs were taken on October 7 for 40 minutes from an altitude of 6200 km above the Moon.
Man in space
On April 12, 1961, at 09:07 am Moscow time, a few tens of kilometers north of the village of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, at the Soviet Baikonur cosmodrome, an intercontinental ballistic missile R-7 was launched, in the nose compartment of which the manned spacecraft "Vostok" was located with Air Force Major Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on board. The launch was successful. The spacecraft was launched into an orbit with an inclination of 65 degrees, a perigee altitude of 181 km and an apogee altitude of 327 km, and made one orbit around the Earth in 89 minutes. On the 108th minute after launch, he returned to Earth, landing near the village of Smelovka, Saratov region. Thus, 4 years after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the Soviet Union for the first time in the world carried out a manned flight into outer space.
