Briefly about the article: The ISS is the most expensive and ambitious project of mankind on the way to space exploration. However, the construction of the station is in full swing, and it is not yet known what will happen to it in a couple of years. We talk about the creation of the ISS and plans for its completion.

space house

international space station

You remain in charge. But don't touch anything.

The joke of Russian cosmonauts about the American Shannon Lucid, which they repeated every time they left the Mir station in open space (1996).

Back in 1952, the German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun said that humanity would need space stations very soon: as soon as it went into space, it would be unstoppable. And for the systematic development of the Universe, orbital houses are needed. On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the Salyut 1 space station, the first in the history of mankind. It was only 15 meters long, and the volume of habitable space was 90 square meters. By today's standards, the pioneers flew into space on unreliable scrap metal stuffed with radio tubes, but then it seemed that there were no more barriers to man in space. Now, 30 years later, only one habitable object hangs above the planet - "International Space Station".

It is the largest, most advanced, but at the same time the most expensive station among all that have ever been launched. Increasingly, questions are being asked - do people need it? Like, what do we need in space, if there are so many problems left on Earth? Perhaps it is worth understanding - what is this ambitious project?

The roar of the spaceport

The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: the Federal Space Agency (Russia), the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA), the Japan Aerospace Research Authority (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA / ASC), the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the European Space Agency (ESA).

However, not all members of the latter took part in the ISS project - Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Austria and Finland refused this, while Greece and Luxembourg joined later. In fact, the ISS is based on a synthesis of failed projects - the Russian Mir-2 station and the American Svoboda.

Work on the creation of the ISS began in 1993. The Mir station was launched on February 19, 1986 and had a warranty period of 5 years. In fact, she spent 15 years in orbit - due to the fact that the country simply did not have the money to launch the Mir-2 project. The Americans had similar problems - cold war ended, and their Svoboda station, for which about 20 billion dollars had already been spent on designing, was out of work.

Russia had a 25-year practice of working with orbital stations, unique methods of long-term (over a year) human stay in space. In addition, the USSR and the USA had a good experience of working together on board the Mir station. In conditions when no country could independently pull an expensive orbital station, the ISS became the only alternative.

On March 15, 1993, representatives of the Russian Space Agency and the scientific and production association Energia approached NASA with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, a corresponding government agreement was signed, and by November 1, a detailed work plan was prepared. Financial issues of interaction (supply of equipment) were resolved in the summer of 1994, and 16 countries joined the project.

What's in your name? The name "ISS" was born in controversy. The first crew of the station, at the suggestion of the Americans, gave it the name "Station Alpha" and used it for some time in communication sessions. Russia did not agree with this option, since “Alpha” figuratively meant “first”, although the Soviet Union had already launched 8 space stations (7 “Salyuts” and “Mir”), and the Americans were experimenting with their “Skylab”. From our side, the name “Atlantis” was proposed, but the Americans rejected it for two reasons - firstly, it was too similar to the name of their shuttle “Atlantis”, and secondly, it was associated with the mythical Atlantis, which, as you know, drowned . It was decided to stop at the phrase "International Space Station" - not too sonorous, but a compromise.

Go!

The deployment of the ISS was launched by Russia on November 20, 1998. The Proton rocket launched the Zarya functional cargo block into orbit, which, along with the American NODE-1 docking module delivered into space on December 5 of the same year by the Endeve shuttle, formed the backbone of the ISS.

"Dawn"- the heir to the Soviet TKS (supply transport ship), designed to serve Almaz combat stations. At the first stage of the ISS assembly, it became a source of electricity, an equipment warehouse, a means of navigation and orbit correction. All other modules of the ISS now have a more specific specialization, while Zarya is practically universal and in the future will perform the functions of storage (food, fuel, instruments).

Officially, Zarya is owned by the United States - they paid for its creation - however, in fact, the module was assembled from 1994 to 1998 at the Khrunichev State Space Center. It was included in the ISS instead of the Bus-1 module, designed by the American corporation Lockheed, since it cost $450 million compared to $220 million for Zarya.

Zarya has three docking airlocks - one at each end and one on the side. Its solar panels are 10.67 meters long and 3.35 meters wide. In addition, the module has six nickel-cadmium batteries capable of delivering about 3 kilowatts of power (at first, there were problems with charging them).

Along the outer perimeter of the module there are 16 fuel tanks with a total volume of 6 cubic meters (5700 kilograms of fuel), 24 large rotary jet engines, 12 small ones, as well as 2 main engines for serious orbital maneuvers. Zarya is capable of autonomous (unmanned) flight for 6 months, but due to delays with the Russian service module Zvezda, it had to fly empty for 2 years.

Unity module(created by the Boeing Corporation) went into space after the Zarya in December 1998. Being equipped with six docking locks, it became the central connecting node for the subsequent modules of the station. Unity is vital to the ISS. The working resources of all station modules - oxygen, water and electricity - pass through it. The Unity also has a basic radio communications system installed to allow Zarya's communication capabilities to communicate with the Earth.

Service module “Star”- the main Russian segment of the ISS - was launched on July 12, 2000 and docked with Zarya 2 weeks later. Its frame was built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 project (the design of the Zvezda is very reminiscent of the first Salyut stations, and its design features are of the Mir station).

Simply put, this module is housing for astronauts. It is equipped with life support systems, communications, control, data processing, as well as a propulsion system. The total mass of the module is 19,050 kilograms, the length is 13.1 meters, the span of the solar panels is 29.72 meters.

Zvezda has two beds, an exercise bike, a treadmill, a toilet (and other hygienic facilities), and a refrigerator. External view is provided by 14 windows. The Russian electrolytic system "Electron" decomposes waste water. Hydrogen is taken overboard, and oxygen enters the life support system. Paired with Electron, the Air system works, absorbing carbon dioxide.

Theoretically, waste water can be cleaned and reused, but this is rarely practiced on the ISS - fresh water is delivered on board by cargo Progress. It must be said that the Electron system malfunctioned several times and the cosmonauts had to use chemical generators - the same “oxygen candles” that once caused a fire at the Mir station.

In February 2001, a laboratory module was attached to the ISS (to one of the Unity gateways). "Destiny"(“Destiny”) - an aluminum cylinder weighing 14.5 tons, 8.5 meters long and 4.3 meters in diameter. It is equipped with five mounting racks with life support systems (each weighs 540 kilograms and can produce electricity, cool water and control the composition of the air), as well as six racks with scientific equipment delivered a little later. The remaining 12 empty slots will be occupied over time.

In May 2001, the Quest Joint Airlock, the main airlock compartment of the ISS, was attached to Unity. This six-ton ​​cylinder, measuring 5.5 by 4 meters, is equipped with four high-pressure cylinders (2 - oxygen, 2 - nitrogen) to compensate for the loss of air released to the outside, and is relatively inexpensive - only 164 million dollars.

Its working space of 34 cubic meters is used for spacewalks, and the dimensions of the airlock allow the use of suits of any type. The fact is that the design of our "Orlans" involves their use only in Russian transfer compartments, a similar situation with American EMUs.

In this module, astronauts going into space can also rest and breathe pure oxygen to get rid of decompression sickness (with a sharp change in pressure, nitrogen, the amount of which in the tissues of our bodies reaches 1 liter, goes into a gaseous state).

The last of the assembled ISS modules is the Russian Pirs docking compartment (SO-1). The creation of SO-2 was discontinued due to funding problems, so the ISS now has only one module, to which the Soyuz-TMA and Progress spacecraft can be easily docked - and three of them at once. In addition, cosmonauts dressed in our spacesuits can go outside from it.

And, finally, one more module of the ISS cannot be mentioned - the baggage multi-purpose support module. Strictly speaking, there are three of them - "Leonardo", "Raffaello" and "Donatello" (artists of the Renaissance, as well as three of the four ninja turtles). Each module is an almost equilateral cylinder (4.4 by 4.57 meters) transported on shuttles.

It can store up to 9 tons of cargo (tare weight - 4082 kilograms, with a maximum load - 13154 kilograms) - supplies delivered to the ISS, and waste taken away from it. All of the module's baggage is in normal air, so astronauts can get to it without using space suits. The baggage modules were manufactured in Italy by order of NASA and belong to the American segments of the ISS. They are used in sequence.

Useful little things

In addition to the main modules, the ISS has a large amount of additional equipment. It is inferior in size to the modules, but without it, the operation of the station is impossible.

The working “arms”, or rather, the “hand” of the station, is the “Canadarm2” manipulator, mounted on the ISS in April 2001. This high-tech machine worth 600 million dollars is capable of moving objects weighing up to 116 tons - for example, helping to assemble modules, docking and unloading shuttles (their own “hands” are very similar to “Canadarm2”, only smaller and weaker).

Own length of the manipulator - 17.6 meters, diameter - 35 centimeters. It is controlled by astronauts from the laboratory module. The most interesting thing is that "Canadarm2" is not fixed in one place and is able to move around the surface of the station, providing access to most of its parts.

Unfortunately, due to differences in connection ports located on the surface of the station, “Canadarm2” cannot move around our modules. In the near future (presumably 2007), it is planned to install ERA (European Robotic Arm) on the Russian segment of the ISS - a shorter and weaker, but more accurate manipulator (positioning accuracy - 3 millimeters), capable of operating in semi-automatic mode without constant control of astronauts.

In accordance with the safety requirements of the ISS project, a rescue ship is constantly on duty at the station, capable of delivering the crew to Earth if necessary. Now this function is performed by the good old Soyuz (TMA model) - it is able to take on board 3 people and provide them with life support for 3.2 days. "Unions" have a short warranty period in orbit, so they are changed every 6 months.

The workhorses of the ISS are currently the Russian Progresses, the brothers of the Soyuz, operating in unmanned mode. During the day, an astronaut consumes about 30 kilograms of cargo (food, water, hygiene products, etc.). Consequently, for a regular six-month duty at the station, one person needs 5.4 tons of supplies. It is impossible to carry so much on the Soyuz, so the station is mainly supplied by shuttles (up to 28 tons of cargo).

After the termination of their flights, from February 1, 2003 to July 26, 2005, the entire load on the station's clothing support lay on Progress (2.5 tons of load). After unloading the ship, it was filled with waste, undocked automatically and burned up in the atmosphere somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.

Crew: 2 people (as of July 2005), maximum - 3

Orbit height: From 347.9 km to 354.1 km

Orbital inclination: 51.64 degrees

Daily revolutions around the Earth: 15.73

Distance covered: About 1.5 billion kilometers

Average speed: 7.69 km/s

Current weight: 183.3 tons

Fuel weight: 3.9 tons

Living space: 425 square meters

average temperature on board: 26.9 degrees Celsius

Estimated Completion: 2010

Planned life: 15 years

The complete assembly of the ISS will require 39 shuttle flights and 30 Progress flights. AT ready-made the station will look like this: airspace volume - 1200 cubic meters, weight - 419 tons, power-to-weight ratio - 110 kilowatts, total length of the structure - 108.4 meters (74 meters in modules), crew - 6 people.

At the crossroads

Until 2003, the construction of the ISS went on as usual. Some modules were canceled, others were delayed, sometimes there were problems with money, faulty equipment - in general, things were going tight, but nevertheless, over the 5 years of its existence, the station became habitable and scientific experiments were periodically conducted on it.

On February 1, 2003, the space shuttle Columbia was lost while entering the dense layers of the atmosphere. The American manned flight program was suspended for 2.5 years. Given that the station modules waiting for their turn could only be launched into orbit by shuttles, the very existence of the ISS was in jeopardy.

Fortunately, the United States and Russia were able to agree on a redistribution of costs. We took over the provision of the ISS with cargo, and the station itself was transferred to the standby mode - two cosmonauts were constantly on board to monitor the serviceability of the equipment.

Shuttle launches

After the successful flight of the Discovery shuttle in July-August 2005, there was hope that the construction of the station would continue. First in line for launch is Unity's connector module twin, Node 2. The preliminary date of its launch is December 2006.

The European Science Module Columbus will be the second, scheduled for launch in March 2007. This lab is ready and waiting in the wings to be attached to Node 2. It boasts good meteorite protection, a unique device for the study of fluid physics, as well as the European Physiological Module (a comprehensive medical examination right on board the station).

Columbus will be followed by the Japanese laboratory Kibo (Hope) - its launch is scheduled for September 2007. It is interesting in that it has its own mechanical manipulator, as well as a closed "terrace" where experiments can be carried out in open space without actually leaving the ship.

The third connecting module - “Node 3” is to go to the ISS in May 2008. In July 2009 it is planned to launch a unique rotating centrifuge module CAM (Centrifuge Accommodations Module), on board of which artificial gravity will be created in the range from 0.01 to 2 g. It is designed mainly for scientific research - the permanent residence of astronauts in the conditions of gravity, which is so often described by science fiction writers, is not provided.

In March 2009, the ISS will fly "Cupola" ("Dome") - an Italian development, which, as its name implies, is an armored observation dome for visual control over the station's manipulators. For safety, the portholes will be equipped with external shutters to protect against meteorites.

The last module delivered to the ISS by American shuttles will be the Science and Force Platform, a massive block of solar panels on an openwork metal truss. It will provide the station with the energy necessary for the normal functioning of the new modules. It will also feature ERA's mechanical arm.

Launches on Protons

Russian Proton rockets are supposed to carry three large modules to the ISS. So far, only a very approximate flight schedule is known. Thus, in 2007 it is planned to add to the station our spare functional cargo block (FGB-2 - the twin of Zarya), which will be turned into a multifunctional laboratory.

In the same year, the European ERA manipulator arm is to be deployed by Proton. And, finally, in 2009 it will be necessary to put into operation a Russian research module, functionally similar to the American "Destiny".

It is interesting

Space stations are frequent guests in science fiction. The two most famous are “Babylon 5” from the television series of the same name and “Deep Space 9” from the Star Trek series. The textbook look of the space station in SF was created by director Stanley Kubrick. His film 2001: A Space Odyssey (screenplay and book by Arthur C. Clarke) showed a large ring station spinning on its axis and thus creating artificial gravity. The longest human stay on the space station is 437.7 days. The record was set by Valery Polyakov at the Mir station in 1994-1995. The Soviet Salyut stations were originally supposed to bear the name Zarya, but it was left for the next similar project, which, in the end, became the ISS functional cargo block. In one of the expeditions to the ISS, a tradition arose to hang three banknotes on the wall of the residential module - 50 rubles, a dollar and a euro. For luck. The first space marriage in the history of mankind was concluded on the ISS - on August 10, 2003, cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, while on board the station (she flew over New Zealand), married Ekaterina Dmitrieva (the bride was on Earth, in the USA).

* * *

The ISS is the largest, most expensive and long-term space project in the history of mankind. While the station is not yet completed, its cost can be estimated only approximately - over 100 billion dollars. Criticism of the ISS most often boils down to the fact that this money can be used to carry out hundreds of unmanned scientific expeditions to the planets of the solar system.

There is some truth in such accusations. However, this is a very limited approach. First, it does not take into account the potential profit from the development of new technologies in the creation of each new module of the ISS - and after all, its instruments are really at the forefront of science. Their modifications can be used in Everyday life and can generate huge income.

We must not forget that thanks to the ISS program, humanity gets the opportunity to preserve and increase all the precious technologies and skills of manned space flights, which were obtained in the second half of the 20th century at an incredible price. In the “space race” of the USSR and the USA, big money was spent, many people died - all this may be in vain if we stop moving in the same direction.

The orbit is, first of all, the route of the ISS flight around the Earth. In order for the ISS to fly in a strictly specified orbit, and not fly into deep space or fall back to Earth, a number of factors such as its speed, the mass of the station, the capabilities of launch vehicles, delivery ships, the capabilities of spaceports, and of course economic factors had to be taken into account.

The ISS orbit is a low Earth orbit that is located in outer space above the Earth, where the atmosphere is extremely rarefied and the particle density is low to such an extent that there is no significant resistance to flight. The height of the ISS orbit is the main flight requirement for the station to get rid of the influence of the Earth's atmosphere, especially its dense layers. This is the region of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 330-430 km

When calculating the orbit for the ISS, a number of factors were taken into account.

The first and main factor is the impact of radiation on humans, which is significantly increased above 500 km and this can affect the health of astronauts, since their established allowable dose for half a year is 0.5 sievert and should not exceed one sievert in total for all flights.

The second weighty argument in the calculation of the orbit is the ships for the delivery of crews and cargo for the ISS. For example, Soyuz and Progress were certified for flights to an altitude of 460 km. The American Shuttle delivery spacecraft could not fly even up to 390 km. and therefore, when using them, the ISS orbit also did not go beyond these limits of 330-350 km. After the termination of the Shuttle flights, the orbital height began to be raised in order to minimize atmospheric influence.

Economic parameters are also taken into account. The higher the orbit, the farther to fly, the more fuel and, therefore, the less necessary cargo the ships will be able to deliver to the station, which means that they will have to fly more often.

The required height is also considered from the point of view of the set scientific tasks and experiments. To solve the given scientific problems and ongoing research, altitudes of up to 420 km are sufficient for the time being.

An important place is also occupied by the problem of space debris, which, when it enters the ISS orbit, carries the most serious danger.

As already mentioned, the space station must fly in such a way that it does not fall and fly out of its orbit, that is, move at the first space velocity, carefully calculated.

An important factor is the calculation of the inclination of the orbit and the launch point. The ideal economic factor is to launch from the equator clockwise, since here an additional indicator of speed is the speed of the Earth's rotation. The next relatively economically cheap indicator is a launch with an inclination equal to the latitude, since less fuel is required for launch maneuvers, and is taken into account political question. For example, despite the fact that the Baikonur Cosmodrome is located at a latitude of 46 degrees, the ISS orbit is at an angle of 51.66. Rocket stages, when launched into a 46-degree orbit, could fall into Chinese or Mongolian territory, which usually leads to costly conflicts. When choosing a cosmodrome for launching the ISS into orbit, the international community decided to use the Baikonur cosmodrome, due to the most suitable launch site and the flight path for such a launch covers most of the continents.

An important parameter of the space orbit is the mass of an object flying along it. But the mass of the ISS often changes due to updating it with new modules and visits by delivery ships, and therefore it was designed to be very mobile and with the ability to vary both in height and in directions with options for turns and maneuvers.

The height of the station is changed several times a year, mainly to create ballistic conditions for the docking of the ships it visits. In addition to changing the mass of the station, there is a change in the speed of the station due to friction with the remnants of the atmosphere. As a result, flight control centers have to adjust the ISS orbit to the required speed and altitude. Correction occurs by turning on the engines of the delivery ships and less often by turning on the engines of the Zvezda main base service module, which have boosters. At the right moment, when the engines are additionally turned on, the flight speed of the station is increased to the calculated one. The change in the orbit height is calculated in the Mission Control Centers and is carried out automatically without the participation of astronauts.

But the maneuverability of the ISS is especially necessary in the event of a possible encounter with space debris. At cosmic speeds, even a small piece of it can be deadly for both the station itself and its crew. Omitting data on small debris protection shields at the station, we will briefly describe the ISS maneuvers to avoid collision with debris and change the orbit. To do this, a corridor zone was created along the ISS flight path with dimensions 2 km above and plus 2 km below it, as well as 25 km long and 25 km wide, and constant monitoring is carried out so that space debris does not fall into this zone. This is the so-called protection zone for the ISS. The cleanliness of this zone is calculated in advance. The US Strategic Command USSTRATCOM at Vandenberg Air Force Base maintains a catalog of space debris. Experts constantly compare the movement of debris with movement in the orbit of the ISS and make sure that their paths, God forbid, do not cross. More precisely, they calculate the probability of a collision of some piece of debris in the ISS flight zone. If a collision is possible at least with a probability of 1/100,000 or 1/10,000, then 28.5 hours in advance, NASA (Lyndon Johnson Space Center Houston) reports this to the ISS flight control to the ISS trajectory operations officer Trajectory Operation Officer (abbreviated TORO). Here at TORO, monitors keep track of the station's location in time, the spacecraft coming to dock, and keeping the station safe. Having received a message about a possible collision and coordinates, TORO transmits it to the Russian Mission Control Center named after Korolev, where the ballisticians prepare a plan for a possible variant of maneuvers to avoid a collision. This is a plan with a new flight path with coordinates and precise sequential maneuvers to avoid a possible collision with space debris. The compiled new orbit is re-checked to see if any collisions will occur on the new path again and, if the answer is positive, it is put into operation. Transfer to a new orbit is carried out from the Mission Control Centers from the Earth in computer mode automatically without the participation of cosmonauts and astronauts.

To do this, at the station in the center of mass of the Zvezda module, 4 American gyrodines (CMG) Control Moment Gyroscope, about a meter in size and weighing about 300 kg each, are installed. These are rotating inertial devices that allow the station to correctly navigate with high precision. They work in concert with Russian orientation engines. In addition to this, Russian and american ships deliveries are equipped with accelerators, which, if necessary, can also be used to move and turn the station.

In the event that a space debris is detected in less than 28.5 hours and there is no time left for calculations and coordination of a new orbit, the ISS is given the opportunity to avoid a collision using a pre-compiled standard automatic maneuver to enter a new orbit called PDAM (Predetermined Debris Avoidance Maneuver) . Even if this maneuver is dangerous, that is, it can lead to a new dangerous orbit, then the crew sits in advance, always ready and docked to the station, the Soyuz spacecraft and, in complete readiness for evacuation, awaits a collision. If necessary, the crew is immediately evacuated. In the entire history of ISS flights, there were 3 such cases, but thank God they all ended well, without the need for cosmonauts to evacuate, or, as they say, did not fall into one case out of 10,000. It is impossible to retreat from the principle of “God saves the safe”, here more than ever.

As we already know, the ISS is the most expensive (more than 150 billion dollars) space project of our civilization and is a scientific launch for deep space flights; people constantly live and work on the ISS. The safety of the station and the people on it are worth much more than the money spent. In this regard, in the first place is the correctly calculated orbit of the ISS, the constant monitoring of its cleanliness and the ability of the ISS to quickly and accurately evade and maneuver when necessary.

April 12 is Cosmonautics Day. And of course, it would be wrong to bypass this holiday. Moreover, this year the date will be special, 50 years since the first manned flight into space. It was on April 12, 1961 that Yuri Gagarin accomplished his historic feat.

Well, a man in space cannot do without grandiose superstructures. This is exactly what the International Space Station is.

The dimensions of the ISS are small; length - 51 meters, width together with trusses - 109 meters, height - 20 meters, weight - 417.3 tons. But I think everyone understands that the uniqueness of this superstructure is not in its size, but in the technologies used to operate the station in outer space. The height of the ISS orbit is 337-351 km above the earth. Orbital speed - 27700 km / h. This allows the station to make a complete revolution around our planet in 92 minutes. That is, every day the astronauts who are on the ISS meet 16 sunrises and sunsets, 16 times night follows day. Now the ISS crew consists of 6 people, but in general, during the entire period of operation, the station received 297 visitors (196 different people). The start of operation of the International Space Station is November 20, 1998. And at the moment (04/09/2011) the station has been in orbit for 4523 days. During this time, it has evolved quite a lot. I suggest you verify this by looking at the photo.

ISS, 1999.

ISS, 2000.

ISS, 2002.

ISS, 2005.

ISS, 2006.

ISS, 2009.

ISS, March 2011.

Below I will give a diagram of the station, from which you can find out the names of the modules and also see the docking points of the ISS with other spacecraft.

The ISS is an international project. 23 states participate in it: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg(!!!), Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, USA, Finland, France, Czech Republic , Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. After all, to financially overpower the construction and maintenance of the functionality of the International Space Station alone is beyond the power of any state. It is not possible to calculate the exact or even approximate costs for the construction and operation of the ISS. The official figure has already exceeded 100 billion US dollars, and if you add all the side costs here, you get about 150 billion US dollars. This is already making the International Space Station the most expensive project throughout the history of mankind. And based on the latest agreements between Russia, the United States and Japan (Europe, Brazil and Canada are still in thought) that the life of the ISS has been extended until at least 2020 (and possibly a further extension), the total cost of maintaining the station will increase even more.

But I propose to digress from the numbers. Indeed, in addition to scientific value, the ISS has other advantages. Namely, the opportunity to appreciate the pristine beauty of our planet from the height of the orbit. And it is not necessary for this to go into outer space.

Because the station has its own observation deck, the glazed Dome module.

international space station

International Space Station, abbr. (English) International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multi-purpose space research complex. ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants were Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The control of laboratory modules - the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Kibo" - is controlled by the Control Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American orbital station. In 1988, the planned station was named "Freedom" ("Freedom"). At the time, it was a joint project between the US, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high, and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned the creation of the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties, the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program provided for the flights of the American reusable Space Shuttle to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

March 1993 CEO RSA Yuri Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yuri Semyonov proposed to the head of NASA, Daniel Goldin, to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From that moment on, the official name of the station became the International Space Station, although the unofficial name, the Alpha space station, was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above, the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed the Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington an "Interim Agreement on Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civil Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were signed with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - station configuration approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, member countries of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, was launched by the Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the Endeavor shuttle docked the American Unity module (Unity, Node-1) to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - the Zvezda service module (SM) was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - the Soyuz TM-31 transport manned spacecraft (TPK) delivered the crew of the first main expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Zvezda and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - the crew of the shuttle Atlantis during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - Head of NASA Michael Griffin, at a hearing of the Senate Committee on Space and Science, announced the need for a temporary reduction in scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was needed to provide independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the supply of the station with the materials necessary for the life of the crew was carried out only by Russian Progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the Discovery shuttle. Until the end of the shuttle operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the equipment and modules necessary for completing the station and for upgrading part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived at the ISS, who joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, in a long-term expedition to the ISS, after a three-year break, three cosmonauts again began to work.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the shuttle Atlantis delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, and also radiators for the US segment's thermal control system.

On October 23, 2007, the American Harmony module arrived aboard the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After re-docking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. The construction of the main American segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, commissioned by the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM) were docked PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, the payload is 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japan Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(the first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on the Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibility of delivering goods to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before the launch it was called Poisk. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module make it possible to carry out some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian Small Research Module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock "Rassvet" to the Russian functional cargo block "Zarya" was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle "Atlantis", and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station Multilateral Board confirmed that there are no known technical restrictions at this stage on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has envisaged continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this until at least 2024, and possibly extending to 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin stated: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, the flights of reusable ships of the "Space Shuttle" type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle was launched from Cape Canaveral, carrying the Dragon private spacecraft. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station of a private spacecraft.

On May 25, 2012, Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, for the first time, he rendezvoused with the ISS and docked the private automatic cargo spacecraft Signus.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) Nauka to the ISS. It will take the place of the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the functions of Pirs.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned for 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding another module or block to the complex, which is connected to the one already delivered into orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

• "Dawn"- functional cargo module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered into orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar arrays. The life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $250 million, the Russian one is over $150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- the Zvezda service module, which houses flight control systems, life support systems, an energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking nodes. All its systems and blocks are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer system, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. The Poisk is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the Rassvet is docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides for the storage of scientific equipment, scientific experiments, temporary accommodation of the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
• hermetic adapter- hermetic docking adapter designed to connect the ISS modules to each other and to ensure shuttle docking;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. It contains systems for water treatment, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the Unity module;
• Unity- the first of the three connecting modules of the ISS, which acts as a docking station and power switch for the Quest, Nod-3 modules, the Z1 truss and the transport ships docking to it through the HermoAdapter-3;
• "Pier"- mooring port intended for docking of Russian "Progress" and "Soyuz"; installed on the Zvezda module;
• GSP- external storage platforms: three external non-pressurized platforms designed exclusively for the storage of goods and equipment;
• Farms- an integrated truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. It is also intended for non-hermetic storage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian system of remote manipulators, serving as the main tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized gateway module designed for spacewalks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out of nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and power switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• "Columbus"- a European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed that provide communication between the computer equipment of the station. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• "Destiny"- American laboratory module docked with the "Harmony" module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for conducting physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in hermetic and non-hermetic conditions. In addition, due to the special design, it allows for unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

Observation dome of the ISS.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and docking of spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the main remote manipulator of the station. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the nodal Tranquility module;
• TSP- four non-pressurized platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for cargo storage, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Rafael and Donatello, periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules having a common name "Multi-Purpose Supply Module", were delivered in the cargo compartment of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. The converted Leonardo module has been part of the station's modules since March 2011 under the name "Permanent Multipurpose Module" (PMM).

Station power supply

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light from which the solar panels of the station convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on spaceships Space Shuttle and Soyuz. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian one through an ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the voltage converter RACU ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be provided with electricity using the Russian module of the Science and Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, they also refused to deliver and install the NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the US segment, the solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible, collapsible solar panels form the so-called solar wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW), a total of four pairs of such wings are placed on the truss structures of the station. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and has a usable area of ​​298 m², while generating a total power of up to 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary DC voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, with the help of DDCU units (Eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized DC voltage of 124 volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar array on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and it spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where the solar panels do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen batteries, which are recharged when the ISS again enters the sunlight. The service life of the batteries is 6.5 years, it is expected that during the life of the station they will be replaced several times. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of astronauts during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, solar arrays in the US sector track the Sun to maximize power generation. Solar panels are directed to the Sun with the help of Alpha and Beta drives. The station has two Alpha drives, which turn several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of the truss structures at once: the first drive turns the sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own Beta drive, which ensures the rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) (“Night planning mode”), while they turn edge in the direction of travel to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the altitude of the station.

Means of communication

The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian Segment of the ISS communicates directly with the Earth using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the satellite data relay system "Luch". This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. Luch-5A was launched in 2012 to restore the system's operability. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V are operating in orbit. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Other Russian system communications, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between the modules Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers, using external antennas of the Zvezda module ".

In the US segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows you to maintain almost continuous contact with the mission control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, cosmonauts use a VHF transmitter of the decimeter range. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and Ku-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from members of the ISS crew. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is via two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV docks to the ISS and switches to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making accurate docking with the station possible.

The station is equipped with about a hundred ThinkPad laptops from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU/Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, were modified for use in the conditions of the ISS, in particular, the connectors, the cooling system were redone, the voltage of 28 Volts used at the station was taken into account, and the safety requirements for working in zero gravity were met. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. Computers aboard the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi into a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for download and 10 Mbps for download, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet bowl is equipped with fixators for legs and holders for hips, powerful air pumps are mounted in it. The astronaut is fastened with a special spring fastener to the toilet seat, then turns on powerful fan and opens the suction port, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, the air from the toilets is necessarily filtered to remove bacteria and odor before it enters the living quarters.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are officially on the menu for the first time on the International Space Station. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the Veggie orbital plantation. Many media publications reported that for the first time the astronauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique space flight conditions: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation not attenuated by the earth's atmosphere. The main areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Research is carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its hermetic volume.

ISS Science Modules

At present (January 2012), the station has three special scientific modules - the American Destiny laboratory, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine, and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental-transport compartment (Eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered the leaky Experimental Transport Compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MRM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver the Nauka multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full-fledged scientific capabilities, the amount of scientific equipment placed on two MRMs is minimal.

Joint experiments

The international nature of the ISS project facilitates joint scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. Famous examples of such cooperation are the Plasma Crystal experiment, dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute high temperatures and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the medical and biological experiment "Matryoshka-R", in which dummies are used - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation and the Cologne Institute for Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments by ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. In eleven major research areas, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluation by RSC Energia specialists of the technical feasibility of these applications, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by RAS President Yu. S. Osipov and Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the original ISS project, it was supposed to launch two large Russian research modules (RMs). The electricity needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Science and Energy Platform (SEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of building a single science module that did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research conducted by Russia on the ISS is contract or joint with foreign partners.

Various medical, biological and physical studies are currently being carried out on the ISS.

Research on the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus shown with fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research carried out during shuttle flights with Spacelab modules and in the joint Mir-Shuttle program with Russia. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population are carriers of a latent form of this virus. Under the conditions of space flight, the immune system is weakened, the virus can become more active and become a cause of illness for a crew member. Experiments to study the virus were launched on the shuttle flight STS-108.

European Studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European Science Module Columbus has 10 Unified Payload Racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment is installed in the racks: the Biolab laboratory for biological experiments, the Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, the European Physiology Modules for experiments in physiology, as well as the European Drawer Rack, which contains equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental facilities for the Columbus module were also installed: the remote platform for technological experiments EuTEF and the solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes the study of global warming processes on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals, which are designed to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new treatments. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, as well as experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata conducted a series of experiments on the ISS, which were selected from those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut tried to "swim" in zero gravity, using various styles including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted at the same time that even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are picked up and used as flippers. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back with an overhead kick. Having finished these exercises, which were difficult under weightless conditions, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and do rotations in place.

Security questions

space junk

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS moves in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain chance that the station or astronauts going into outer space will collide with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or out-of-service satellites, and small objects like slag from solid rocket engines, coolants from reactor plants of US-A series satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects like micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering space velocities in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in an astronaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris elements is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a warning. Astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system (Eng. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. The included engines are able to put the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuations took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds humans on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On the day, crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to the exposure of a person on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite attempts to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared to previous studies, conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, traces of vital activity of marine plankton were found on scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows. It also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to contamination from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

Legal framework governing legal aspects space station, is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven states - members of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership for the comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a habitable civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.. When writing this agreement, the "Outer Space Treaty" of 1967, ratified by 98 countries, was taken as a basis, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level called Memorandums of Understanding. Memorandum of Understanding - MOU s ). These memorandums are agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, CSA and JAXA. Memorandums are used for more detailed description roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements between these organizations directly, only with NASA.
• To third level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, the 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, the terms of which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut as part of the Soyuz spacecraft crews and part of the useful volume for American cargo on unmanned " Progress".
• Fourth the legal level complements the second (“Memorandums”) and enacts separate provisions from it. An example of this is the Code of Conduct on the ISS, which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage of the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), the jurisdiction of each of the partners extends only to the component of the station that is registered with him, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the station, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are citizens.

Interior of the Zarya module

Agreements on the use of ISS resources are more complex. The Russian modules Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk and Rassvet are manufactured and owned by Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered into orbit by the Russian side, but this was done at the expense of the United States, so NASA is officially the owner of this module today. For the use of Russian modules and other components of the plant, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms) as agreed by the parties are used as follows (in % of the total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• Under an agreement with NASA, KSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew hours, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading/unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist did not exist regulatory framework, which regulates flights into space of individuals. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space Tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical conditions, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants of the first cosmic wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress passed legislation on the non-proliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on the Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to adopt amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on “any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts” until January 1, 2012.

Costs

The cost of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much more than originally planned. In 2005, according to the ESA, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent from the start of work on the ISS project in the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010 \ . However, to date, the end of the operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, in connection with the request of the United States, which are not able to undock their segment and continue flying, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, most of NASA's expenses are the complex of activities for flight support and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, current operating costs account for a much larger portion of the funds spent than the costs of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA spending on the ISS, excluding the cost of the "Shuttle", from 1994 to 2005 amounted to 25.6 billion dollars. For 2005 and 2006 there were approximately 1.8 billion dollars. It is assumed that the annual costs will increase, and by 2010 will amount to 2.3 billion dollars. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

To estimate the itemized list of NASA costs, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, used for the development of navigation systems, for Information Support, on technology to reduce pollution.
• Flight support- 800 million dollars. This amount included: per ship, $125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional 150 million dollars were spent on the flights themselves, on-board radio-electronic equipment and on the systems for interaction between the crew and the ship; the remaining $250 million went to the overall management of the ISS.
• Ship launches and expeditions- $125 million for pre-launch operations at the spaceport; $25 million for medical care; $300 million spent on managing expeditions;
• Flight program- 350 million dollars spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- $140 million was spent on the acquisition Supplies, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

The cost of the "Shuttle" as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, because it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 out of 31 shuttle flights were not associated with the ISS, and out of the eleven scheduled flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS amounted to:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the costs amounted to $24 billion. Of these, 20% (5 billion dollars) did not belong to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $ 20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, then in the end we get the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total cost of NASA for flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately 38 billion dollars.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual expenditure of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 (25.6 billion dollars) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - 53 billion dollars.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participating in a joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used in the construction of the ISS. Given this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttle, we can talk about a more than twofold increase in the amount of expenses, compared with the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will be 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and command systems. The total ATV development costs are approximately 1.35 billion euros, with each Ariane 5 launch costing approximately 150 million euros.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experiment Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operating cost of the Japanese experimental module is $350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $1 billion. JAXA's 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant part of the budget of the Russian Space Agency is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen Soyuz and Progress flights have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends on the station (in US dollars) is not simple. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs for their development are much lower than for other modules, however, in this case, by analogy with the American programs, one should also take into account the costs for the development of the corresponding modules of the station " World". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station spends less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a regular partner of NASA, so Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a three-part mobile maintenance system: a movable trolley that can move along the station's truss structure, a Canadianarm2 robotic arm that is mounted on a movable trolley, and a special Dextre manipulator. ). Over the past 20 years, the CSA is estimated to have invested C$1.4 billion in the station.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases the experience of mankind in space flights, spending huge financial resources on this.

Criticism in the US

The criticism of the American side is mainly aimed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $100 billion. That money, critics say, could be better spent on robotic (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on science projects on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, defenders of manned spaceflight say that criticism of the ISS project is shortsighted and that the payoff from manned spaceflight and space exploration is in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee Jerome Schnee) estimated the indirect economic contribution from additional revenues associated with space exploration as many times greater than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists claims that NASA's rate of return on additional revenue is actually very low, except for developments in aeronautics that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often lists third-party developments as part of its achievements, ideas and developments that may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. Really useful and profitable, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely publicizes additional revenues from the construction of the ISS and from work performed on it, while NASA's official list of expenses is much more concise and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park Robert Park), most of the planned scientific studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial weightlessness (in a special aircraft that flies along a parabolic trajectory (eng. reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two science-intensive components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (Eng. Centrifuge Accommodation Module) . The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second one was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans for completing the construction of the station. Highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were conducted on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (the cyclical nature of biological processes in the human body), and the effect of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that these studies have little practical value, since the realities of today's exploration of near space are unmanned automatic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust Jeff Foust) argued that maintenance of the ISS required too many expensive and dangerous EVAs. Pacific Astronomical Society The Astronomical Society of the Pacific At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention was drawn to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this reduces the cost of launches, then for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made to the Russian Federation due to geographical location Baikonur, in the end, may increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society is reduced to a discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the right efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main point of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FCA) in defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always strictly monitors the observance of its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own orbital station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on an entirely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, almost single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FKA about the underestimation of Russia's role in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that the partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be taken into account that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note a small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS increases to 6 people. In addition, questions are being raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the station. So, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, then it cannot be flooded like the Mir station.

According to critics, international cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives and large projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country that invests 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which, moreover, is its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were directed to manned programs, and a number of programs to develop satellites failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, stated that, in order to please the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, among the experts of the Russian space industry, there was an opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations have already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries have been made:

The era of orbital stations, which began in 1971, will be a thing of the past. Experts do not see practical expediency either in maintaining the ISS after 2020 or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS are significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Magazine "Expert" 2015

Delivery ships

The crews of manned expeditions to the ISS are delivered to the station at the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day schedule. Until July 2011, the delivery of goods, the installation of station elements, the rotation of crews, in addition to the Soyuz TPK, were carried out as part of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type of	Agency/country	The first flight	Last flight	Total flights

The choice of some parameters of the International Space Station orbit is not always obvious. For example, the station can be located at an altitude of 280 to 460 kilometers, and because of this, it constantly experiences the braking effect of the upper atmosphere of our planet. Every day, the ISS loses about 5 cm/s of speed and 100 meters of altitude. Therefore, periodically it is necessary to raise the station, burning the fuel of ATV and Progress trucks. Why can't the station be raised higher to avoid these costs?

The range laid down during the design and the current real situation are dictated by several reasons at once. Every day, astronauts and cosmonauts receive high doses of radiation, and beyond the 500 km mark, its level rises sharply. And the limit for a six-month stay is set at only half a sievert, only a sievert is allocated for the entire career. Each sievert increases the risk of cancer by 5.5 percent.

On Earth, we are protected from cosmic rays by the radiation belt of our planet's magnetosphere and atmosphere, but they work weaker in near space. In some parts of the orbit (the South Atlantic anomaly is such a spot of increased radiation) and beyond it, strange effects can sometimes appear: flashes appear in closed eyes. These are cosmic particles passing through the eyeballs, other interpretations say that the particles excite the parts of the brain responsible for vision. This can not only interfere with sleep, but once again unpleasantly reminds of the high level of radiation on the ISS.

In addition, the Soyuz and Progress, which are now the main crew change and supply ships, are certified to operate at an altitude of up to 460 km. The higher the ISS is, the less cargo can be delivered. Rockets that send new modules to the station will also be able to bring less. On the other hand, the lower the ISS, the more it slows down, that is, more of the delivered cargo must be fuel for the subsequent orbit correction.

Scientific tasks can be performed at an altitude of 400-460 kilometers. Finally, space debris affects the position of the station - failed satellites and their debris, which have a huge speed relative to the ISS, which makes a collision with them fatal.

There are resources on the Web that allow you to monitor the parameters of the orbit of the International Space Station. You can get relatively accurate current data, or track their dynamics. At the time of this writing, the ISS was at an altitude of approximately 400 kilometers.

The elements located at the rear of the station can accelerate the ISS: these are Progress trucks (most often) and ATVs, if necessary, the Zvezda service module (extremely rare). In the illustration, a European ATV is working before the kata. The station is raised often and little by little: the correction occurs about once a month in small portions of the order of 900 seconds of engine operation, the Progress uses smaller engines so as not to greatly affect the course of experiments.

The engines can turn on once, thus increasing the flight altitude on the other side of the planet. Such operations are used for small ascents, since the eccentricity of the orbit changes.

A correction with two inclusions is also possible, in which the second inclusion smoothes the station's orbit to a circle.

Some parameters are dictated not only by scientific data, but also by politics. It is possible to give the spacecraft any orientation, but at launch it will be more economical to use the speed that the rotation of the Earth gives. Thus, it is cheaper to launch the device into an orbit with an inclination equal to the latitude, and maneuvers will require additional fuel consumption: more for moving towards the equator, less for moving towards the poles. An ISS orbital inclination of 51.6 degrees may seem strange: NASA spacecraft launched from Cape Canaveral traditionally have an inclination of about 28 degrees.

When the location of the future ISS station was discussed, it was decided that it would be more economical to give preference to the Russian side. Also, such orbital parameters allow you to see more of the Earth's surface.

But Baikonur is at a latitude of approximately 46 degrees, so why is it common for Russian launches to have an inclination of 51.6 degrees? The fact is that there is a neighbor to the east who will not be too happy if something falls on him. Therefore, the orbit is tilted to 51.6 °, so that during launch, no parts of the spacecraft could under any circumstances fall on China and Mongolia.