What limits the soul and body. Human structure
The spine (columna vertebralis) is formed from 31-32 vertebrae (vertebrae). There are 7 cervical (vertebrae cervicales), 12 thoracic (vertebrae thoracicae), 5 lumbar (vertebrae lumbales), 5 sacral (vertebrae sacrales) vertebrae, fused into one bone - the sacrum (os sacrum), and 2 - 3 coccygeal (vertebrae coccygeae) vertebra.
Vertebrae
35. Thoracic vertebra (VIII).
1 - processus articularis superior;
2 - fovea costalis superior;
3 - corpus vertebrae;
4 - fovea costalis inferior;
5 - incisura vertebralis interior;
6 - processus articularis inferior;
7 - processus spinosus;
8 - processus transversus;
9 - fovea costalis transversalis.
Thoracic vertebrae(vertebrae thoracicae) (Fig. 35). The posterior ends of the ribs articulate with them. They differ from the lumbar vertebrae in that the transverse dimensions of their bodies are smaller. The shape of the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae approaches a triangle. At the upper and lower edges of the lateral parts of the body are fossae (fovea costalis superior et inferior). The upper and lower pits are places for articulation with the head of the corresponding rib. The 1st vertebra has a fossa on the upper edge for connection with the 1st rib and on the lower edge for connection with the 2nd rib. X vertebra has a fossa only on the upper edge. XI and XII thoracic vertebrae each have one fossa for the corresponding ribs. An arc (arcus vertebrae) is attached to the posterior surface of the vertebral body with two legs (pedunculi arcus vertebrae), which have small notches. The arc limits the back of the vertebral foramen (for. vertebrale). The transverse processes (processus transversi) depart from the arc to the right and to the left. They are well developed, which is explained by a greater load due to the attachment of ribs to them. On the front side of the I-X transverse processes, closer to their apex, there is an articular fossa (fovea costalis transversalis) - a place of articulation with tubercles of the ribs. The spinous process (processus spinosus) is directed backward. It starts from the posterior surface of the arch, faces back and down, thinner and narrower than the corresponding process of the lumbar vertebra. From the upper and lower edges of the arc, paired upper and lower articular processes (processus articulares superiores et inferiores) begin. Articular areas are located in the frontal plane.
36. Lumbar vertebra (III).
1 - corpus vertebrae;
2 - incisura vertebralis interior;
3 - processus articularis inferior;
4 - processus spinosus;
5 - processus costarius;
6 - processus articularis superior;
7 - incisura vertebralis superior.
Lumbar vertebrae(vertebrae lumbales) (Fig. 36). The lumbar vertebra has the largest dimensions of the body and the spinous process.
The body (corpus) is oval in shape, its width prevails over its height. An arc (arcus) is attached to its posterior surface with two legs (pedunculi arcus vertebrae), which are involved in the formation of the vertebral foramen (for. vertebrale), which has an oval or rounded shape. Processes are attached to the arch of the vertebra: behind - spinous (processus spinosi), having the form of a wide plate, flattened from the sides, and somewhat thickened at the end, on the right and left - transverse processes (processus transversi), above and below - paired articular (processus articulares) . In III-V vertebrae, the articular surfaces of the processes are oval in shape.
At the place of attachment of the legs of the arc to the body of the vertebrae, there are notches, more noticeable on the lower edge than on the upper one (incisura vertebralis superior et inferior), which in the whole spinal column limit the intervertebral foramen (for. intervertebrale).
37. Cervical vertebra (VI).
1 - corpus vertebrae;
2 - tuberculum anterius;
3 - tuberculum posterius;
4 - processus spinosus;
5 - processus articularis superior.
Cervical vertebrae(vertebrae cervicales). I and II cervical vertebrae have characteristic structural features and are described independently. III - VII cervical vertebrae (Fig. 37) resemble the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae in terms of structure, differing from the latter in the size of the parts. The upper edge of the body of the cervical vertebrae is trough-like concave in the sagittal plane, the transverse processes are presented in the form of an anterior tubercle (tuberculum anterius) (reduced ribs), a posterior tubercle (tuberculum posterius) (reduced transverse processes), and between them there is a transverse opening (for. transversum) . The tops of the spinous processes are bifurcated. In vertebra VII, the spinous process protrudes posteriorly more than the processes of other vertebrae, and is palpated through the skin, therefore the VII vertebra is called protruding (vertebra prominens).
38. Cervical vertebra (I).
1 - arcus anterior;
2 - fovea articularis inferior;
3 - for. transversarium;
4 - processus transversus;
5 - arcus posterior;
6 - processus costarius;
7 - fovea dentis.
The first cervical vertebra - atlas (atlas) (Fig. 38) has an anterior and posterior arches (arcus anterior et posterior), which are fused with paired lateral masses (massae laterales). Articular areas are located on the upper and lower surfaces of the lateral thickenings: the upper ellipsoidal shape is the place of articulation with the condyles of the occipital bone, the lower spherical is the junction with the articular surface of the third cervical vertebra. The body of the 1st vertebra is absent. On the outside of the anterior arch there is an anterior tubercle (tuberculum anterius), on the posterior surface of the arch there is a tooth fossa (fovea dentis), the place of articulation with the odontoid process of the II vertebra. On the posterior arch is the posterior tubercle (tuberculum posterius).
39. Cervical vertebra (II).
1 - corpus vertebrae;
2 - fades articularis anterior;
3 - dens;
4 - fades articularis posterior;
5 - lamina arcus vertebrae;
6 - processus spinosus;
7 - processus articularis inferior;
8 - processus transversus;
9 - for. transversarium;
10 - fades articularis superior)
The second cervical vertebra is the axial vertebra (axis) (Fig. 39).
On the upper surface of his body there is an odontoid process (dens), which is the body of the first cervical vertebra that has moved here. Outside and behind the tooth there are two, anterior and posterior, articular surfaces (fades articulares anterior et posterior) for the formation of joints with the fossa of the anterior arch of the atlas and its transverse ligament (lig. transversum).
Sacrum(sacrum) (Fig. 40) after 16 years is the fused 5 vertebrae of the sacral spine. Its upper part is expanded, it shows the articular processes and the entrance to the sacral canal. The lower part of the sacrum is narrowed, it has an opening of the sacral canal. On the anterior concave and posterior convex surfaces of the sacrum, there are 4 pairs of holes (forr. sacralia pelvina et dorsalia), similar to the intervertebral holes. The bone substance located lateral to these holes (massae laterales) is formed by fusion of the rudiments of the ribs and transverse processes of the vertebrae. On the lateral surfaces of the sacrum are ear-shaped articular areas (facies auriculares), behind them are tuberosities (tuberositas sacrales). On the posterior surface of the sacrum, the median sacral crest (crista sacralis mediana) is formed from the fusion of the spinous processes, the articular processes form the intermediate sacral crest (crista sacralis intermedia), and the transverse processes form the lateral sacral crest (crista sacralis lateralis).
40. Sacrum. A - front view: 1 - basis ossis sacri; 2 - processus articularis superior; 3 - pars lateralis; 4 - lineae transversae; 5-forr. sacralia pelvina; 6 - apex ossis sacri. B - rear view: 1 - canalis sacralis; 2 - processus articularis superior; 3 - tuberositas sacralis; 4 - crista sacralis intermedia; 5 - crista sacralis mediana; 6 - hiatus sacralis; 7 - cornu sacrale; 8-forr. sacralia dorsalia; 9 - crista sacralis lateralis.
Coccyx(os coccygis) is formed by the fusion of 2-3 vertebrae and is connected to the top of the sacrum.
Ossification. From the ventromedial surface of the somites (see Initial stages of embryogenesis), a group of mesenchymal cells that surround the notochord unite into a sclerotome, giving a derivative to the vertebrae. The cartilaginous nucleus of the body of the future vertebra is formed from two rudiments of adjacent sclerotomes at the place of their contact. Such secondary segmentation contributes to the fact that myotomes fuse with their ends with two adjacent somites (Fig. 41). At the 6th week of embryonic development, cartilage tissue is formed at the site of the mesenchymal anlage. The first ossification nuclei appear in the body of the XII thoracic vertebra at the 6-7th week. In the remaining thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, ossification nuclei appear by the end of the 12th week, in the cervical and two upper sacral vertebrae - at the end of the 16th week. At this time, three paired nuclei of ossification are formed in the cartilage behind the vertebral foramen: from the anterior, the legs of the arc are formed, from the lateral-posterior - the plate of the arc and the base of the spinous process, from the transverse nucleus - the base of the transverse process. Only in the 2nd year of life, starting from the cervical vertebrae, a complete bone arch is formed. In a 4-year-old child, the arches of the 1st cervical, 5th lumbar, 1st, 4th, and 5th sacral vertebrae are still widely open. Their closure occurs in the 7th year.
41. Scheme of the development of the vertebrae (according to Clar). 1 - somite; 2 - myotome; 3 - discus intervertebralis; 4 - muscles; 5 - vertebrae developing from parts of two somites.
42. Scheme of ossification of the lumbar vertebra (according to Andronescu).
1 - primary middle core;
2 - upper epiphyseal ring of ossification;
3 - lower epiphyseal ring;
4 - primary anterolateral and transverse nuclei of ossification;
5 - secondary lower articular nucleus;
6 - primary posterolateral nucleus;
7 - secondary nucleus of ossification of the spinous process;
8 - secondary transverse core;
9 - secondary nucleus of ossification of the mastoid process;
10 - secondary superarticular nucleus of ossification.
In adolescence, secondary ossification nuclei appear in the vertebral bodies, which look like plates (epiphyseal rings) (Fig. 42). Starting from the age of 15, initially at the thoracic vertebrae and ending with the lumbar, epiphyseal rings synostose to the vertebral bodies.
Some feature is the ossification of the I and II cervical vertebrae. On the 16th week, two primary nuclei appear in the tooth, which fuse with the vertebral body only at the 4-5th year of life.
anomalies. The most common anomaly in the development of the vertebrae is the nonunion of their arches (spondylolysis) mainly in the sacrum, which contributes to the development of spina bifida. Rarely observed nonunion of the halves of the vertebral bodies with each other. There is a complete absence of vertebral bodies (asomy), the absence of half of the vertebral body (hemisomy), cessation of growth of the vertebral body in height (congenital platyspondylia).
WHY DO WE NEED BODY, MIND, SOUL AND MOOD?
For life on earth, nature has given everyone three inalienable resources: body, mind, soul.
How much do we know the potential of our own resources?
How environmentally and rationally do we use them?
How aware of the consequences of their disparate application?
ABOUT BODY POTENTIAL
The body is a resource for action. It manifests our thoughts and feelings in the world around us.
The body is limited by real space and present time. It can only work here and now.
The body needs security, regularity in nutrition, physical activity and care, a balance between activity and rest, attention.
The choice is ours:
- overeat, concentrating on TV shows, or eat a balanced diet, feeling full of energy from high-quality and sufficient food;
- run a marathon once a year, then fall into bed, or run three times a week;
- drink beer or play football;
- relax, lying in bed, or go to the theater;
- play computer games until morning or go to bed;
- rush and not do, or not rush, but do.
This is neither good nor bad. It is a choice that determines the quality of life.
If the body does not like something, and this is more often associated with negative and unbridled thoughts and the closeness of the soul, it speaks about it through tension. If we don't cleanse the body of tension, it turns on pain. The body has no other way to tell.
ABOUT INTELLIGENT CAPACITY
Mind is a resource for creating thought. It collects information from the outside through the senses and transforms the information into a single understanding for subsequent expression. The mind is familiar to us.
The mind creates a database to keep us going in the world around us. Thought generates human action. As far as the way of responding to an event is comprehended and felt inside, so it will manifest itself in the outside world in words and actions.
The mind is not limited by space or time. It can "chew" the past, fly to Mars in the future, pulling us out of the present moment.
The mind needs to be kept in check, clean and disciplined and developed in it with flexibility, mobility and progressiveness.
The choice is ours:
- drive information on the surface that “a black cat crossed the road - to trouble” or make sure from personal experience (if you can’t let go of this belief) that three jumps on one leg remove superstitions in an instant and cheer me up and those around me;
- sigh “you can’t run - it’s harmful for the joints”, sad about your past and imagining yourself powerful in the future, or explore possible options for playing sports with the characteristics of the body and go to the pool for the next session, swim;
- limit yourself “my time is gone”, “no time for personal life” or honestly understand the reasons for your own inaction and find, implement ideas and balance in the present;
- be a hostage to your own illusions or be freed from them by understanding the difficulties and pain that arise.
This is neither right nor wrong. It is the choice of supporting or limiting beliefs.
Mind work and mind wandering are two opposite alternatives. The mind is afraid of change and blames the causes of difficulties on external circumstances.
If we do not free the mind from stubborn knowledge, the mind becomes an obstacle. If we do not realize ideas in actions, information intoxication occurs in the mind, and we lose the meaning of life. The mind turns into informational noise and a "thought mixer".
ABOUT SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL
The soul is a subtle and difficult to describe resource. We feel it in the chest and heart. She seems to see, hear, touch, smell and feel us from the inside. For us, this resource is unusual, as it goes beyond the mind due to the inability to touch it and defies logic. It's not something that turns into an association. This is what it feels like.
The soul is the filter for the mind and body. She supports and approves thoughts and actions within, if not hidden in her own inner fortresses. The mind often resists, doubts, evaluates. And the soul does not have the answer “I don’t know.” She unambiguously says “yes” through positive feelings (good, comfortable, joyful) or “no” through negative feelings (bad, uncomfortable, anxious).
In our souls we carry the feelings and emotions of our ancestors. Those states that they felt at that time and in that environment. Rod stands behind us and supports us. Due to the interpretation of the mind, we are not ready to hear and accept the information of the ancestors, which we often feel as Conscience.
The soul needs trust, no proof.
The choice is ours:
- unconsciously carry the experiences of ancestors and spend resources on anxiety (to be afraid of making money because the grandfather was repressed; afraid to choose creativity in the profession, because after the dispossession of the family, the grandmother had to play the role of the father of the family,)
- or find situations in the family in which the limiting event occurred for the first time, realize and understand the causes and solutions at that moment, reconnect through memory, respect and gratitude to the family.
Feelings and emotions need to come and go, express themselves consciously and disappear, but not be held permanently inside. Then the positive feelings are expanded and the negative ones are transformed.
When the soul says "No", we feel chest heaviness, heart and closeness. If we do not open our souls to true feelings and emotions, we close ourselves off from the outside world and suffer. So the soul calls the mind to rethink the chosen way of solving the issue at the root.
ABOUT NII MOOD
Life is spontaneous. Every moment there are new events. And the mind resists changes that do not correspond to its associations and requirements. The body gives out automatic and predictable reactions, it is tense and not oriented by the mind to the variability of the external world. The soul whines in the prison of the mind. Each resource is important, but separate from each other.
The words "I am here and now"- our inner awakening and presence in every event of life. This is your own center of conscious control of the bodily, intellectual and spiritual potential, their balance, interaction and complementarity.
Simultaneous comprehension in the circumstances of life of the three resources together - body, mind and soul - was difficult for us at first. As awareness rises, self-esteem and self-image fall. You see that the current state, with the exception of a number of cases, is consciously or unconsciously organized by you. But when you find clear answers to the questions: “Why?” and “What and how do I do?” and you realize them in life, integrity and energy beyond words appear inside.
To come to harmony is possible only through self-awareness. It's like spinning a stationary flywheel. In order for it to move a fraction of centimeters, we make efforts without stopping for a second. A little bit more. A little bit more. And the flywheel spins slowly. If we continue to apply the same effort, the rotation speed becomes higher. And there comes a moment when the flywheel rotates by itself without external effort.
It's not about self-improvement. The value of awareness is that you:
- you can make choices and change circumstances;
- you understand that every choice has a price and pleasure, and therefore you become realistic in your choice and take responsibility for your actions;
- having made a choice, you follow it without regrets and fear;
- manage resources: lack and difficulty in one resource is a chance to improve and renew another resource;
- you understand that rather than wasting energy on pity and searching for reasons in external circumstances and people, it is better to be responsible for your own current life.
We are in the mood if the THREE - body, mind and soul - are in harmony and cooperation. We are upset if the body, mind and soul run in opposite directions or pull each blanket over itself.
When we consciously manage potential, we own ourselves and feel an incredible surge of energy in order to naturally realize ourselves in the outside world and respond when events in life occur.
When we rely only on self-regulation, when events occur contrary to what we expect, energy is spent on local internal dialogues of the mind and an uncomfortable state of mind and body, or is directed to bring the body out of stress.
The vertebra, vertebra, has a body, an arc and processes. The body of the vertebra, corpus vertebrae, represents the front, thickened, part of the vertebra, it is limited above and below by surfaces facing the above and below the vertebrae, respectively, in front and on the sides - a somewhat concave surface, and behind - flattened. On the vertebral body, especially on its posterior surface, there are many nutritional holes, foramina nutricia - traces of the passage of blood vessels and nerves into the bone substance
The vertebra, vertebra, has a body, an arc and processes. Vertebral body,
corpus vertebrae , represents the anterior, thickened, part of the vertebra, it is limited above and below by surfaces facing the above and below the vertebrae, respectively, in front and on the sides - a somewhat concave surface, and behind - flattened. On the vertebral body, especially on its posterior surface, there are many nutritional holes, foramina nutricia - traces of the passage of blood vessels and nerves into the bone substance. The vertebral bodies are interconnected by means of intervertebral discs (cartilage) and form a very flexible column - the spinal column. vertebral arch, arcus vertebrae , limits the back and sides of the vertebral foramen, foramen vertebrale ; located one above the other, the holes form the spinal canal, canalis vertebralis, in which the spinal cord lies. From the posterolateral faces of the vertebral body, the arch begins with a narrowed segment - the pedicle of the vertebral arch, pedunculus arcus vertebrae . On the upper and lower surfaces of the leg there is an upper vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis superior , and lower vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis inferior . The upper notch of one vertebra, adjacent to the lower notch of the overlying vertebra, forms the intervertebral foramen, foramen intervertebrale through which the spinal nerve and blood vessels pass. The processes of the vertebrae, processus vertebrae, 7 in total, protrude on the vertebral arch. One of them, unpaired, is directed from the middle of the arc backwards and is called the spinous process, processus spinosus . The remaining processes are paired. One pair - superior articular processes, processus articularis superiores , is located on the side of the upper surface of the arc, the other pair is the lower articular processes, processus articularis inferiores , protrudes from the side of the lower surface of the arc and the third pair - transverse processes, processus transversus , departs from the side surfaces of the arc. The upper articular processes have superior articular surfaces, facies articulares superiores ; on the lower articular processes are the same lower articular surfaces, facies articulares inferiores . With these surfaces, each overlying vertebra articulates with the underlying vertebra.A selection of answers that were received during séances from spirits of high rank. The sessions were held at various times and through several mediums. The material was systematized by Kardec and with appropriate comments and additions.
Purpose of incarnation
What is the purpose of the incarnation of spirits?
– “God imputes the incarnation in order to bring the spirits to perfection; for some it is redemption, for others it is a mission. But in order to achieve perfection, they must endure all the vicissitudes of bodily existence: this is redemption. The incarnation also has another goal, and this is the direct involvement of the spirit in the general work of creation; in order to achieve this goal, in each world he takes for himself such a body that would be in harmony with the basic matter of this world, in order to fulfill the orders of the Divine there. Everything is arranged in such a way that, contributing to the common cause, he himself advances.
Does the spirit, which has followed the path of goodness from the very beginning, need to be incarnated?
“All are created simple and ignorant; they are trained in the battles and torments of bodily life. God, in justice, could not give them happiness without labor and work and, consequently, without merit.
However, then what is the use of spirits to move along the path of good, if this does not free them from the hardships of bodily life?
- “The benefit is that they come to the goal faster; and the hardships of life are often the consequences of the imperfection of the spirit itself; less imperfection - less torment; who is not envious, not jealous, not stingy, not ambitious .., he will not have the suffering that these shortcomings give rise to.
About the soul
What is a soul?
- Embodied Spirit.
What was the soul before joining the body?
It turns out that souls and spirits are absolutely one and the same?
“Yes, souls are nothing but spirits. Before connecting with the body, the soul is one of the rational beings that inhabit and temporarily put on a carnal shell in order to purify and gain knowledge and experience.
Is there anything else in a person besides soul and body?
“There is a mediating ligament that connects the soul and the body.”
What is the nature of this link?
- “Semi-material, that is, intermediate between the spirit and the body. And it is necessary that it be exactly like this, or that the spirit and the body could not communicate with each other. With the help of this very bundle, the spirit acts on matter, and vice versa.
Note. Man, therefore, is formed from three constituent parts:
1. Bodies, or material beings, similar to animals and animated by the same vital principle;
2. Soul, or embodied spirit, for which the body serves as an abode;
3. The mediating beginning, or perispirit, the material substance, which serves as the first shell of the spirit and connects the soul with the body.
Is the soul independent of the vital principle?
– “The body is only a shell; we keep repeating this to you.”
Is it possible for a body to exist without a soul?
“Yes, and yet, as soon as the body dies, the soul leaves it. Before birth, there is still no final connection between soul and body; but after this union has taken place, the death of the body breaks the threads that bind it to the soul, and the soul leaves it. Organic life can revive a body without a soul, but a soul cannot exist in a body devoid of organic life.
What would our body be if it did not have a soul?
“An unintelligent piece of meat, anything but a man.”
One and the same spirit, is it capable of incarnating at the same time in two different bodies?
- "No, the spirit is not divisible and will not be able to revive two different beings at the same time."
What can be said about the opinion of those who regard the soul as the beginning of material life?
“It is a question of words, not of substance; we do not attach any importance to this; start by understanding yourself."
Some of the spirits, and some of their philosophers before them, have defined the soul as an inspiring spark emanating from the great Whole; why this contradiction?
– “There are no contradictions here; it all depends on the meaning of the words. Why don't you have one word for every thing?"
Note. The word "soul" is used to express concepts quite different. Someone calls the vital principle this way, and if figurative expressions are used, then it is quite possible to say in this sense that "the soul is a spark of inspiration, emanating from the great Whole." The last words indicate the universal source of the life principle, a part of which is assimilated by every living being and returns to the Whole of this being.
This idea does not exclude the idea of a moral being, independent, different from matter and preserving its individuality. And this being is also called the "soul", and it is in this meaning that it is possible to say that the soul is an embodied spirit. Giving different definitions to the soul, the spirits spoke in accordance with the meaning they attached to this word, and with the earthly ideas with which they were still imbued. All this is due to the insufficiency and imperfection of the human language, which does not have one word for each idea, which is the source of many misunderstandings and disputes: this is why the Higher Spirits tell us that we first find out the meaning of the word.
Is there any truth in the opinion of those who believe that the soul is external to the body, and that it surrounds it, and is not inside?
– “The soul is not locked in the body, like a bird in a cage; it radiates and pours outward, like light through a glass jar, or like sound around a source of sound; in this sense it is possible to say that it is external, but because of this the soul does not become a shell of the body. The soul has two shells: one thin and light, this is the first, the one that you call the perispirit; the other is gross, material and heavy: this is the body. The soul is the center of all these shells, like a nut inside a shell.
What can be said about the theory according to which the soul in children is supplemented and completed in each life period?
– “The spirit is one; it is holistic in both children and adults; only the organs or instruments of manifestation of the soul develop and are supplemented. Again, this is an effect taken as a cause.
Why don't all spirits define the soul in the same way?
– “Not all spirits are equally enlightened about these matters; there are still limited spirits, who do not understand abstract things; it is the same as the children among you; there are still pseudo-scientific spirits, scattering words in order to give themselves significance: this again happens with you. And yet, the learned spirits themselves can be explained in different ways, in other words and expressions that have essentially the same meaning, especially when it comes to things that your language is powerless to express clearly; and then images and comparisons are needed, which you, however, understand literally.
What is to be understood by the "world soul"?
“This is the universal vital and rational principle from which individuals are born. But those who use these words often do not understand themselves. The word "soul" is so malleable that everyone interprets it according to the will of his imagination. At times a soul has also been attributed to your planet, Earth; by this we must understand the totality of devotedly selfless spirits that guide, when you listen to them, your actions along the path of goodness and are the deputies of the Almighty on your planet.
How could it happen that so many ancient and modern philosophers have been arguing about psychological science for all eternity without finding the truth?
– “Such people were the harbingers of the eternal spiritualistic Teaching; they paved the way. They were human and, of course, could be mistaken; often they took their own ideas as the light of truth; but their very errors, revealing all the pros and cons, served to point out the truth. Moreover, among these errors there are great truths, which comparison will allow you to discover.
Is the soul in any specific and specific place of the body?
- "No, but it is preferable to have it in the head of great thinkers and all those who think a lot, and in the heart of those who feel a lot and all of whose actions are filled with philanthropy."
What can be said about the opinion of those who place the soul in a certain center of vitality?
“It means that the spirit lives more in this part of your organization, because that is where all sensations lead. But those who place it in what they call the center of vitality confuse it with the vital fluid or principle. At least, it can be said that the location of the soul is rather in those organs that serve for intellectual and moral manifestations.
Materialism
Why do anatomists, physiologists, and natural scientists in general, so often adhere to materialism?
Physiologists reduce everything to what they see or what they are able to see. This is just human pride, which imagines itself to be omniscient and which cannot admit the very idea that anything can surpass human understanding. Their very knowledge overwhelms such people with arrogance; they believe that in nature there can be nothing hidden from them.
Isn't it regrettable that materialism is the result of those very investigations, which, on the contrary, should have shown man the superiority and greatness of the Mind that rules the Universe? Is it possible to conclude from this that these studies are dangerous?
“It is not true that materialism is a consequence of these investigations: only man himself draws false conclusions from these studies, because he is capable of abusing anything, even the most beautiful. Non-existence, however, can be more terrifying than they care to show, and the so-called "freethinkers" have more bragging than real courage. Most of them are materialists only because they have nothing to fill this void; at the abyss that opens before them, show them a foothold - and in a hurry they will seize on the opportunity to escape.
Note. There are people who, due to some distortion of their mind, see nothing in organic beings except the action of matter, and reduce all our thoughts and actions to it. In the human body, they could see only an electric machine; they studied the mechanism of life only as the work of the organs of the body; they could often see how life fades away with the breaking of the connecting thread, but they saw nothing but this thread; they looked to see if there was anything else left, and because they found nothing but dead matter, because they did not see it, they could not catch it in some way, they concluded from this that everything can be explained by the properties of matter and that, therefore, death means the absolute disappearance of thought, the non-existence of consciousness - a sad conclusion, if only it were so: because then they would become aimless; man would be created only to think only of himself and to put above all his pleasures and the satisfaction of his material appetites; social ties would be severed, and the most sacred feelings and affections irretrievably lost and broken.
Fortunately, such ideas are quite far from being universal, one might even say that they are not universally recognized and limited, representing only individual opinions, because nowhere have they been elevated to a doctrine. A society based on such principles would carry within itself the germ of its own dissolution, and its members would devour one another like beasts of prey.
A person has an instinctive thought that not everything ends for him along with life; he has an instinctive aversion to nothingness. In vain does he drive away thoughts of the inevitable future: when the last moment comes, there are few who would not ask themselves what will happen to him; because there is something heartbreaking in the very idea of \u200b\u200bpassing away from life forever. In reality, who could indifferently look at his complete and final separation from everything that is dear to him, from everything that he loves? Who could dispassionately look at the bottomless abyss of nothingness that opens before him, in which all our abilities and strengths, all our hopes will forever sink, and say to himself:
"Yes! There will be nothing left of me, nothing, only emptiness. Everything is over for me irrevocably, a few more days - and the very memory of me will be erased in the memory of those who survived me, and soon there will be no trace of this and my stay on this planet. Even the good that I have done will be forgotten by the ungrateful whom I have obligated. And there is nothing, nothing, to somehow brighten up all this, and the only thing that awaits me is that my body will be gnawed by worms!
So creepy, so chillingly creepy this picture! Religion teaches us that this is not possible, and reason confirms this to us; but this future existence, vague and indefinite, does not contain anything that would satisfy our love for the positive, and it is precisely this that gives rise to doubt in many. Let us have a soul, but what is the human soul? Does it have any form and appearance? Is she a limited being or an indefinite one? Some say that it is the breath of God, others say that it is a spark, others say that it is part of a great Whole, a vital and rational principle; but what does all this tell us? What do we care if we have a soul, if after that it is lost in the vastness, like a drop in the ocean?!
Loss of individuality - isn't it the same for us as non-existence? They also say that the soul is immaterial; but not a single immaterial thing can somehow relate to us, for us it is nothing. Faith in the spiritual life teaches us that we will be happy or unhappy, depending on the good and evil we have done; but what is it then, this happiness that awaits us in the Kingdom of God? Is hellfire a reality or a symbol? The church itself understands it in this last sense, but what then are these sufferings? In a word, what is being done, what is observed in the other world, which awaits us all? No one, they say, returned from there to tell us this.
But this is precisely what is wrong, precisely this is where the error lies, because the purpose, its historical mission, is to enlighten us on this score, so that not by reasoning, but with the help of the facts themselves, to allow us, as it were, to touch with our hands the future of this and see it with your own eyes.
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1-skull
2-vertebral column
3-collarbone
4-blade
5-sternum
6-humerus
7-radius
8 cubit
9-bones of the wrist ( ossa carpi)
10-bones of the metacarpus
11-phalanges of fingers
12 hip bone
13-sacrum
14-pubic symphysis ( symphysis pubica)
15-femur
16-patella ( patella)
17-tibia
18-fibula
19-tarsal bones
20th metatarsal bones
21-phalanges of toes
22-ribs (chest).
1-skull
2-vertebral column
3-blade
4-humerus
5 cubit
6-radius
7-bones of the wrist ( ossa carpi)
8-bones of the metacarpus
9-phalanges of the fingers
10 hip bone
11-femur
12-tibia
13 fibula
14-foot bones
15-tarsal bones
16 metatarsal bones
17-phalanges of the toes
18 sacrum
19-ribs (chest)
A - front view
B - rear view
B - side view. 1-cervical department
2-thoracic region
3-lumbar
4-sacrum
5 coccyx.
1-spinous process ( processus spinosus)
2-arch vertebra ( arcus vertebrae)
3-transverse process ( processus transversus)
4-vertebral foramen ( foramen vertebrale)
5-pedicle of the vertebral arch ( pediculli arcus vertebrae)
6-vertebral body ( corpus vertebrae)
7 costal fossa
8-superior articular process ( )
9-transverse costal fossa (costal fossa of the transverse process).
1-vertebral body ( corpus vertebrae)
2 costal fossa
3-superior vertebral notch ( )
processus articularis superior)
5-transverse costal fossa (costal fossa of the transverse process)
6-transverse process ( processus transversus)
7-spinous process ( processus spinosus)
8-lower articular processes
9-lower vertebral notch.
1-posterior tubercle ( tuberculum posterior)
2-back arc ( arcus posterior)
3-vertebral foramen ( foramen vertebrale)
4-sulcus of the vertebral artery ( sulcus arteria vertebralis)
5-superior glenoid fossa
6-transverse foramen (foramen of the transverse process)
7-transverse process ( processus transversus)
8-lateral mass ( massa lateralis)
9-fossa of the tooth
10-anterior tubercle ( tuberculum anterior)
11 - front arc.
1-tooth of the axial vertebra ( dens axis)
2-posterior articular surface ( facies articularis posterior)
3-vertebral body ( corpus vertebrae)
4-superior articular surface ( facies articularis superior)
5-transverse process ( processus transversus)
6-lower articular process: 7-arch of the vertebra ( arcus vertebrae)
8-spinous process.
1-spinous process ( processus spinosus)
2-vertebral foramen ( foramen vertebrale)
3-arch vertebra ( arcus vertebrae)
4-superior articular process ( processus articularis superior)
5-transverse process ( processus transversus)
6-posterior tubercle of the transverse process
7-anterior (carotid) tubercle
8-transverse foramen (foramen of the transverse process)
9-vertebral body.
1-spinous process ( processus spinosus)
2-arch vertebra ( arcus vertebrae)
3-superior articular process: 4-mastoid process ( processus mamillaris)
5-additional process ( processus accessorius)
6-transverse process ( processus transversus)
7-vertebral foramen ( foramen vertebrale)
8-pedicle of the vertebral arch ( pediculli arcus vertebrae)
9-vertebral body.
1-base of the sacrum ( basis ossis sacri)
processus articularis superior)
3-lateral part ( pars lateralis)
4-cross lines ( linea transversae)
5-pelvic sacral foramen ( foramina sacralia pelvina)
6-apex of the sacrum ( apex ossis sacri)
7 coccyx
8 sacral vertebrae.
1-sacral canal (upper opening)
2-superior articular process ( processus articularis superior)
3 sacral tuberosity ( toberositas sacralis)
4-ear surface ( facies auricularis)
5-lateral sacral crest ( Crista sacralis lateralis)
6-intermediate sacral ridge ( crista sacralis intermedia)
7-sacral fissure (lower opening of the sacral canal)
8-sacral horn ( cornu sacrale)
9-coccyx (coccygeal vertebrae)
10 coccygeal horn
11-dorsal (posterior) sacral foramen
12-median sacral ridge
1st (I) thoracic vertebra
2-head of the first rib
3-first (I) rib
4-clavicular notch of the sternum
5-sternum handle ( manubrium sterni)
6-second (II) rib
7-sternum body ( corpus sterni)
8 costal cartilages
9-xiphoid process ( processus xiphoideus)
10 costal arch
11th costal process of the first lumbar vertebra
12-sternal angle
13th twelfth (XII) rib
14th (VII) rib
15th (VIII) rib.
1 jugular tenderloin
2-clavicular notch ( incisura clavicularis)
3-cut 1-rib (rib notch)
4-angle fudina
5-cut 11-rib
6-cut III-ribs
7-cut IV-rib
8-cut V-rib
9-cut VI-rib
10-cut VII-rib
11-xiphoid process ( processus xiphoideus)
12-body fudina
13-fudin handle.
A-first (I) rib
B-second (II) rib
Eighth (VIII) rib. A. 1-rib head ( caput costae)
2-rib neck ( collum costae)
3-tubercle of the rib ( tuberculum costae)
4-sulcus of the subclavian artery ( sulcus arteria subclavia)
5-tubercle of the anterior scalene muscle: 6-groove of the subclavian artery. B. 1-rib head ( caput costae)
2-rib neck ( collum costae)
3-tubercle of the rib, B. 1-head of the rib ( caput costae)
2-articular surface of the head of the rib
3-rib head comb
4-groove rib ( Sulcus costae)
5-rib body ( corpus costae)
6-sternal end of the rib.
Front view.
1-fudin part of the diaphragm
2-sternocostal triangle
3-tendon center of the diaphragm
4-rib part of the diaphragm ( pars costalis diaphragmatis)
5-opening of the inferior vena cava ( foramen venae cavae inferioris)
6-esophageal opening
7-hole of the aorta ( ostium aortae)
8-left leg of the lumbar part of the diaphragm
9-lumbocostal triangle
10-square lumbar muscle
11 psoas minor
12 psoas major
13-iliac muscle
14-iliac fascia
15-subcutaneous ring (femoral canal)
16-external obturator muscle
17-iliopsoas muscle ( musculus iliopsoas)
18 psoas major (cut off)
19-iliac muscle
20-intra-abdominal fascia
21-intertransverse muscles
22nd medial crus of diaphragm (left side)
23-medial crus of the diaphragm (right side)
24-lateral arcuate ligament (lateral lumbocostal arch)
25-medial arcuate ligament (medial lumbocostal arch)
26-right leg of the lumbar part of the diaphragm
27-median arcuate ligament
28-lumbar part of the diaphragm.
Trunk bones
body bones, ossa trunci, unite the spinal column, columna vertebrales, and chest bones, ossa thoracis.vertebral column
vertebrae, vertebrae, are placed in the form of overlapping rings and folded into one column - the spinal column, columna vertebralis, consisting of 33-34 segments.Vertebra, vertebra, has a body, an arc and processes. Vertebral body, corpus vertebrae (vertebralis), represents the anterior thickened part of the vertebra. From above and below, it is limited by surfaces facing, respectively, the above and underlying vertebrae, in front and from the sides - by a somewhat concave surface, and behind - by a flattened one. On the body of the vertebra, especially on its back surface, there are many nutritional holes, foramina nutricia, - traces of the passage of vessels and nerves into the substance of the bone. The vertebral bodies are interconnected by intervertebral discs (cartilages) and form a very flexible column - the spinal column, columna vertebralis .
vertebral arch, arcus vertebra (vertebralis), limits the back and sides of the vertebral foramen, foramen vertebrates; located one above the other, the holes form the spinal canal, canalis vertebralis in which the spinal cord is located. From the posterolateral faces of the vertebral body, the arch begins with a narrowed segment - this is the pedicle of the vertebral arch, pediculus arcus vertebrae, vertebralis, passing into the plate of the vertebral arch, lamina arcus vertebrae (vertebralis). On the upper and lower surfaces of the leg there is an upper vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis superior, and lower vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis inferior. The upper notch of one vertebra, adjacent to the lower notch of the upper vertebra, forms the intervertebral foramen ( foramen intervertebrale) for the passage of the spinal nerve and blood vessels.
processes of the vertebrae, processus vertebrae, seven in number, protrude on the vertebral arch. One of them, unpaired, is directed from the middle of the arc posteriorly - this is the spinous process, processus spinosus. The remaining processes are paired. One pair - superior articular processes, , is located on the side of the upper surface of the arc, the other pair is the lower articular processes, processus articularis inferiores, protrudes from the side of the lower surface of the arc and the third pair - transverse processes, processus transversi, departs from the side surfaces of the arc.
The articular processes have articular surfaces, facies articulares. On these surfaces, each overlying vertebra articulates with the underlying one.
The cervical vertebrae are distinguished in the spinal column, vertebrae cervicales, (7), thoracic vertebrae, vertebrae thoracicae, (12), lumbar vertebrae, vertebrae lumbales, (5), sacrum, os sacrum, (5) and coccyx, os coccygis, (4 or 5 vertebrae).
The vertebral column of an adult forms four bends in the sagittal plane, curvaturae: cervical, thoracic, lumbar (abdominal) and sacral (pelvic). In this case, the cervical and lumbar curves are convexly facing anteriorly (lordosis), and the thoracic and pelvic curves are posteriorly (kyphosis).
All vertebrae are divided into two groups: the so-called true and false vertebrae. The first group includes the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, the second group includes the sacral vertebrae fused into the sacrum, and the coccygeal vertebrae fused into the coccyx.
Cervical vertebrae, vertebrae cervicales, number 7, with the exception of the first two, are characterized by small low bodies, gradually expanding towards the last VII, call. The upper surface of the body is slightly concave from right to left, while the lower surface is concave from front to back. On the upper surface of the bodies III - VI of the cervical vertebrae, the lateral edges noticeably rise, forming a hook of the body, uncus corporis, .
vertebral foramen, foramen vertebrates, wide, close in shape to triangular.
articular processes, processus articulares, relatively short, stand obliquely, their articular surfaces are flat or slightly convex.
spinous processes, processus spinosi, from II before VII vertebra gradually increase in length. Before VI of the vertebra inclusive, they are split at the ends and have a slightly pronounced downward slope.
transverse processes, processus transversi, short and directed to the sides. A deep groove of the spinal nerve runs along the upper surface of each process, sulcus nervi spinalis, - a trace of the attachment of the cervical nerve. It separates the anterior and posterior tubercles, tuberculum anterius and tuberculum posterius located at the end of the transverse process.
On the VI in the cervical vertebrae, the anterior tubercle is developed. Ahead and close to it is the common carotid artery, a.carotis communis, which, during bleeding, is pressed against this tubercle; hence the tubercle got the name sleepy, tuberculum caroticum.
In the cervical vertebrae, the transverse process is formed by two processes. The anterior of them is a rudiment of the rib, the posterior is the actual transverse process. Both processes together limit the opening of the transverse process, foramen processus transversi, through which the vertebral artery, vein and accompanying sympathetic nerve plexus pass, in connection with which this opening is also called the vertebral arterial, foramen vertebra arteriale.
Differ from the general type of cervical vertebrae CI- atlas, atlas, II- axial vertebra, axis, and CVI- protruding vertebrae vertebra prominens.
The first ( I) cervical vertebra - atlas, atlas, does not have a body and spinous process, but is a ring formed from two arcs - anterior and posterior, arcus anterior and arcus posterior, interconnected by two more developed parts - lateral masses, Massae laterales. Each of them has an oval concave upper articular surface on top, facies articularis superior, - the place of articulation with the occipital bone, and from below an almost flat lower articular surface, facies articularis inferior articulated with II cervical vertebra.
front arch, arcus anterior, has an anterior tubercle on its anterior surface, tuberculum anterius, on the back - a small articular platform - the fossa of the tooth, fovea dentis articulated with the tooth II cervical vertebra.
back arch, arcus posterior, in place of the spinous process has a posterior tubercle, tuberculum posterius. On the upper surface of the posterior arch passes the groove of the vertebral artery, sulcus arteriae vertebralis, which sometimes turns into a channel.
Second ( II) cervical vertebra, or axial vertebra, axis, has a tooth going up from the vertebral body, dens, which ends at the top, apex. Bo the circle of this tooth, as around an axis, rotates the atlas together with the skull.
On the front surface of the tooth there is an anterior articular surface, facies articularis anterior, with which the fossa of the atlas tooth articulates, on the back surface - the posterior articular surface, facies articularis posterior to which the transverse ligament of the atlas attaches, lig. transversum atlantis. The transverse processes lack the anterior and posterior tubercles and the groove of the spinal nerve.
The seventh cervical vertebra, or protruding vertebra, vertebra prominens, (CVII) is distinguished by a long and undivided spinous process, which is easily palpable through the skin, in connection with this, the vertebra was called the speaker. In addition, it has long transverse processes: its transverse openings are very small, sometimes they may be absent.
On the lower edge of the lateral surface of the body is often a facet, or costal fossa, fovea costalis, - trace of the articulation with the head I ribs.
thoracic vertebrae, vertebrae thoracicae, number 12 ( THI - ThXII), much higher and thicker than the cervical ones; the size of their bodies gradually increases towards the lumbar vertebrae.
On the posterolateral surface of the bodies there are two facets: the superior costal fossa, fovea costalis superior, and the lower costal fossa, fovea costalis inferior. The lower costal fossa of one vertebra forms a complete articular fossa with the upper costal fossa of the underlying vertebra - the place of articulation with the head of the rib.
The body is an exception. I thoracic vertebra, which has a complete costal fossa on top, articulating with the head I ribs, and from below - a half-fossa, articulating with the head II ribs. On the X vertebra has one half-fovea, at the upper edge of the body; body XI and XII vertebrae have only one complete costal fossa located in the middle of each lateral surface of the vertebral body.
The arcs of the thoracic vertebrae form rounded vertebral foramina, but comparatively smaller than those of the cervical vertebrae.
The transverse process is directed outward and somewhat posteriorly and has a small costal fossa of the transverse process, fovea costalis processus transversus articulating with the tubercle of the rib.
The articular surface of the articular processes lies in the frontal plane and is directed posteriorly at the superior articular process, and anteriorly at the inferior.
The spinous processes are long, triangular, spiky and point downwards. The spinous processes of the middle thoracic vertebrae are located one above the other in a tiled manner.
The lower thoracic vertebrae are similar in shape to the lumbar vertebrae. On the posterior surface of the transverse processes XI-X II thoracic vertebrae have an accessory process, processus accessorius, and the mastoid process, processus mamillaris.
lumbar vertebrae, vertebrae lumbales, number 5( LI - LV
processus costalis processus accessorius
processus mamillaris, is a trace of muscle attachment.
lumbar vertebrae, vertebrae lumbales, number 5( LI - LV), differ from others in their massiveness. The body is bean-shaped, the arches are strongly developed, the vertebral foramen is larger than that of the thoracic vertebrae, and has an irregularly triangular shape.
Each transverse process, located in front of the articular, is elongated, compressed from front to back, goes laterally and somewhat backwards. Its major part is the costal process ( processus costalis) - represents the rudiment of the rib. On the posterior surface of the base of the costal process there is a weakly expressed accessory process, processus accessorius, is a rudiment of the transverse process.
The spinous process is short and wide, thickened and rounded at the end. The articular processes, starting from the arch, are directed posteriorly from the transverse and are located almost vertically. The articular surfaces lie in the sagittal plane, with the upper concave and facing medially, and the lower convex and directed laterally.
When two adjacent vertebrae are articulated, the upper articular processes of one vertebra laterally cover the lower articular processes of the other. On the posterior margin of the superior articular process there is a small mastoid process, processus mamillaris, is a trace of muscle attachment.
sacral vertebrae, vertebrae sacrales, number 5, fuse in an adult into a single bone - the sacrum.
Sacrum, os sacrum, sacred, has the shape of a wedge, is located under the last lumbar vertebra and participates in the formation of the posterior wall of the small pelvis. In the bone, the pelvic and dorsal surfaces, two lateral parts, the base (the wide part facing upwards) and the apex (the narrow part directed downwards) are distinguished.
The anterior surface of the sacrum is smooth, concave, facing the pelvic cavity - this is the pelvic surface, facies pelvica. It retains traces of fusion of the bodies of five sacral vertebrae in the form of four parallel transverse lines, lineae transversae. Outside of them, on each side, there are four anterior pelvic sacral openings, foramina sacralia anteriora, pelvica, (the anterior branches of the sacral spinal nerves and the vessels accompanying them pass through them).
Dorsal surface of the sacrum facies dorsalis sacri, convex in the longitudinal direction, already anterior and rough. It contains five rows of bone rows running from top to bottom, formed as a result of the fusion of the spinous, transverse and articular processes of the sacral vertebrae.
Cross crests
median sacral ridge, Crista sacralis mediana, formed from the fusion of the spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae and is represented by four tubercles located one above the other, sometimes merging into one rough ridge.
On each side of the median sacral crest, almost parallel to it, there is one weakly pronounced intermediate sacral crest, crista sacralis intermedia. The ridges were formed as a result of the fusion of the upper and lower articular processes. Outside of them is a well-defined row of tubercles - the lateral sacral crest, Crista sacralis lateralis, which is formed by the fusion of the transverse processes. Between the intermediate and lateral crests there are four posterior sacral foramens, foramina sacralia posterior, they are somewhat smaller than the corresponding anterior sacral openings (the posterior branches of the sacral nerves pass through them).
sacral canal
Along the entire length of the sacrum follows the sacral canal, canalis sacralis, curved, widened at the top and narrowed at the bottom; it is a direct downward continuation of the spinal canal. The sacral canal communicates with the sacral foramens through the intervertebral foramens inside the bone, foramina intervertebratia.
base of the sacrum
base of the sacrum basis ossis sacri, has a transverse-oval recess - the junction with the lower surface of the body V lumbar vertebrae. The anterior edge of the base of the sacrum at the junction with V lumbar vertebra forms a protrusion - cape, promontorium strongly protruding into the pelvic cavity. From the posterior part of the base of the sacrum, the upper articular processes extend upward, processus articularis superiores, I sacral vertebra. Their articular surfaces facies articulares, directed backward and medially and articulate with the lower articular processes V lumbar vertebrae. The posterior edge of the base (arc) of the sacrum with the upper articular processes protruding above it limits the entrance to the cross capal.
Apex of the sacrum
top of the sacrum, apex ossis sacri, narrow, blunt and has a small oval platform - the junction with the upper surface of the coccyx; here the sacrococcygeal joint is formed, articulatio sacrococcygea well expressed in young people, especially in women.
Behind the apex, on the posterior surface of the sacrum, the intermediate ridges end with two small protrusions pointing down - the sacral horns, cornua sacralia. The posterior surface of the apex and the sacral horns limit the outlet of the sacral canal - the sacral fissure, Hiatus sacralis.
Upper outer sacrum
The upper outer part of the sacrum is the lateral part, pars lateralis, was formed by the fusion of the transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae.
The upper, flattened, triangular surface of the lateral part of the sacrum, the front edge of which passes into the border line, is called the sacral wing, ala sacralis.
The lateral surface of the sacrum is the articular auricular surface, facies auricularis, articulates with the same surface of the ilium.
Posterior and medial to the ear-shaped surface is the sacral tuberosity, tuberositas sacralis, - a trace of the attachment of the sacroiliac interosseous ligaments.
The sacrum in men is longer, narrower and more curved than in women.
Coccyx, os coccygis, is a bone fused in an adult from 4-5, less often from 3-6 vertebrae.
The coccyx has the shape of a curved pyramid, the base of which is turned up and the top is turned down. The vertebrae that form it have only bodies. On the I coccygeal vertebra on each side are the remains of the upper articular processes in the form of small protrusions - coccygeal horns, cornua coccygea, which are directed upwards and connect to the sacral horns.
The upper surface of the coccyx is somewhat concave, connected to the top of the sacrum through the sacrococcygeal joint.
Thorax and chest bones
chest, compares thoracis, make up the thoracic spine, ribs (12 pairs) and sternum.The thorax forms the thoracic cavity Cavitas thoracis, which has the shape of a truncated cone, turned with a wide base downwards, and a truncated top - upwards. In the chest, there are anterior, posterior and lateral walls, an upper and lower opening, which limit the chest cavity.
The anterior wall is shorter than the other walls, formed by the sternum and cartilages of the ribs. Located obliquely, it protrudes more anteriorly with its lower sections than with its upper ones. The back wall is longer than the front, formed by the thoracic vertebrae and parts of the ribs from the heads to the corners; its direction is almost vertical.
On the outer surface of the posterior wall of the chest, between the spinous processes of the vertebrae and the corners of the ribs, two grooves are formed on both sides - the dorsal grooves: deep back muscles lie in them. On the inner surface of the chest, between the protruding vertebral bodies and the corners of the ribs, two grooves are also formed - pulmonary grooves, sulci pulmonales; they are adjacent to the vertebral part of the costal surface of the lungs.
The side walls are longer than the anterior and posterior, formed by the bodies of the ribs and are more or less convex.
The spaces bounded above and below by two adjacent ribs, in front - by the lateral edge of the sternum and behind - by the vertebrae, are called intercostal spaces, spatia intercostalia; they are made by ligaments, intercostal muscles and membranes.
Rib cage, compages thoracis, bounded by the indicated walls, has two holes - upper and lower, which begin with apertures.
superior thoracic aperture, Apertura thoracis superior less than the bottom, limited in front by the upper edge of the handle, from the sides - by the first ribs and behind - by the body I thoracic vertebra. It has a transverse-oval shape and is located in a plane inclined from back to front and downwards. The upper edge of the manubrium of the sternum is at the level of the gap between II and III thoracic vertebrae.
inferior thoracic aperture, apertura thoracis inferior, limited in front by the xiphoid process and the costal arch formed by the cartilaginous ends of the false ribs, from the sides by the free ends XI and XII ribs and bottom edges XII ribs, behind - body XII thoracic vertebra.
costal arch, arcus costalis, at the xiphoid process forms a substernal angle open from top to bottom, angulus infrasternalis.
The shape of the chest is different for different people (flat, cylindrical or conical). In persons with a narrow chest, the infrasternal angle is sharper and the intercostal space is wider, and the chest itself is longer than in persons with a wide chest. The chest in men is longer, wider and more cone-shaped than in women.
The shape of the chest also depends on age.
ribs, costae, 12 pairs, - narrow, curved bone plates of various lengths, symmetrically located on the sides of the thoracic spine.
In each rib, a longer bony part of the rib is distinguished, os costale, short cartilage - costal cartilage, cartilago co stalis, and two ends - the anterior, facing the sternum, and the posterior, facing the spinal column.
Bony part of the rib
The bony part of the rib has a head, neck and body. rib head, caput costae, located at its vertebral end. It has an articular surface of the head of the rib, facies articularis capitis costae. This surface on II-X the ribs are separated by a horizontally running crest of the rib head, Crista capitis costae, into the upper, smaller, and lower, larger, parts, each of which, respectively, articulates with the costal fossae of two adjacent vertebrae.
rib neck, collum costae, - the most narrowed and rounded part of the rib, bears the crest of the neck of the rib on the upper edge, crista colli costae, (I and XII the edges of this ridge do not have).
On the border with the body, 10 upper pairs of ribs on the neck have a small tubercle of the rib, tuberculum costae, on which the articular surface of the tubercle of the rib is located, facies articularis tuberculi costae, articulating with the transverse costal fossa of the corresponding vertebra.
A costal-transverse foramen is formed between the posterior surface of the rib neck and the anterior surface of the transverse process of the corresponding vertebra, foramen costotransversarium.
rib body, corpus costae, extending from the tubercle to the sternal end of the rib, is the longest section of the bony part of the rib. At some distance from the tubercle, the body of the rib, strongly curving, forms an angle of the rib, angulus costae. At I ribs, it coincides with the tubercle, and on the remaining ribs, the distance between these formations increases (up to XI ribs); body XII does not form an edge. Throughout the body of the rib is flattened. This makes it possible to distinguish two surfaces in it: the inner, concave, and the outer, convex, and two edges: the upper, rounded, and the lower, sharp. On the inner surface along the lower edge there is a groove of the rib, Sulcus costae where the intercostal artery, vein and nerve lie. The edges of the ribs describe a spiral, so the rib is twisted around its long axis.
At the anterior sternal end of the bone part of the rib there is a fossa with a slight roughness; the costal cartilage is attached to it.
Costal cartilages
costal cartilage, cartilagines costales, (there are also 12 pairs of them), are a continuation of the bone parts of the ribs. From I before II ribs they gradually lengthen and connect directly to the sternum. The top 7 pairs of ribs are true ribs, costae verae, the lower 5 pairs of edges are false edges, costae spuriae, aXI and XII ribs - oscillating ribs, costae fluitantes. cartilage VIII, IX and X ribs do not fit directly to the sternum, but each of them joins the cartilage of the overlying rib. cartilage XI and XII ribs (sometimes X) do not reach the sternum and with their cartilaginous ends lie freely in the muscles of the abdominal wall.
Features of the first and last pairs of ribs
Some features have two first and two last pairs of edges. first rib, costa prima (I), shorter, but wider than the rest, has almost horizontal upper and lower surfaces (instead of the outer and inner surfaces of other ribs). On the upper surface of the rib, in the anterior section, there is a tubercle of the anterior scalene muscle, tuberculum m. scaleni anterioris. Outside and behind the tubercle lies a shallow groove of the subclavian artery, Sulcus a. subclaviae, (trace of the artery of the same name lying here, a. subclavia, posterior to which there is a slight roughness (the place of attachment of the middle scalene muscle, m. scalenus medius. Anteriorly and medially from the tubercle there is a weakly expressed groove of the subclavian vein, Sulcus v. subclaviae. Articular surface of the head I ribs not separated by a ridge; the neck is long and thin; the costal angle coincides with the tubercle of the rib.
second rib, costa secunda (II)), has roughness on the outer surface - tuberosity of the serratus anterior muscle, tuberositas m. serrati anterioris, (place of attachment of the tooth of the specified muscle).
Eleventh and twelfth ribs costa II and costa XII, have articular surfaces of the head not separated by a ridge. On the XI edge angle, neck, tubercle and costal groove are weakly expressed, and on III they are missing.
