Quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowel sounds. Quantitative vowel reduction
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
KALUGA STATE UNIVERSITY
them. K. E. Tsiolkovsky
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Specialty: 033200
"Foreign language with additional specialty"
COURSE WORK
COMPARISON OF REDUCTION PHENOMENA
IN GERMAN AND RUSSIAN LANGUAGES
2nd year student
supervisor
Professor
Kaluga 2012
Introduction ................................................. .................................................. .......... 3
The phenomenon of reduction ................................................ .............................................. 4
Vowel reduction. Reduction types:
qualitative and quantitative reduction .............................................. .......... 5
Reduction of consonants ................................................ .......................................... 7
Vowel reduction in Russian and German ........................................... . eight
Qualitative and quantitative reduction in German.
The problem of the German phoneme / ə / ............................................ ............................ eight
Qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian ............................ 10
Vowel reduction in Russian and German. The problem of consonant reduction in German ............................................ .................................................. ............. twenty
Reduction of consonants in Russian ............................................. ................. 22
Conclusion................................................. .................................................. ..... 25
Bibliography................................................ ........................................... 26
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INTRODUCTION
This coursework is devoted to the description of the phenomenon of reduction in the German and Russian languages. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are solved in the work:
1.definition of the concept of reduction;
2. consideration of the reduction of vowels in German, the problem of the phoneme / ə /;
3. Description of the qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian;
4. analysis of the problem of consonant reduction in German;
5. consideration of the reduction of consonants in Russian.
THE PHENOMENON OF REDUCTION
There are several points of view on the definition of the concept of reduction. Over time, the views and approaches to the study of this phenomenon have changed many times.
gives the following definition of reduction: “Reduction is a weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables and, first of all, the syllable sounds of these syllables” [Reformatskiy 1996, 107]. All this would be necessary in the pre. section and compare definitions there. Show how mine is better or worse than the Reformed
He formulated the definition of reduction in the most detailed way. This is certainly great, but it could be more modest! In his opinion, reduction is those cases of additional distribution of allophones, when the latter are characterized by a smaller number or less less pronounced features (both distinctive and nondiscriminatory) in comparison with other allophones of the same phoneme in different positions [Zelenetsky 2010, 76] ...
1.1 Vowel reduction we give the material in italics, see the requirements for the course. works
The question of reduction is closely related to the question of stress.
In his book "Phonetics of the Modern Russian Literary Language," he writes that reduction refers to the qualities of unstressed vowels, which consist in less strength and less energetic articulation, as well as usually less brevity compared to stressed vowels. Therefore, he called the position in unstressed syllables a weak position for vowels. He also noted that at least 2 degrees of reduction differ: a smaller one - in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, and a large one - in other unstressed syllables. [Avanesov 1956, 105 - 106].
According to the opinion, the reduction, which consists in a shorter duration and less timbre originality (respectively, quantitative and qualitative reduction) of unstressed allophones in comparison with the stressed ones, is the main type of allophonic variation of vowels, which is not quite correctly stated [Zelenetsky 2004, 55].
In addition, in his opinion, there are 2 types of reduction: reduction depending on the position of the allophone relative to the vertex-forming phonemes (first of all, stress) and reduction depending on the position of the allophone relative to the border of an unsaturated phonological unit (primarily a syllable or word).
An example of the first type of reduction is the so-called unstressed vowels... they don’t have them and therefore cannot lose. If you are already referring to me, then try to understand what I have written
Distinguish also quantitative and quality reduction of vowels.
High quality reduction, as mentioned earlier, consists in a lesser timbre peculiarity of vowels in an unstressed position in comparison with stressed vowels.
Quantitative reduction consists in the shorter duration of unstressed vowels compared to stressed vowels. again 25! You are not using me, but you are presenting everything purely traditionally. Then write that. However, with quantitative reduction, unstressed vowels retain their characteristic timbre in any syllable.
In Russian, both a quantitative and a pronounced qualitative reduction are presented; for German language quantitative reduction is characteristic. The only case of the timbre peculiarity of an unstressed vowel in German is the phoneme allophones / ə /.
1.2 Reduction of consonants
The reduction can also affect consonants. In Russian, the reduction of consonants covers the allophones of all noisy ones, except for / f̓ /, and in the outcome of a phonological word leads to the neutralization of the opposition according to the RP “voicedness”. This kind of neutralization is generally referred to as stun.
Some researchers believe that reduction is also inherent in sonorant allophones (especially palatal / p̓ /, / l̓ /, / j ̓ /), but in this case, in comparison with the reduction of noisy ones, there is no neutralization [Bulanin 1970, 124-125].
believes that the phonological interpretation of a similar phenomenon in the German language is difficult due to the lack of an unambiguous answer to the question about the anthropophonic nature of the additional RP of German noisy consonants, which was usually considered as “voiced”, but now - as “tension, noise” [Zelenetsky, 2004, 60].
2. VOICE REDUCTION IN RUSSIAN AND GERMAN
2.1 Qualitative and quantitative reduction in German.
Phoneme problem / ə /
In the German language is represented quantitative vowel reduction, most clearly manifested in long vowels, which are realized in an unstressed position as a half-long. Short vowels given view reductions are manifested to a lesser extent, although they are the same as long ones, in the unstressed position are shorter than in the shock position. At the same time, the possibilities of reduction are noticeably limited by secondary stress.
Vowel reduction in German is usually not neutralization, because the timbre of unstressed vowels (tension or non-tension) is generally stable.
considers that German non-syllable vowels in loan words such as Famil i e, Var i ante, Jan u ar, Gen u a etc. also belong to the sphere of quantitative reduction, but alternate with syllabic ( Var i ante – var i ieren, Gen u a – Gen u ese) and are similar to the vowels of the middle syllable in words such as Afr i ka, Sing u lar[Zelenetsky 2004.56].
The only case quality reduction (timbre originality) of unstressed vowels in German are the phoneme allophones / ə /. Art The question of the status of the vowel / ə / is the most controversial issue in the description of the phonological structure of the German language. There are two points of view regarding the question of the phonological status of / ə /.
Representatives of the first point of view (for example, Zinder L.R.) consider allophones of the phoneme / ə / as realizations of phonemes / e: /, and / ε / or one / ε /. explained his views by the fact that, firstly, in unstressed syllables there is not only / ə /, but also / ε / (the prefixes er / εr /, fer / fεr /); secondly, the vowels under consideration alternate as stressed and unstressed in the same morpheme ( / le: bən / leben - / le: `bεndɪ Ç / lebendig- see [Zinder 2003, 100]). Be careful with the placement of any parentheses and with spaces
The second point of view is that / ə / is a phoneme in its own right. This point of view is adhered to, [Zelenetsky, Monakhov 1983, 37; Raevsky 1983,132]. also argues that the lack of alternation of / ə / with stressed allophones (due to the fact that / ə / is never stressed) is evidence that / ə / is an independent phoneme with limited distribution, opposed to all other vowels in a syntagmatic aspect. But at the same time / ə / is in relation to contrasting distribution, for example, with unstressed / a/ phoneme symbols - straight ( Rose : Rosa, Note : Nota). examples in italics That is why he claims that / ə / can be considered the nineteenth phoneme of the German language with limited distribution, the presence of which is its important characterological feature [Zelenetsky 2004, 56].
Understand concepts and terms better. And so, if you want to express me according to me, then be careful in words like “loses”, “changes”, etc. I am talking all the time about alternation, in your case - allophones. And in the position of reduction, the reduced allophone appears, it does not change unreduced, but simply alternates with it (they stand in different positions).
When you do the redo, give the new versions of the text in blue so that you can see it right away. Do not delete my comments: I must see them.
Read the Course Requirements again better. work, observe them.
Pay attention to formatting
2.2 Qualitative and quantitative reduction in Russian
Unstressed vowels are exposed as quantitative and quality reduction. Not all Russian vowels are reduced to the same extent; in addition, the degree of vowel reduction in the word is different [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 60].
The degree of vowel reduction depends on:
1) the places of the unstressed syllable in relation to the stressed one;
2) raising a vowel: vowels of the lower ascent are reduced to the greatest extent, vowels of the upper ascent are reduced to the least;
3) the style of pronunciation: in the full style, the reduction is minimal, in the neutral one - a little more, in the colloquial one - the maximum.
The outstanding linguist proposed to conditionally evaluate the strength of stressed vowels in 3 units, vowels of the first pre-stressed syllable - in 2 units, and vowels of the second pre-stressed and post-stressed vowels - in 1 unit. Potebnya's formula should be understood as the ratio of three positions representing in general form the ratio of stressed and unstressed vowels.
Unstressed vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable. is of the opinion that the position in unstressed syllables is a weak position for the vowels of the Russian language, and weak vowel phonemes appear in weak positions.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, the independent, phonetically unconditioned sides of the vowels are the distinction of two degrees of ascent - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the distinction between the absence or presence of labialization [Ibid]. As for the vowel series, in the pre-stressed syllable (as well as in the stressed one) it is due to the quality of the neighboring consonants, as well as the possible absence of a consonant before the vowel. Thus, in the first pre-stressed syllable, as in the stressed one, the vowel row does not differ phonematically: it can be very different for the same phoneme in different positional conditions [Ibid, 107].
The influence of the preceding hard or soft consonant on the vowels of the 1st pre-stressed syllable in general is much greater than in the stressed syllable.
writes that for the vowels of the 1st pre-stressed syllable, the following positions should be distinguished: I - at the beginning of the word, II - after the back-lingual ones, III - after paired hard ones, IV - after paired soft ones, V - after hard hissing ones.
The quality of the allophones of the 1st pre-stressed syllable is presented in the following table: in general, it is better not to give a drawing, but to type. If there is no font, take the lectern, there is a full set of icons
· y (ӱ) |
At the beginning of the word and after the back-lingual (positions I, II), [and], [ʌ], [y] are pronounced; the last 2 vowels are also pronounced after hard paired consonants (position III), and the first [and] after soft consonants (position IV). Therefore, the main type of the considered weak phonemes should be considered [and], [ʌ], [y], and non-positional - for [and] vowel [s], for [ʌ] - the vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable are varieties of one phoneme, and it is the vowel phoneme of non-upper ascent in the position after a hard or soft consonant..png "width =" 18 "height =" 25 src = ">] [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 61].
He calls the problem of distinguishing between weak vowel phonemes of the 1st pre-stressed syllable after hard hissing [w], [g] very difficult. This complexity is due to the origin of the consonants [w] and [w], which were soft in the past, and then hardened. The surname in such cases is not repeated
Main for state of the art Russian literary pronunciation should be considered such a system in which the upper, middle and lower ascents are distinguished, and in the upper ascent - the presence or absence of labialization:
With this system, inherent in a distinct, chased type of pronunciation, it is pronounced: [zhyró to] ( fat), [жура́ вл̓], [жhttps: //pandia.ru/text/78/220/images/image005.png "width =" 21 "height =" 25 src = "> rshá въi̯] ( rough), [shypý], [shypý k], [shhttps: //pandia.ru/text/78/220/images/image006.png "width =" 20 "height =" 25 src = ">].
Some of the words of foreign language origin have the following features in the vocalism of the 1st pre-stressed syllable.
1. In separate words of a foreign language origin, at the beginning of a word, after vowels and after solid consonants in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, [o] is pronounced (or can be pronounced) [o]: [oáz̓is], [boá], [forepost]; the same applies to foreign proper names: [shopen], [ash́]. This pronunciation leads to a violation of the akanya principle - to distinguish between [o] and [ʌ] in the 1st pre-stressed syllable.
2. In words of a foreign language origin, after solid paired consonants, [e] can be pronounced; at the same time, the vowel [e], being after a solid consonant, moves back a little - [e] is pronounced: [interagl], [modera'ter].
Unstressed vowels in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable. writes that the position in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable is a weak position of the 2nd degree for vowels, because in this position (under certain conditions in relation to the previous consonant) reduced phonemes [b] and [b] appear, and also because that some of the differing vowels are not clearly enough limited from each other, not clearly opposed to each other.
At the beginning of the word and after the posterior-lingual in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable, two degrees of elevation of the language are phonemically distinguished - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the presence or absence of labialization:
at the beginning of a word | after dorsal |
||
For example, at the beginning of a word: [gameʌvó i̯], [angle ʌvó i̯], [ʌglushý t̓]; after back-tongues: [хрʌшо́], [kurʌpá ткъ], [к̓ ьрʌс̓ in].
does not distinguish between vowels [b] and [and] in the second pre-stressed syllable and considers them to be varieties of one phoneme [and] (namely, [b] is a variant of the phoneme [and]).
writes that after solid consonants (both paired and sibilant) in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable, two degrees of language elevation are phonemically distinguished - upper and non-upper, and for the upper, in addition, the presence or absence of labialization. The weak upper non-labialized phoneme appears in its more posterior version [s], however, in a very short, reduced one. The degree of reduction [s] in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable is much greater than in the 1st pre-stressed. The weak upper labialized phoneme is also pronounced as a vowel with the highest degree of reduction, and therefore with a lower elevation of the tongue and a slightly lesser degree of labialization than [y] not only in the stressed syllable, but also in the 1st pre-stressed syllable. A weak unlabialized phoneme of the lower ascent is pronounced like a reduced vowel [b] [Ibid, 117]:
For example, [ruvóm], [shyrʌtá], [shъtuný], [jok ik̓ í], [soapvár], [dabʌvl̓ á t̓].
In some words of foreign language origin, there are the following deviations from the system of vocalism of the 2nd pre-stressed syllable:
1. After solid consonants, it is possible to pronounce [o] instead of the usual one in this position [b]: [bol̓ eró].
2. After paired consonants, the vowel [e] can be pronounced: [dekʌdans].
Vowels of stressed syllables. believes that in different post-stressed syllables the degree of reduction may be different. In his opinion, the reduction is stronger in the post-stressed non-final syllable and, on the contrary, somewhat weaker in the final, especially open syllable. In a post-stressed final syllable, the reduction is stronger when the syllable is closed. However, despite the differences in the degree of vowel reduction, the position in all post-stressed syllables represents for them a weak position of the 2nd degree: as in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable, the reduced vowels [b] and [b] appear in the post-stressed syllables, and differing non-labialized weak vowel phonemes are not always clearly delineated among themselves.
After the back-lingual syllables in the post-stressed syllables, the vowels of the upper ascent are distinguished - non-labialized [and], labialized [y] and the vowel of non-upper ascent [b]:
For example, [vy'gul], [u'g'l], [you will buy], [may], [vy k's̓ il], [vyk'p't̓].
After hard consonants (paired and sibilant), there are also upper ascent vowels - non-labialized [s] and labialized [y] and non-upper ascent vowel [b]. The relationship between [and] and [s] in post-stressed syllables, as well as pre-stressed and stressed syllables, are entirely determined by the position after certain categories of consonants: after back-lingual and soft, [and] sounds, after hard paired and hissing - [s]:
For example, [ó test], [blow out], [vy dl], [vy gnl], [vy m'ch̓il], [release].
The system of post-stressed vowels in position after soft consonants is very complex. Here, the vowels of the upper and non-upper ascent are also distinguished, and in the first - labialized and non-labialized, namely - upper non-labialized [and] or [b], labialized [y], non-upper - [b]:
writes that the complexity of post-shock vocalism after soft consonants is determined by the extreme breadth of fluctuations in the pronunciation of a vowel within the same morpheme, by the non-delimitation of [b] and [b]. For example, [boo d̓ im] and [boo d̓ ьm] (from wake up and to be), [cry ch̓ ut], [zá n̓ ът].
In some words of foreign language origin, there are the following deviations in the system of post-percussion vocalism described above.
1. After solid consonants and after vowels, it is possible to pronounce the vowel [o] in the stressed syllable: [embargo], [háos].
2. After paired solid consonants, the vowel [e] can be pronounced: [ʌdá pter], [kodex].
When considering the vocalism of the post-stressed final syllable, it should be noted that, as in the post-stressed syllables, there are differences in the pronunciation of vowels, due to the position after soft consonants, back-lingual, hard hissing and paired hard consonants. Common to the vocalism of the post-stressed final open syllable is the distinction of three degrees of elevation when distinguishing between the absence or presence of labialization only in the upper row.
In the position after soft consonants, the vocalism of the post-stressed final open syllable can be represented in the following diagram:
For example, [о́ кун̓ и], [в-о́ кун̓ 94 "style =" width: 70.45pt; border-collapse: collapse ">
For example, [mú x̓ and] (im. Pl. Pl.), [Mu'khъ] (im. P. Unit. H), [mú x̓ 84 "style =" width: 62.85pt; margin-left: - 25.45pt; border-collapse: collapse ">
For example, [ponds] (noun plural and genus n. Singulars), [in-luž92 "style =" width: 69.2pt; margin-left: 10.75pt; border-collapse : collapse ">
For example, [кна́ vu], [кʌна́ you], [кʌна́ въ], [ф-кʌна́ в̓ 659 "style =" width: 494.45pt; border-collapse: collapse; border: none ">
(I n / a, abs. Start,
abs. the end)
(II n / a, s / y)
notes that shades of four phonemes can appear after soft consonants: [a], [e], [y] and [and]. For [y] and [and], the difference between the first and second positions remains relevant. For [a] and [e], the opposition of pre-stressed and post-stressed (including the absolute end) syllables comes to the fore. Thus, he writes that in general for unstressed vocalism after soft, the first and second positions cannot be set consistently.
Unstressed shades of vowel phonemes after soft consonants are presented in the following summary table:
II n / a | ||||
abs. the end |
The extremely complex unstressed vocalism of the Russian language has not been fully studied to date. In addition, scientists belonging to different phonological schools adhere to certain points of view on the phenomenon of reduction, which at some points do not coincide.
3. REDUCTION OF CONSENT IN RUSSIAN AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
3.1 The problem of consonant reduction in German
In contrast to the reduction of vowels, due to their position with respect to stress, the reduction of German consonants is primarily associated with their position relative to the boundaries of non-limiting phonological units: a syllable and a phonological word.
In this regard, first of all, the reduction of consonants in the outcome of a syllable is mentioned. For example: Kin d , We g , o b gleich, A b scheu, mö g lich, lau b reich... Traditionally, such cases are considered as stunning, but due to the lack of an unambiguous solution to the question of the anthropophonic nature of the additional RP of German noisy, which in recent times interpreted as "tension, noise", and not "sonorous", their interpretation turns out to be quite difficult. believes that the main difficulty lies in an adequate assessment of the degree of tension of the reduced initial consonant; and in this regard, the most balanced decision to him seems to be that in the outcome of a syllable, both tense ~ non-tense and voiced ~ non-voiced (voiceless) noisy consonants are not distinguished [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 339]. In modern German, a truly voiced consonant is permissible only at the beginning of a noninitial syllable after a vowel or a sonorant, that is, in an intervocal position; for example: ba d ru, we g ru, in G ang, in d ru W ald.
The described type of reduction also includes cases of the type sa g t, schrei b st, ja g t, le b t, lä d t and others, where the confluence of noisy forms the outcome of the word. Some phoneticists, for example, [Milyukova, Nork 2004, 55; Kozmin 2004, 34] traditionally interpret these cases as regressive assimilations for deafness, which is not only excessively complex, but also contradicts the progressive direction of consonant assimilation typical for the German language. But bldg. I would explain what a typical direction of assimilation in German does not exclude the possibility that a certain relationship can be seen between the reduction of consonants in the outcome of a syllable and its tendency to closeness [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 339].
At the beginning of a word after a pause, it seems possible to see an undoubted reduction of noisy voices, traditionally called semi-voiced and even received a special designation in the transcription ([* b], [* d], [* g]). At the same time, the corresponding deaf are realized in this position as aspirated, tense (noisy), which served as the basis for interpreting them as marked members of the opposition. The strongest aspiration is at the beginning of a stressed syllable before a vowel or sonor and at the end of a stressed syllable, for example: P elz, P latte, T on, t rinken, t o t , sta tt , K atze, Sa ck , that is, in those positions where the opposition of noisy in sonority (voiced) is weakened. In unstressed syllables between two vowels, as well as before vowels after sonorants, aspiration is much weaker ( ra t ru, Su pp e, ba ck ru, Tem p o, dan k ru). believes that such a distribution of allophones is most naturally subsumed under the concept of reduction [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 340]. At the same time, the practical absence of aspiration in noisy combinations, especially in the [ʃp-], [ʃt-] groups (for example: Pa kt , Hef t , Hau pt , S t irn, s p ü len etc.) significantly limits the explanatory power of the proposed interpretation, since the dependence of the degree of aspiration on the quality of neighboring allophones as a reduction is rather difficult to interpret. It is not excluded that in this case a specific combination of reduction with assimilative-dissimilative variation in noisy groups is presented [Zelenetsky, Novozhilova 2003, 340].
It's very nice that you remember me all the time, but it should be less
A little formatting rules (spaces, etc.), you will see. It's nice to re-read yourself, but still try more of yours.
3.2 Reduction of consonants in Russian
The reduction of consonants in Russian encompasses all noisy allophones, except / f̓ /, and in the end of the phonological word leads to the neutralization of the opposition according to the RP “voiced” (this type of neutralization is called stunning).
Most complete this phenomenon described in his book "Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language." He argues that the position at the end of a word is a weak position for paired consonant phonemes, and defines these phonemes as weak in voicelessness. For example: [хл̓п] ( bread), [p̓ap̓] ( ripples), [rof] ( moat), [crof̓] ( blood), [sklat] ( warehouse), [s̓at̓] ( sit down), [voice] ( eye), [mas̓] ( ointment), [burden] ( knife), [pluk] ( plow). The presence of only voiceless paired consonants at the end of a word in Russian is explained by the weakening of the pronunciation of the end of the word (after the loss of the reduced ones) and, as a result, the loss of voice by noisy consonants (stunning).
notes that the sonorous noisy one does not combine with the next pause. In other words, words cannot end in sonorous noisy ones [Panov 1967, 87]. and But the piece on phonetics was not written by him, look more precisely in the preface to that! believe that a voiceless consonant is pronounced at the end of a word not only when it is an absolute end (i.e., an isolated pronunciation of a word or cases where the end of a word is simultaneously the end of a phrase or part of a phrase separated from another phrase or part of it by a pause), but and when the given word is pronounced together with the next word, that is, in the absence of a pause between them. [Avanesov 1956, 164 - 165; Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 75]. In this position, the voiceless version of a consonant phoneme, weak in voicelessness, is pronounced not only before the next voiceless consonant, but also before the next vowel, sonorant and [в], [в̓]. Before the enclists ( already, whether it is material, etc.), enclitic or weakly hitting pronouns beginning with these sounds, the voiceless version of the phoneme, weak in voicelessness, is also pronounced..png "width =" 11 "height =" 26 src = ">. png" width = "18" height = "25 src =">. Png "width =" 12 "height =" 26 src = ">. Png" width = "11" height = "26 src =">. Png "width =" 15 "height =" 26 src = ">. png" width = "10" height = "26 src =">. png "width =" 10 "height =" 26 src = ">. png" width = "11" height = "26 src =">. Png "width =" 11 "height =" 26 src = "> къu̯ъ].
Deafness-voicedness of labial-dentition does not differ before voiced labiodental: in place of the first labiodental, a voiceless version of a consonant phoneme, weak by deafness-voiced, is pronounced [ф] or [ф̓]: [кʌрhttps: //pandia.ru/text/78 /220/images/image012.png "width =" 15 "height =" 26 src = ">. Png" width = "10" height = "26 src ="> ry].
Prepositions near, through,against,against,around and particles after all,already pronounced with a voiceless variant of voiceless consonant phonemes at the end, not only before voiceless consonants of the next word, but also before vowels, sonorous ones and [в], [в̓] .. png "width =" 11 "height =" 26 src = ">. png" width = "10" height = "26 src =">. png "width =" 10 "height =" 26 src = ">. png" width = "10" height = "26 src =" > .png "width =" 12 "height =" 26 src = "> ктърыч̓]. In such cases, the surname is not put in the link, pay attention to the formatting, a space after the comma
Deafness-voicedness of labial-dentition at the junction of names and patronymics does not differ before voiced labiodental: before voiced labiodental, a voiceless version of a weak-voiced consonant phoneme [ф] or [ф̓] is pronounced: [л̓https: //pandia.ru /text/78/220/images/image010.png "width =" 12 "height =" 26 src = "> m̓irych].
Just like names with patronymics, names and surnames are pronounced: [gl̓https: //pandia.ru/text/78/220/images/image009.png "width =" 10 "height =" 26 src = "> nskiu̯].
believes that the pronunciation of voiceless variants of voiceless consonants at the end of a word is due to the fact that, despite the continuous pronunciation, the word retains its syllabic structure, namely, retains its final closed syllable. Ie..png "width =" 11 "height =" 26 src = ">. Png" width = "10" height = "26 src =">. Png "width =" 11 "height =" 26 src = "> з̓ьръ] the joint between words is at the same time a syllabic section, which determined the deafening of a voiced consonant, as a result of which a weak position in deafness-voicedness was formed.
Some researchers believe that the reduction in the word outcome? is also inherent in sonorant allophones, especially palatal / p̓ /, / l̓ /. states that "Russian sonants in the position of the absolute end appear as noisy consonants and in most cases are completely deaf." No, there someone else writes that the general tendency of the Russian language - to deafen final consonants - is partially manifested in consonant sonants [Shcherba, Matusevich 1960, 73].
also considers that the consonant / j / what is this transcription ?, which can only come after a vowel at the end of a word, is stunned, like other fluent ones, for example: [mou̯] [dau̯] [edge].
Fixes show in blue. Learn with the author of the chapter on phonetics in grammar from the year 60. Pay attention to my formatting fixes, especially the spaces.
CONCLUSION
The analysis of the phenomenon of reduction in the German and Russian languages, carried out in the framework of this course work, allows us to draw the following conclusions:
1. the quantitative reduction of vowels is presented in the German language;
2. The only case of a qualitative reduction of vowels in German is the phoneme allophones / ə /.
3. in Russian, vowels are subject to both quantitative and qualitative reduction. But not all vowels are reduced to the same extent; in addition, the degree of vowel reduction in a word is different.
4. reduction of German consonants is primarily associated with their position relative to the boundaries of non-limiting phonological units: syllable and phonological word.
5. The reduction of consonants in Russian encompasses all noisy allophones, except / f̓ /, and in the end of a phonological word leads to stunning.
Bibliography
Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language.- M .: Publishing house of Moscow University, 1956.
Bulanin of the modern Russian language. - M .: Publishing house "Higher school", 1970.
Grammar of the Russian language, volume 1. Phonetics and morphology. - M .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960.
Zelenetsky into general and private linguistics. The most difficult topics of the course. - M .: Vostochnaya kniga, 2010.
Novozhilov of German linguistics. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2003.
Zinder L. R . Theoretical course on phonetics of the modern German language. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2003.
Kozmin of the German language. - M .: Higher. shk., 2004.
Milyukov of the German language. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2004.
Panov phonetics. - M .: Publishing house "Education", 1967.
On the problem of the status of the German reduced vowel and its functions // Vestn. Moscow University. Ser. H. Philology. - 1983. - No. 1.
Reformed in linguistics. - M .: Aspect Press, 1996.
The sounds of speech that are part of more complex units of the language (morphemes, words, etc.), during the formation of different grammatical forms or other single-root words, can be modified, replaced by one another.
The interchange of sounds (alternation) in some cases is associated with certain phonetic conditions (cf. the alternation of root vowels in the words old - old - old), in other cases, it is in no way connected with the phonetic conditions of their use in modern language (cf. consonants in the words friend - friend). On this basis, the alternations of sounds are divided into two types - alternations phonetic (or phonetically conditioned) and non-phonetic (or phonetically unconditioned). Phonetic alternations of sounds are sometimes called positional, allophonemic, live. Non-phonetic alternations of sounds are most often called historical, less often - traditional, non-positional, phonemic, morphological, grammatical, dead, etc.
Phonetic alternations of sounds are determined phonetically, depend on the phonetic position (position) of the sound in the word (hence the name "positional alternations"). At the same time, sounds related to the same phoneme alternate, that is, different backgrounds (or allophones, allophonemes) of a given phoneme (hence the name “allophone alternations”).
Phonetic alternations of sounds “depend on one or another consonant neighborhood (combinatorial alternations) or on the position in the word (positional alternations).
Phonetic alternations are widely represented in modern Russian, where vowels usually alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants.
Obviously, we can talk about the phonetic alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants) with no sound, or zero sound.
Vowel reduction - weakening and changing the sound quality in unstressed syllables. There are two weak points in the Russian literary language:
I position - the first pre-stressed syllable,
II position - all other unstressed syllables, where the reduction is stronger than in the first.
There are two types of reduction: quantitative and qualitative.
With a quantitative reduction, vowels lose part of their length, but do not change their basic quality. The vowels of the upper ascent and, s, y in Russian do not change their quality, regardless of their location in the word. Quantitative reduction is not indicated in phonetic writing.
With a high-quality reduction, not only a weakening of sound occurs, but also a change in its characteristic features, its quality. The vowels o, a, e are subjected to a qualitative reduction in Russian. Qualitative reduction is indicated in phonetic writing: after solid consonants in the I pre-stressed syllable a and o as /, e as ue, in other syllables a, o, e - as b. After soft consonants, the reduction of vowels a, e is denoted in the I pre-stressed syllable as e, in other syllables as b.
Reduction (Latin reducire to shorten) - linguistic term, denoting the change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to other - percussion elements. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels.
Quantitative reduction - a reduction in the number of vowels (that is, the reduction is strong, up to the complete elimination of the sound). Quantitative reduction is a reduction in the time of sound articulation, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of sounding of pre-stressed from all post-stressed ones, for example, in the word [carav'any]. However, the sound quality can still be heard.
Qualitative reduction - changing the sound, "transforming" the phoneme.
Positional changes of sounds
Reduction (Latin reducire to shorten) is a linguistic term denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to other - percussion elements. In linguistics, the greatest attention of researchers is usually focused on describing the process of vowel reduction, since it is vowels that are the main syllabic element, although not the only one. Consonant reduction - stunning (linguistics) - is also very common in a number of world languages (Russian, German).
Types of vowel reduction
Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels. Quantitative reduction - a reduction in the number of vowels (that is, the reduction is strong, up to the complete elimination of the sound). Qualitative reduction - changing the sound, "transforming" the phoneme.
Quantitative vowel reduction
Quantitative reduction is a reduction in the time of sound articulation, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of sounding of pre-stressed from all post-stressed ones, for example, in the word [carav'any]. However, the sound quality can still be heard.
Qualitative vowel reduction
Quantitative reduction often leads to a qualitative one, that is, the sound loses clarity and turns into a neutral sliding vowel seam due to the speaker's failure to complete the full articulatory program of an unstressed vowel for a number of reasons (vernacular, fast speech, etc.). In a number of languages, the qualitative reduction of sounds turns into a linguistic law, that is, it takes on a natural phonetic character. A typical example is the Portuguese language, where unstressed vowels of folk Latin have a clear transition system: [a]> [ə], [e]> [s], [o]> [y].
The vowel reduction system in Russian has a mixed qualitative and quantitative character. After hard consonants, the vowels [e], [o] and partially [s] in unstressed syllables are reduced to [s e] / [b] and [b], and after soft consonants the vowels [e], [o], [a] and [and] are reduced to [and e] / [b]. The vowel [y] is mainly subject to quantitative reduction.
9.combinatorial changes in sounds
The influence of sounds on each other causes combinatorial changes that take place in phonetic processes: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, dieresis, epenthesis, haplology. Reduction is a weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables and syllabic sounds of these words. Accommodations (assimilations) arise between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side, and consist in the fact that the excursion of the subsequent sound adapts to the recursion of the previous sound - progressive accommodation; on the contrary - regressive accommodation, while sliding transitional sounds (glides) can occur. Assimilations (assimilations) occur between sounds of the same kind, and therefore can be complete, i.e. As a result of assimilation, 2 different sounds can become completely similar and become the same, therefore, they distinguish between full and incomplete assimilation. Dissimilations (similarities) arise between sounds of the same type and are based on a tendency opposite to assimilation, from 2 identical or similar sounds, 2 different or less similar sounds are obtained; (contact, distant, regressive and progressive). Diareses have an assimilative basis, for example, the elimination of an iota between vowels, when they strive to become like each other or merge into one sound. Epentheses have a dissimilative basis (for example, consonant insertion). Prostheses are a kind of epenthesis, only prostheses are not inserted in the middle of a word, but are attached in front of the beginning of a word (eight). Haplology - when one of two identical or similar syllables is miscalculated (standard bearer instead of standard bearer). Metathesis is more common when a word from one language passes into another language, when words pass into a dialect.
10.General concept of phoneme oppositions
Phonemes are always members of a given phonetic system characteristic of a particular language, and it is the content of each phoneme that is determined by its position in the system. For this it is necessary to consider different types phoneme oppositions in the language system.
First of all, each phoneme is opposed to zero, i.e. the absence of this phoneme, for example, cattle - a cat, a chair - a chair, a pair - steam.
The easiest way to establish oppositions is to select words that differ from each other by only one phoneme. If no such pair is found, you can match the word with a part of the word. The resulting series of oppositions are distributed according to differential criteria - deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness, etc.
Phonemes enter into the following types of oppositions:
- correlative opposition - such opposition, the members of which differ in only one feature, in all others - coincide
- closed - the opposition is exhausted by two terms, forming a closed pair, for example, voiceless || voiced: [n] || [b]
- open - consist of more than two members
- stepped (gradual) - in a row of phonemes, a feature is enhanced, for example [u] || [ů] || [ü] in Norwegian: back, middle and front u
- non-stepped - there is no increase or decrease of the sign; three or more members change one of the signs
- chains - form a sequential row, for example [n] labial, [t] anterior lingual, [k] posterior lingual
- bundles - a similar relationship that does not form a sequential series, for example [c] affricate, [t] explosive, [c] fricative
- non-correlative - members of such opposition differ in several features, for example [п] || [a]
Some oppositions are accompanied in parallel with others, for example: [п] || [b] - [t] || [d] - [k] || [G]; others remain isolated: [c] || [h].
To determine the number of phonemes in a language, an understanding of positions is necessary, since phoneme counting can only be carried out on the basis of a comparison of strong positions. In cases where it is established that these sounds cannot equally be in strong positions, but replace the sound of a strong position in weak ones by alternation, in the same morphemes in the same places, we are dealing with variations of the same phoneme.
14.Parts of speech. Principles of their selection
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical categories of words, united by semantic, morphological, derivational (word-formation features) and syntactic commonality.
Parts of speech are groups of words that have:
1.the same generalized lexical meaning;
2. the same generalized grammatical meaning, or the same set of morphological features;
3. the same syntactic functions.
Parts of speech are traditionally divided into significant (independent - it is characterized by the fact that the words of these parts of speech have lexical meaning, have articulation and grammatical categories, have verbal stress and logical stress, act as members of the sentence) and incomplete (do not have lexical. meaning, segmentation, gram.categories, often do not have a verbal stress, are not members of the sentence). Incomplete are official parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions - they express relationships), particles (cat. Emphasize the meanings of other words), modal words (cat. Express the speaker's attitude to the statement), interjections (cat. Express feelings and motives), onomatopoeia ( cat. transmit various sounds).
Service words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Service words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not the names of objects, signs, processes, but serve to express the relationship between the phenomena of reality, which are called significant words. Because of this, service words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words. Service words are not members of the sentence, but are used as formal grammatical means of the language: prepositions appear in subordinate phrases, conjunctions - with homogeneous members and in complex sentences, particles - with individual words and in interrogative and exclamation sentences
Modality is a relationship to reality. In the Russian language there are words that are specially used to express modality. They are traditionally called modal words. Their main function is to express the speaker's attitude to reality and to the content of speech.
Interjections are words that directly express feelings, experiences and expressions of will, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech in that they do not have the function of naming, that is, the nominative function, since they are, as it were, speech signs, signals used for the shortest expression of a person's reaction to various events of reality or for expressing a requirement, a person's desire Expressing feelings and will, the interjection is nevertheless recognized by all speakers of the given language and is understandable to everyone, since a certain semantic content is assigned to the interjection. But the meaning of interjections can usually only be understood from context, because the same interjections can serve to express different feelings.
15 syntax as grammar
Syntax, as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech, includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. The section that deals with a larger syntactic whole - the combination of sentences in coherent speech, can be especially distinguished.
A word combination is a combination of two or more significant words related in meaning and grammatical and representing complex names of phenomena of objective reality, for example: a student meeting, an article on dialectology Another basic syntactic unit is a sentence. A sentence is the minimum unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) with a certain semantic and intonational completeness. As a unit of communication, a sentence is at the same time a unit of the formation and expression of thought, in which the unity of language and thought is manifested. The sentence is correlated with a logical judgment, but not identical to it.
Syntactic connection - serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence, forms syntactic relations, i.e. varieties of syntactic matching that are regularly distinguished in syntactic units, regardless of their level.
There are three main types of syntactic link: subordinate link, or subordination, compositional link, or composition, and predicative link, or predication.
Subordination, or subordinate relationship - the relationship of syntactic inequality between words in a phrase and a sentence, as well as between predicative parts complex sentence... Types of subordinate relationships in a phrase and a sentence:
- reconciliation
- a type of subordinate connection, in which the dependent word is likened in the expression of grammatical meanings (in gender, number, case) to the dominant word; there is complete and incomplete agreement.
Examples: a little boy on a summer evening; our doctor, on Lake Baikal.
Sometimes a special type of agreement is distinguished - correlation - such a connection in which the forms of the number and the gender of the dependent word are more likely to coincide with the forms of the dominant word than due to them.
Examples: female astronaut, excellent student. - control
- a type of subordinate connection, in which the dependent word (noun or its equivalent) is put in a certain case form, due to the lexical and grammatical meaning of the dominant word or the meaning of the utterance.
Examples: writing poetry, faith in victory, happy with the answer. - adjoining
- a type of subordinate connection, in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning (word order, lexically and intonation).
Examples: listen carefully, very interesting, too late.
Essay differs from subordination, which is defined as an unequal connection, one-sided dependence of one component of a connection (word or sentence) on another. By meaning, the compositional connection is divided into the following types:
- opposing connection ("a", "yes" (meaning "but"), "but", "but", "however", "however", "all the same"),
- connecting link ("not only - but also"),
- dividing link ("or", "or ... or", "either", "then ... then", "either ... or", "not that ... not that").
In a simple sentence, the essay appears in a mandatory combination with the category of homogeneity: it connects elements that are in the same relation to any other member of the sentence (the father and mother came; the teacher is strict, but fair; in the hall there are not only adults, but also children; we will meet today or tomorrow). The work takes a peripheral place here and serves the purpose of expanding the sentence, increasing the number of syntactic positions of the same type in it.
predicative relationship
The connection between the subject and the predicate, a form of expression of predicative relations,
Predicative relations are a type of semantic and grammatical relations between individual structural components of an utterance, which allows the content of the utterance to be correlated with the described situation of reality and, thus, is necessary for the formulation of an utterance into an integral communicative unit (a relatively complete thought). Formally, predicative relationships are expressed in the form of a predicative relationship.
A predicative connection is a type of syntactic connection built according to the laws of a particular language and representing a formal expression of predicative relations between the components of a speech segment (in predicative pairs).
16.Main offer types
General information
There are various types of sentences in Russian. By the nature of the attitude towards reality expressed in them, sentences of real and surreal modality with various shades differ. modal values: reality and unreality, assumptions, doubt, confidence, possibility, impossibility, etc.
Sentences are considered affirmative or negative, depending on the indication in them of the presence or absence of a connection between objects and their features in reality.
According to the purpose of the statement and the intonation depending on this purpose, sentences are divided into narrative, interrogative and motivating. Each of the sentences of these three groups can become an exclamation point with the corresponding emotional coloring, expressed in a special exclamation intonation.
The structural characteristic of proposals is built on the basis of taking into account various features of a given structure. So, sentences can be simple and complex, depending on the number of predicative units - one or several.
Simple sentences are divided into one-piece and two-piece, i.e. having one or two main members as organizing centers of the proposal.
According to the presence or absence of secondary members, sentences are distinguished between common and uncommon (uncommon is a sentence consisting only of the main members - subject and predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away). (Sentences that have, along with the main, minor members, are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun has risen quite high).
Both one-part and two-part sentences are considered complete if all the necessary members of a given sentence structure are present, and incomplete if one or more necessary members of a given sentence structure are omitted due to the context or setting.
The inability to divide some types of sentences, i.e. identifying individual members in their structure, leads to the allocation of a special type of sentences - indivisible (word-sentences).
When formulating a sentence, intonation is of great importance, performing both a grammatical function and a stylistic one. With the help of intonation, the completeness of the sentence is conveyed and its division into syntactic units is carried out, the emotionality of speech, volitional impulses, as well as various modal shades of meanings are expressed.
Sentences can have paradigms based on the correlation of the predicate forms in the temporal and modal terms. For example: He is a good teacher; He will be a good teacher; He was a good teacher; He would be a good teacher; He could be a good teacher.
A complex syntactic integer is understood as syntactic unit, greater than the offer. This is the largest unit of syntax, which is a structural and semantic unity.
A complex syntactic whole is found in coherent text. This is a combination of several sentences, characterized by the relative completeness of the topic (microtheme), semantic and syntactic cohesion of the components.
Individual sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole are united by interphrasal connections, which are carried out using lexical continuity, as well as special syntactic means.
A complex syntactic whole differs from a complex sentence (including a polynomial one) by a less close connection between parts, their formal syntactic independence. However, these qualities do not prevent the components of a complex syntactic whole from uniting into a semantic and even structural unity, which makes it possible to single out this unit in syntax.
17. grammatical and logical structure of a sentence
Words and phrases - according to grammatical rules and laws inherent in a given language - are combined into sentences.
The specific content of sentences cannot be the subject of grammatical consideration. Grammar studies only the structure of the sentence, the typical forms of sentences inherent in one or another common language in its historical development.
Sentence construction is one of the most important, most essential elements of the grammatical structure of a language. The grammatical forms of a sentence and its members are specific to a particular language or a group of related languages. Studying the laws of construction of speech, in which thought is realized and expressed, grammar usually puts the doctrine of the sentence at the basis of syntax
A sentence is a unit of speech grammatically formed according to the laws of a given language (i.e., further indivisible into speech units with the same basic structural features) unit of speech, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. Language as a tool for communication and exchange of thoughts between all members of society uses the sentence as the main form of communication. The rules for using words in the function of sentences and the rules for combining words and phrases in a sentence are the core of the syntax of a particular language. On the basis of these rules, different types or types of sentences are established, characteristic of a given specific language. The sentence expresses not only the message about reality, but also the attitude of the speaker towards it.
From a grammatical point of view, each sentence is an internal unity of its verbally expressed members, the order of their arrangement and intonation. The sentence as the main grammatical form of expression and communication of thought in the process of communication first served as the basis for the logical analysis of judgment as a form of thinking. Therefore, already in ancient grammar, sentence theory and judgment theory were intertwined, and sometimes directly mixed. This confusion was partly expressed in the fact that the term "proposal" (propositio, proposition, cf. German Satz), for example, in Russian long time served to designate both the judgment and the form of its verbal expression. On the basis of such a mixture, on the basis of the ancient theory of proposition-judgment, it was created in the XVII-XVIII centuries. a universal scheme of a sentence and its members, which has been used for a long time to analyze sentences of all languages of the world. In each sentence (often even impersonal or subjectless), in abstraction from its grammatical structure, the subject (subject) was sought by purely semantic, logical considerations, that is, what in question, and a predicate (predicate), that is, what is said about the subject of speech, and then the object or objects (addition) - the names of other objects, except for the subject, and attributes (definitions). From attributive (determinative) and partly object words, circumstances began to be distinguished later as members of a sentence denoting time, place, condition, purpose, reason, mode and mode of action, and sometimes also conflicting or opposing factors (circumstances of assignment). The traditional school proposal theory finally took shape on the basis of logical doctrines about judgment in the 18th century. [*1]
The logical direction in the West, based on the idealistic philosophy of Kant and Hegel and especially closely associated with the name of Becker, came to a complete identification of grammatical and logical categories. F. Becker developed the anti-historical and cosmopolitan doctrine of a single path for the ideal development of the sentence structure for all languages, replacing the internal laws of language development with the laws and forms of logic. According to Becker, in language the logical form of a concept and judgment (thought) is merged with the grammatical form. In this regard, syntactic relations within a sentence, which Becker identified with the logical concepts of the subject, predicate, attribute and object, were considered by him as metaphysical “timeless” categories and forms of thinking of the “self-positing spirit”.
In our domestic grammar, the foundations of the sentence theory, developed in the logical-grammatical (and stylistic) plan, were laid by M.V. Lomonosov and deepened by his student prof. A. A. Barsov. Then A. Kh. Vostokov made their contribution to the development of the doctrine of the proposal, who put forward the idea of a simple verbal and compound verbal-nominal predicate, and especially A. A. Potebnya and A. A. Shakhmatov, who developed their original theories of sentences, laws of changes in sentence forms in Russian and determined the variety of types of simple sentences.
18. proposition and judgment. The main features of the proposal
Most of the types of sentences, as indicated above, correlate with logical judgment. In a judgment, something is affirmed or denied about something, and in this the so-called predication (predication) finds its expression, i.e. disclosure of the content of a logical subject by a logical predicate.
The relationship between the subject and the predicate in the judgment finds its parallel in the predicative relationship between the subject and the predicate in the sentence, which expresses the connection between the object of thought, designated by the subject, and its feature, designated by the predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting.
Predicative relations can only be in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativeness to be such a general, basic feature of a sentence, understanding by it the relation of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of time, person, mood and various types of intonation (intonation of a message, question, motivation, etc.).
Since, while expressing his thoughts, feelings, will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of what is being expressed (its desirability or undesirability, must or convention, etc.), then modality is also an essential feature of the sentence. The means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, is the mood category (indicative, imperative, conditionally desirable) and special lexico-grammatical means (so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles).
Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonation of the message, question, urge, etc. is different.
Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the attitude of the speaker to the utterance), predicativity (the relationship of the content of the sentence to reality), intonation formation and relative semantic completeness.
A word combination is a combination of two or more significant words related in meaning and grammar, which serves to delineate a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.).
A word combination is considered as a syntax unit that performs a communicative function (included in speech) only as part of a sentence.
It is generally accepted that word combinations include word combinations based on a subordinate relationship (communication between the main and dependent members). Some researchers also recognize compositional phrases - combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence.
Phrases are not
- grammatical basis
- homogeneous members of a sentence
- official part of speech + noun
- phraseological unit
- repetitions of words
19. morpheme. Classification of morphemes by location relative to the root
A morpheme is the minimum significant unit of a language.
From the point of view of morphological structure, the words of the Russian language are divided into words that have inflectional forms and do not have inflectional forms. The words of the first group fall into two parts: the base and the ending, or inflection; the words of the second group are pure stem.
The stem is the part of a word that expresses its lexical meaning. The stem is highlighted by subtracting the ending.
An ending, or inflection, is a variable part of a word that indicates a relationship of this word to others, i.e. is a means of expressing the syntactic properties of a word in a sentence.
The base of the word breaks down into separate significant parts: prefix, root, suffix.
The root of a word - the common part of related words - is highlighted when comparing words of the same nest, i.e. cognate words. The root can attach various affixes to itself. An affix is a common name for all significant parts of a word, with the exception of the root.
Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, or prefixes, - the parts of a word before the root, suffixes - the parts of a word between the root and ending, and endings.
Each significant part of a word - prefix, root, suffix, ending - is called a morpheme.
As the names of one of the significant parts of the word, the term postfix is sometimes used (as applied to the affix -sya, -s: work, wash). This morpheme retains a special name because it is often placed after other parts of the word, including the endings.
In most complex words, another part of the word stands out - the connecting vowel (interfix).
In the composition of the word, affixoids are also distinguished - root morphemes that act as an affix. These include prefixoids: half- (low shoes, half-open, half-lie), ezhe- (daily, monthly) and suffixoids: -var (soap-brewer), -ved (local historian), -vod (beekeeper), -voz (timber carrier).
Words originating from one root make up a word-formation nest.
A special place in the classification of affixes is occupied by zero affixes:
· Zero endings - endings that are not represented by sounds are not materially expressed, but this sound absence is significant.
Zero suffixes - suffixes that are not expressed by sound, are not materially represented, but with the help of which new words are formed: to leave - exit
20. The concept of a word. Its difference from sentence and morpheme
So, a word is a significant independent unit of language, the main function of which is nomination (naming); unlike morphemes, the minimal significant units of a language, a word independently (although it may consist of one morpheme: suddenly, a kangaroo) is grammatically formalized according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only material, but also lexical meaning1; unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication2, the word, as such, is not communicative (although it can act as a sentence: it is getting light. No.), but it is from the words that sentences are built for communication; in this case, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign, whereby the words differ, forming separate unity of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression (steel - table - chair - cold; tom - house - scrap - rum
21. word as a nominative unit of language
The subject of study of lexicology is the word as a linguistic unit. As you know, the word is studied in morphology and word formation, but in other aspects. In these sections of linguistics, words turn out to be a means of studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models of the language. The word is the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of language, which serves to name and communicate knowledge about the phenomena of reality. Words in a language are called specific objects ( computer, telephone) and abstract concepts ( beauty, study, well-being), human emotions are expressed ( rejoice, be afraid, tenderness, indignation) and much more. The word as a linguistic unit correlates with units of other levels of the language: phonetic, since it is formed with the help of sounds - school [shkol]; derivational, since words are composed of morphemes: school(root, ending). Words with non-derivative stems serve as the basis for the formation of new words: school - school - n-th; morphological, since words form certain grammatical classes: words with a general objective meaning refer to nouns, words with a general meaning of a feature refer to adjectives, etc., school- noun; syntactic, since words are used in phrases and sentences - new school... Being associated with different levels of the language, the word holds together, cements the general language system. Despite the reality and obviousness of the word as a linguistic unit, it is difficult to define. This is due to the diversity of words in terms of structure and meaning. A word is such a unit of language that is a phonetic, lexical-semantic, and morphological whole, and therefore can be characterized with different sides, taking into account properties that are different in nature. Usually a word as a language unit is characterized through its differential features. So, N.M. Shansky identifies 12 such properties:
22. word ambiguity
Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. Poly - many + sma - sign), is a property of words when they are used in different meanings. The ways of forming the meanings of words are different. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring a name according to the similarity of objects or their characteristics, i.e. metaphorically (from gr. metaphora - transfer). For example; by the similarity of external signs, the shape of objects, by the similarity of sensations, assessments, etc. It is also possible to transfer names according to the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): feather (goose) - feather (steel).
The new value may arise as a result of adjacency associations. For example, the name of the material is transferred to a product made from this material: a bronze chandelier (name of the material) - An antique bronze was sold in an antique store (a product made from this material). Various kinds of co-conceptions also arise in a metonymic way, i.e. the name of the action and its result in one word, cf .: to do embroidery - an exhibition of artistic embroidery; part and whole (and vice versa), compare: pea jackets with peakless caps and gray overcoats flashed (i.e. sailors and infantrymen; in this case, a person is named after a part of clothing), etc.
In the event of a break or complete loss of semantic links between different meanings, it becomes possible to name already famous word completely different concepts, objects, etc. This is one of the ways to develop new words - homonyms.
The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the object (immediately evokes the idea of the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words, denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning. The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct. For example:
Toy, - and, well. 1. Thing serving for the game. Kids toys.
2. transfer. One who blindly acts on someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
There are three main types of figurative meaning, depending on what attribute is used to transfer the name: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
A metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is a transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple- eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the nose of the ship (by location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (by the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy (the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of their contiguity *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a delicious dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche.
Sinekdokha (from the Greek "synekdoche" - co-understanding) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth - an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.
23. Homonymy
Homonymy is a sound coincidence of various linguistic units, the meanings of which are not related to each other. Reasons for the emergence of homonymy-1. Sound changes. Phonetic laws can lead to partial or complete coincidence of phonemes, and hence words including these phonemes. 2. homonyms arise when borrowing foreign words. 3. the break of the originally unified semantics of a polysemantic word.
Home> Lectures1. Phonetic processes. In a speech stream, sounds interact with each other and, therefore, change. This change in sounds is called phonetic processes, which are divided into 2 types:
- positional processes- changes in sounds caused by the general conditions of pronunciation; combinatorial processes Is a combination of sounds associated with the interactions of sounds, with the influence of sounds on each other.
- Quantitative reduction - this is a weakening of the vowels [and], [s], [y] in an unstressed position, in which the vowels weaken, become shorter, but do not change their quality. Qualitative reduction- this is not only a weakening, but also a change in the vowels [a], [o], [e] in an unstressed position.
| II pre-stressed position (syllable) | I pre-stressed position (syllable) | Impact position (strong) | II shock position (syllable) | II shock position (syllable) |
|
| After hard consonants | |||||
| <о> | |||||
| After soft consonants | <э> | ||||
Front vowel adjustment [and], [e]
- If the sounds [and] appear after a solid consonant, then it goes into the sound [s].
- In the position between soft consonants under stress, the sounds [and], [e] become closed, tense
Change of non-front vowels [a], [o], [y]
- Under the influence of a soft consonant, the vowels of the non-front row become more forward, either in excursion, or in recursion, or throughout the articulation. The adaptation of a vowel to a soft consonant is indicated by a dot.
- progressive- vowels become more forward on the tour.
- regressive- vowels become more leading in recursion.
- progressive-regressive Vowels become more forward throughout articulation
- at the place of education
- by way of education
- deafness
- by softness
- progressive Va
nka - Vankya [Va
n ,
To ,
a] regressive sew - [shshyt ,
]
- contact - sounds are located side by side NSO
ride - [nO
yist] distact - interacting sounds are separated by other sounds nowa
c - [chicha
with]
- full - sounds become the same O
tdykh - [O
breath] partial - sounds acquire general characteristics, but remain different lO
dka - [lO
tk]
- physiological- participation of the speech apparatus in the formation of sounds; acoustic- the sounds of speech as physical phenomena that have a height, strength, amplitude; linguistic (phonemic)- the sounds of speech are considered as units involved in distinguishing the sound envelopes of words, i.e. in the sense of discrimination.
- perceptual(function of perception) significative(sense discrimination function)
- < >
- to indicate phonemes, - to indicate sounds.
| Bosom → | [l O ny] → | [O] → | |
| Water → | [enter , and NS n O . th] → | [O . ] → | |
| Linen → | [l , . O n] → | [ . O] → | < о > |
| Lyonya → | [l , . O . n , b] → | [ . O . ] → | |
| Water → | [v ^ d a] → | [ ^ ] → |
- phonemes < т > - < д >
are in opposition for deafness, firmness; phonemes < т > - < ж >
are in opposition in deafness, sonority, method and place of education.
| phonetics | phonology |
|
| study the sounds of speech |
||
| differences |
||
| studies the physiological and acoustic aspects of the formation of sounds. | studies the linguistic aspect, i.e. how sound is involved in practical communication. | |
| Moscow school | Leningrad school |
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| Representatives |
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| Reformed, Avanesov, Kuznetsov | Shcherba, Matusevich, Kodukhov | |
| Vowel phoneme composition |
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| It is believed that there is a 5-phonemic composition of vowels, a phoneme < ы > seen as an option < и > | Phoneme < ы > singled out as independent, i.e. believed that there is a 6-phonemic composition of vowels | |
| Substantiation of the theory |
||
| 1. not at the absolute beginning of a word; 2. possible only after a hard consonant, i.e. in a certain position, replaces the phoneme in this position < и > ; 3. used in noun endings along with < и >, those. differ in hard and soft options; 4. < ы > < и > in one position are not possible. | 1. substitution of another vowel destroys the connection between sound and meaning, i.e. if instead of silt substitute al, ol , then each of these vowels performs an identification function; 2. < ы > easy to pronounce in isolation; 3. can be used at the beginning of a word. | |
- segment units - sounds and syllables (linear units); supersegment units - stress and intonation.
- with physiological points of view - a syllable corresponds to one muscular tension of the vocal apparatus; with acoustic point of view - a syllable is a combination of a more sonorous sound (the presence of a voice in a sound compared to noise) with a less sonorous one.
- open- ending in a vowel - t a; closed- ending in a consonant - a t; undisguised- starting with a vowel - t at; covered up- starting with a consonant - a t; half-open- ending in sonorous - a t.
- What two types of units does the sound system of a language have? Give a definition to the concept of a syllable. What is a syllable from a physiological and acoustic point of view? How are sounds divided according to their structure? Give a definition to the concept of tact. Give a definition to the concept of enclise and prokliza. Give a definition to the concept of syntagma. Give a definition to the concept of a phrase.
Practical questions
Topic 1: Theoretical and applied, general and specific phonetics.- What is linguistics? What sections of linguistics are there? What is phonetics? What is the subject of phonetics study? What are speech sounds? What are the two functions of sound? Give examples. What sections of phonetics are there? Explain what is the material side of language?
- Give a definition of the concept of "language". Give a definition of the concept of "speech". Give a definition of the concept of "speech act". Give a definition to the concept of "text". Give a definition of the concept of "orthoepy". What two features does the pronunciation rate have?
- What are the sound means of the language subdivided into? What are phonetic units? What are phonetic units divided into? What are phonetic signs divided into, what do they characterize? What are phonetic units for phonetic signs? What is studying the phonetic aspect, what is it exploring? What does the phonological aspect study? What sections are phonetics divided into? What is the unit of phonetics? What is the unit of phonology? The unit of which is sound? The unit of which is the phoneme?
- List the main aspects of learning sounds. What organs does the speech apparatus consist of? What types are the organs of speech divided into? List the stages of articulation? Give a definition to each of them.
- How are speech sounds shared? How are speech sounds different? What are the sources of sounds? What are the features of the formation of vowel sounds? What are the features of the formation of consonants? What sounds do we call mouth openers and mouth openers?
- What sounds are called tones? Why? What are the principles for the classification of vowel sounds? How are vowel sounds divided according to the method of formation? How are vowel sounds divided by place of education? How are vowel sounds divided by lip involvement? What sounds are called open and closed? What are the main features of consonant characteristics? What groups are the consonant sounds divided into according to the noise level? What groups are consonants divided into according to the method of formation? What groups are consonants divided into according to the place of formation? How are voiced and voiceless consonants determined? How are hard and soft consonants formed?
- Give a definition to the concept of "phonetic processes". Give a definition to the concept of "positional processes". Give a definition to the concept of "combinatorial processes". List the main positional processes? Give a definition to the concept of "stunning". Give examples. Give a definition of the concept of "prosthesis". Give examples. Give a definition to the concept of "reduction". Give examples. What is the reduction? What sounds are quantitatively reduced? What sounds are subject to high-quality reduction? What sounds are subject to high-quality reduction? What is a strong position? List the main positional processes? Give a definition of the concept of "accommodation". Give examples. Give a definition to the concept of "assimilation". Give examples. Give a definition of the concept of "dissimilation". Give examples. Give a definition of the concept of "dierese". Give examples.
- What functions do sounds perform? What is a phoneme? What signs are called phonemic? What traits are called non-onemic? What qualities of sounds make up a phoneme? what is an allophone? What is opposition? What relationships are fundamental to the phoneme system? What signs are called differential? What signs are called integral? What phonological schools do you know?
- What two types of units does the sound system of a language have? Give a definition to the concept of a syllable. What is a syllable from a physiological and acoustic point of view? How are sounds divided according to their structure? Give a definition to the concept of tact. Give a definition to the concept of enclise and prokliza. Give a definition to the concept of syntagma. Give a definition to the concept of a phrase.
- Give a definition to the concept of stress. Give a definition of the concept of word stress. Give a definition of a logical or semantic concept. Give a definition to the concept of power or dynamic stress. Give a definition to the concept of quantitative (quantitative or longitudinal) stress. Give a definition to the concept of musical or tonic stress. Give a definition to the concept of stress mobility. Give examples.
List of sources used
1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language: Uch. manual / N.F. Alefirenko. - M .: Flinta: Nauka, 2005. 2. Bryzgunova E.A. Sounds and intonation of Russian speech. - M: "Russian language", 1997. 3. Zindler L.R. General phonetics. - M., 2001. 4. Knyazev S.V., Pozharitskaya S.K. Modern Russian language. Phonetics, graphics, spelling, spelling. - M .: Akademicheskiy prospect, 2005. 5. Kozdasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. General phonetics. - M., 2001. 6. Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. - M., 1996. 7. Veshchikova I.A. Orthoepy. Fundamentals of theory and applied aspects. /books/element.php?pl1_cid=143&pl1_id=1431 The object of linguistics is the natural language of man. The regularities of the structure, development and functioning of the language are the subject of the science of language. These patterns of M.Collection of programs for basic general education
DocumentGeneral linguistics: subject and objectives of the course
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