Physical phenomena that occur with physical bodies. Interesting facts about physics

Everything that surrounds us: both animate and inanimate nature, is in constant motion and is constantly changing: planets and stars move, it rains, trees grow. And a person, as we know from biology, constantly goes through some stages of development. Grinding grains into flour, falling stones, boiling water, lightning, glowing light bulbs, dissolving sugar in tea, moving vehicles, lightning, rainbows are examples of physical phenomena.

And with substances (iron, water, air, salt, etc.) various changes or phenomena occur. The substance can be crystallized, melted, crushed, dissolved and again separated from the solution. However, its composition will remain the same.

So, granulated sugar can be ground into a powder so fine that at the slightest breath it will rise into the air like dust. Sugar specks can only be seen under a microscope. Sugar can be divided into even smaller parts by dissolving it in water. If water is evaporated from the sugar solution, the sugar molecules will again combine with each other into crystals. But when dissolved in water, and when crushed, sugar remains sugar.

In nature, water forms rivers and seas, clouds and glaciers. During evaporation, water turns into steam. Water vapor is water in the gaseous state. When exposed low temperatures(below 0˚С) water turns into a solid state - it turns into ice. The smallest particle of water is a water molecule. The water molecule is also the smallest particle of steam or ice. Water, ice and steam are not different substances, but the same substance (water) in different states of aggregation.

Like water, other substances can also be transferred from one state of aggregation to another.

Characterizing this or that substance as a gas, liquid or solid, they mean the state of matter in normal conditions. Any metal can not only be melted (translated into a liquid state), but also turned into a gas. But this requires very high temperatures. In the outer shell of the Sun, metals are in a gaseous state, because the temperature there is 6000 ° C. And, for example, carbon dioxide by cooling it can be turned into "dry ice".

Phenomena in which there is no transformation of one substance into another are referred to as physical phenomena. Physical phenomena can lead to a change, for example, in the state of aggregation or temperature, but the composition of substances will remain the same.

All physical phenomena can be divided into several groups.

Mechanical phenomena are phenomena that occur with physical bodies when they move relative to each other (the revolution of the Earth around the Sun, the movement of cars, the flight of a parachutist).

Electrical phenomena are phenomena that arise during the appearance, existence, movement and interaction of electric charges (electric current, telegraphy, lightning during a thunderstorm).

Magnetic phenomena are phenomena associated with the occurrence of magnetic properties in physical bodies (attraction of iron objects by a magnet, turning the compass needle to the north).

Optical phenomena are phenomena that occur during the propagation, refraction and reflection of light (rainbow, mirages, reflection of light from a mirror, the appearance of a shadow).

Thermal phenomena are phenomena that occur when physical bodies are heated and cooled (melting snow, boiling water, fog, freezing water).

Atomic phenomena are phenomena that occur when the internal structure of the substance of physical bodies changes (the glow of the Sun and stars, an atomic explosion).

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In 1979, Gorky People's University scientifically - technical creativity published methodological materials for his new development "Integrated Method for Searching for New Technical Solutions". We plan to acquaint the readers of the site with this interesting development, which in many ways was far ahead of its time. But today we suggest that you familiarize yourself with a fragment of the third part of the methodological materials, published under the name "Arrays of information". The list of physical effects proposed in it includes only 127 positions. Now specialized computer programs offer more detailed versions of physical effects indexes, but for a user who is still "not covered" by software support, the table of applications of physical effects created in Gorky is of interest. Its practical use lies in the fact that at the input the solver had to indicate which function from those listed in the table he wants to provide and which type of energy he plans to use (as they would say now - indicate resources). The numbers in the cells of the table are the numbers of physical effects in the list. Each physical effect is provided with references to literary sources (unfortunately, almost all of them are currently bibliographic rarities).
The work was carried out by a team, which included teachers from the Gorky People's University: M.I. Weinerman, B.I. Goldovsky, V.P. Gorbunov, L.A. Zapolyansky, V.T. Korelov, V.G. Kryazhev, A.V. Mikhailov, A.P. Sokhin, Yu.N. Shelomok. The material offered to the reader's attention is compact, and therefore can be used as a handout in the classroom in public schools of technical creativity.
Editor

List of physical effects and phenomena

Gorky People's University of Scientific and Technical Creativity
Gorky, 1979

N	Name of a physical effect or phenomenon	Short description essence of a physical effect or phenomenon	Typical functions (actions) performed (see Table 1)	Literature
1	2	3	4	5
1	Inertia	The movement of bodies after the termination of the action of forces. A body rotating or moving by inertia can accumulate mechanical energy, produce a force effect	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 21	42, 82, 144
2	gravity	force interaction of masses at a distance, as a result of which bodies can move, approaching each other	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15	127, 128, 144
3	Gyroscopic effect	Bodies rotating at high speed are able to maintain the same position of their axis of rotation. A force from the side to change the direction of the axis of rotation leads to a precession of the gyroscope proportional to the force	10, 14	96, 106
4	Friction	The force arising from the relative movement of two bodies in contact in the plane of their contact. Overcoming this force leads to the release of heat, light, wear	2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 19, 20	31, 114, 47, 6, 75, 144
5	Replacing static friction with friction of motion	When the rubbing surfaces vibrate, the friction force decreases	12	144
6	Effect of wearlessness (Kragelsky and Garkunov)	A pair of steel-bronze with glycerin lubricant practically does not wear out	12	75
7	Johnson-Rabeck effect	Heating of rubbing metal-semiconductor surfaces increases the friction force	2, 20	144
8	Deformation	Reversible or irreversible (elastic or plastic deformation) change in the mutual position of body points under the action of mechanical forces, electrical, magnetic, gravitational and thermal fields, accompanied by the release of heat, sound, light	4, 13, 18, 22	11, 129
9	Poiting effect	Elastic elongation and increase in the volume of steel and copper wires when they are twisted. The properties of the material do not change.	11, 18	132
10	Relationship between deformation and electrical conductivity	When a metal passes into the superconducting state, its plasticity increases.	22	65, 66
11	Electroplastic effect	Increase in ductility and decrease in brittleness of the metal under the action of high-density direct electric current or pulsed current	22	119
12	Bauschinger effect	Reducing the resistance to initial plastic deformations when the sign of the load changes	22	102
13	Alexandrov effect	With an increase in the mass ratio of elastically colliding bodies, the energy transfer coefficient increases only up to critical determined by the properties and configuration of bodies	15	2
14	Alloys with memory	Deformed with the help of mechanical forces, parts made of some alloys (titanium-nickel, etc.) after heating, restore exactly their original shape and are capable of creating significant force effects.	1, 4, 11, 14, 18, 22	74
15	explosion phenomenon	Ignition of substances due to their instantaneous chemical decomposition and the formation of highly heated gases, accompanied by a strong sound, the release of significant energy (mechanical, thermal), light flash	2, 4, 11, 13, 15, 18, 22	129
16	thermal expansion	Change in the size of bodies under the influence of a thermal field (during heating and cooling). Can be accompanied by significant effort	5, 10, 11, 18	128,144
17	Phase transitions of the first kind	Change in the density of the aggregate state of substances at a certain temperature, accompanied by release or absorption	1, 2, 3, 9, 11, 14, 22	129, 144, 33
18	Phase transitions of the second kind	An abrupt change in heat capacity, thermal conductivity, magnetic properties, fluidity (superfluidity), plasticity (superplasticity), electrical conductivity (superconductivity) when a certain temperature is reached and without energy exchange	1, 3, 22	33, 129, 144
19	Capillarity	Spontaneous flow of liquid under the action of capillary forces in capillaries and semi-open channels (microcracks and scratches)	6, 9	122, 94, 144, 129, 82
20	Laminar and turbulence	Laminarity is an ordered movement of a viscous liquid (or gas) without interlayer mixing with a flow rate decreasing from the center of the pipe to the walls. Turbulence - the chaotic movement of a liquid (or gas) with random movement of particles along complex trajectories and an almost constant flow velocity over the cross section	5, 6, 11, 12, 15	128, 129, 144
21	Surface tension of liquids	Forces surface tension, due to the presence of surface energy, tend to reduce the interface	6, 19, 20	82, 94, 129, 144
22	wetting	Physical and chemical interaction of a liquid with a solid. The character depends on the properties of the interacting substances	19	144, 129, 128
23	Autophobic effect	When a liquid with low tension and a high-energy solid comes into contact, first complete wetting occurs, then the liquid collects into a drop, and a strong molecular layer of liquid remains on the surface of the solid	19, 20	144, 129, 128
24	Ultrasonic capillary effect	Increasing the rate and height of liquid rise in capillaries under the action of ultrasound	6	14, 7, 134
25	Thermocapillary effect	The dependence of the liquid spreading rate on the uneven heating of its layer. The effect depends on the purity of the liquid, on its composition.	1, 6, 19	94, 129, 144
26	Electrocapillary effect	Dependence of the surface tension at the interface between electrodes and electrolyte solutions or ionic melts on the electric potential	6, 16, 19	76, 94
27	Sorption	The process of spontaneous condensation of a dissolved or vaporous substance (gas) on the surface of a solid or liquid. With a small penetration of the sorbent substance into the sorbent, adsorption occurs, with a deep penetration, absorption occurs. The process is accompanied by heat transfer	1, 2, 20	1, 27, 28, 100, 30, 43, 129, 103
28	Diffusion	The process of equalizing the concentration of each component in the entire volume of a gas or liquid mixture. The rate of diffusion in gases increases with decreasing pressure and increasing temperature	8, 9, 20, 22	32, 44, 57, 82, 109, 129, 144
29	Dufort effect	The occurrence of a temperature difference during diffusion mixing of gases	2	129, 144
30	Osmosis	Diffusion through a semi-permeable septum. Accompanied by the creation of osmotic pressure	6, 9, 11	15
31	Heat and mass exchange	Heat transfer. May be accompanied by agitation of the mass or be caused by movement of the mass	2, 7, 15	23
32	Law of Archimedes	Lift force acting on a body immersed in a liquid or gas	5, 10, 11	82, 131, 144
33	Pascal's law	Pressure in liquids or gases is transmitted uniformly in all directions	11	82, 131, 136, 144
34	Bernoulli's law	Total pressure constancy in steady laminar flow	5, 6	59
35	Viscoelectric effect	Increase in the viscosity of a polar non-conductive liquid when flowing between the capacitor plates	6, 10, 16, 22	129, 144
36	Toms effect	Reduced friction between turbulent flow and pipeline when a polymer additive is introduced into the flow	6, 12, 20	86
37	Coanda effect	Deviation of the jet of liquid flowing from the nozzle towards the wall. Sometimes there is "sticking" of the liquid	6	129
38	Magnus effect	The emergence of a force acting on a cylinder rotating in the oncoming flow, perpendicular to the flow and generatrices of the cylinder	5,11	129, 144
39	Joule-Thomson effect (choke effect)	The change in gas temperature as it flows through a porous partition, diaphragm or valve (without exchange with environment)	2, 6	8, 82, 87
40	Water hammer	Rapid shutdown of a pipeline with a moving liquid causes a sharp increase in pressure, propagating in the form of a shock wave, and the appearance of cavitation	11, 13, 15	5, 56, 89
41	Electrohydraulic shock (Yutkin effect)	Water hammer caused by pulsed electrical discharge	11, 13, 15	143
42	Hydrodynamic cavitation	The formation of discontinuities in a fast flow of a continuous liquid as a result of a local decrease in pressure, causing the destruction of the object. Accompanied by sound	13, 18, 26	98, 104
43	acoustic cavitation	Cavitation due to the passage of acoustic waves	8, 13, 18, 26	98, 104, 105
44	sonoluminescence	Weak glow of the bubble at the moment of its cavitation collapse	4	104, 105, 98
45	Free (mechanical) vibrations	Natural damped oscillations when the system is taken out of equilibrium. In the presence of internal energy oscillations become undamped (self-oscillations)	1, 8, 12, 17, 21	20, 144, 129, 20, 38
46	Forced vibrations	Oscillations of the year by the action of a periodic force, usually external	8, 12, 17	120
47	Acoustic paramagnetic resonance	Resonance absorption of sound by a substance, depending on the composition and properties of the substance	21	37
48	Resonance	A sharp increase in the amplitude of oscillations when forced and natural frequencies coincide	5, 9, 13, 21	20, 120
49	Acoustic vibrations	Propagation of sound waves in a medium. The nature of the impact depends on the frequency and intensity of the oscillations. Main purpose - force impact	5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 21	38, 120
50	Reverberation	Aftersound due to the transition to a certain point of delayed reflected or scattered sound waves	4, 17, 21	120, 38
51	Ultrasound	Longitudinal vibrations in gases, liquids and solids in the frequency range 20x103-109Hz. Beam propagation with effects of reflection, focusing, shadowing with the possibility of transferring high energy density used for force and thermal effects	2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26	7, 10, 14, 16, 90, 107, 133
52	wave motion	energy transfer without matter transfer in the form of a perturbation propagating at a finite speed	6, 15	61, 120, 129
53	Doppler-Fizo effect	Changing the frequency of oscillations with the mutual displacement of the source and receiver of oscillations	4	129, 144
54	standing waves	At a certain phase shift, the direct and reflected waves add up to a standing wave with a characteristic arrangement of perturbation maxima and minima (nodes and antinodes). There is no energy transfer through nodes, and interconversion of kinetic and potential energy is observed between neighboring nodes. The force effect of a standing wave is capable of creating an appropriate structure	9, 23	120, 129
55	Polarization	Violation of axial symmetry of a transverse wave relative to the direction of propagation of this wave. Polarization is caused by: lack of axial symmetry of the emitter, or reflection and refraction at the boundaries of different media, or propagation in an anisotropic medium	4, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24	53, 22, 138
56	Diffraction	Wave bending around an obstacle. Depends on obstacle size and wavelength	17	83, 128, 144
57	Interference	Strengthening and weakening of waves at certain points in space, arising from the superposition of two or more waves	4, 19, 23	83, 128, 144
58	moiré effect	The appearance of a pattern when two systems of equidistant parallel lines intersect at a small angle. small change angle of rotation leads to a significant change in the distance between the elements of the pattern	19, 23	91, 140
59	Coulomb's Law	Attraction of unlike and repulsion of like electrically charged bodies	5, 7, 16	66, 88, 124
60	Induced charges	The appearance of charges on a conductor under the influence of an electric field	16	35, 66, 110
61	Interaction of bodies with fields	A change in the shape of bodies leads to a change in the configuration of the generated electric and magnetic fields. This can control the forces acting on charged particles placed in such fields	25	66, 88, 95, 121, 124
62	Retraction of the dielectric between the plates of the capacitor	With the partial introduction of a dielectric between the plates of the capacitor, its retraction is observed	5, 6, 7, 10, 16	66, 110
63	Conductivity	Movement of free carriers under the action of an electric field. Depends on the temperature, density and purity of the substance, its state of aggregation, external influence deformation forces from hydrostatic pressure. In the absence of free carriers, the substance is an insulator and is called a dielectric. When thermally excited, it becomes a semiconductor	1, 16, 17, 19, 21, 25	123
64	Superconductivity	A significant increase in the conductivity of some metals and alloys at certain temperatures, magnetic fields and current densities	1, 15, 25	3, 24, 34, 77
65	Joule-Lenz law	The release of thermal energy during the passage of an electric current. The value is inversely proportional to the conductivity of the material	2	129, 88
66	Ionization	The appearance of free charge carriers in substances under the action of external factors(electromagnetic, electric or thermal fields, discharges in gases, exposure to X-rays or a stream of electrons, alpha particles, during the destruction of bodies)	6, 7, 22	129, 144
67	Eddy currents (Foucault currents)	In a massive non-ferromagnetic plate placed in a changing magnetic field perpendicular to its lines, circular induction currents flow. In this case, the plate heats up and is pushed out of the field	2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 21, 24	50, 101
68	Brake without static friction	A heavy metal plate oscillating between the poles of an electromagnet "sticks" when turned on direct current and stops	10	29, 35
69	Conductor with current in a magnetic field	The Lorentz force acts on electrons, which transmit force through ions crystal lattice. As a result, the conductor is pushed out of the magnetic field	5, 6, 11	66, 128
70	conductor moving in a magnetic field	When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an electric current begins to flow in it.	4, 17, 25	29, 128
71	Mutual induction	An alternating current in one of two adjacent circuits causes the appearance of an induction emf in the other	14, 15, 25	128
72	Interaction of conductors with the current of moving electric charges	Conductors with current are pulled towards each other or repelled. Moving electric charges interact similarly. The nature of the interaction depends on the shape of the conductors	5, 6, 7	128
73	EMF induction	When the magnetic field or its movement changes in a closed conductor, an induction emf arises. The direction of the inductive current gives a field that prevents a change in the magnetic flux that causes induction	24	128
74	Surface effect (skin effect)	High frequency currents go only along the surface layer of the conductor	2	144
75	Electromagnetic field	The mutual induction of electric and magnetic fields is the propagation (of radio waves, electromagnetic waves, light, x-rays and gamma rays). It can also be a source electric field. A special case of the electromagnetic field is light radiation (visible, ultraviolet and infrared). The thermal field can also serve as its source. The electromagnetic field is detected by the thermal effect, electrical action, light pressure, activation chemical reactions	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26	48, 60, 83, 35
76	Charge in a magnetic field	A charge moving in a magnetic field is subject to the Lorentz force. Under the action of this force, the movement of the charge occurs in a circle or spiral	5, 6, 7, 11	66, 29
77	Electrorheological effect	Rapid reversible increase in the viscosity of non-aqueous disperse systems in strong electric fields	5, 6, 16, 22	142
78	Dielectric in a magnetic field	In a dielectric placed in an electromagnetic field, part of the energy is converted into thermal	2	29
79	breakdown of dielectrics	The drop in electrical resistance and thermal destruction of the material due to the heating of the dielectric section under the action of a strong electric field	13, 16, 22	129, 144
80	Electrostriction	Elastic reversible increase in body size in an electric field of any sign	5, 11, 16, 18	66
81	Piezoelectric effect	Formation of charges on the surface of a solid body under the influence of mechanical stresses	4, 14, 15, 25	80, 144
82	Reverse piezo effect	Elastic deformation of a rigid body under the action of an electric field, depending on the sign of the field	5, 11, 16, 18	80
83	Electro-caloric effect	Change in the temperature of a pyroelectric when it is introduced into an electric field	2, 15, 16	129
84	Electrification	The appearance of electric charges on the surface of substances. It can also be called in the absence of an external electric field (for pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics when the temperature changes). When a substance is exposed to a strong electric field with cooling or lighting, electrets are obtained that create an electric field around them.	1, 16	116, 66, 35, 55, 124, 70, 88, 36, 41, 110, 121
85	Magnetization	Orientation of intrinsic magnetic moments of substances in an external magnetic field. According to the degree of magnetization, substances are divided into paramagnets and ferromagnets. For permanent magnets, the magnetic field remains after removing the external electrical and magnetic properties	1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 22, 23	78, 73, 29, 35
86	Effect of temperature on electrical and magnetic properties	The electrical and magnetic properties of substances near a certain temperature (Curie point) change dramatically. Above the Curie point, a ferromagnet transforms into a paramagnet. Ferroelectrics have two Curie points at which either magnetic or electrical anomalies are observed. Antiferromagnets lose their properties at a temperature called the Neel point	1, 3, 16, 21, 22, 24, 25	78, 116, 66, 51, 29
87	magnetoelectric effect	In ferroferromagnets, when a magnetic (electric) field is applied, a change in the electric (magnetic) permeability is observed	22, 24, 25	29, 51
88	Hopkins effect	An increase in magnetic susceptibility as the Curie temperature is approached	1, 21, 22, 24	29
89	Barchhausen effect	Stepwise behavior of the magnetization curve of a sample near the Curie point with a change in temperature, elastic stresses, or an external magnetic field	1, 21, 22, 24	29
90	Liquids solidifying in a magnetic field	viscous liquids (oils) mixed with ferromagnetic particles harden when placed in a magnetic field	10, 15, 22	139
91	Piezo magnetism	Occurrence of a magnetic moment upon imposition of elastic stresses	25	29, 129, 144
92	Magneto-caloric effect	The change in temperature of a magnet during its magnetization. For paramagnets, increasing the field increases the temperature	2, 22, 24	29, 129, 144
93	Magnetostriction	Changing the size of bodies when changing their magnetization (volumetric or linear), the object depends on temperature	5, 11, 18, 24	13, 29
94	thermostriction	Magnetostrictive deformation during heating of bodies in the absence of a magnetic field	1, 24	13, 29
95	Einstein and de Haas effect	Magnetization of a magnet causes it to rotate, and rotation causes magnetization	5, 6, 22, 24	29
96	Ferromagnetic resonance	Selective (by frequency) absorption of electromagnetic field energy. The frequency changes depending on the intensity of the field and when the temperature changes.	1, 21	29, 51
97	Contact potential difference (Volta's law)	The occurrence of a potential difference when two different metals are in contact. The value depends on chemical composition materials and their temperatures	19, 25	60
98	triboelectricity	Electrization of bodies during friction. The magnitude and sign of the charge are determined by the state of the surfaces, their composition, density and dielectric constant	7, 9, 19, 21, 25	6, 47, 144
99	Seebeck effect	The emergence of thermoEMF in a circuit of dissimilar metals under the condition of different temperatures at the points of contact. When homogeneous metals are in contact, the effect occurs when one of the metals is compressed by all-round pressure or when it is saturated with a magnetic field. The other conductor is in normal conditions.	19, 25	64
100	Peltier effect	Emission or absorption of heat (except for Joule heat) during the passage of current through a junction of dissimilar metals, depending on the direction of the current	2	64
101	Thomson phenomenon	Emission or absorption of heat (excess over Joule) during the passage of current through an unevenly heated homogeneous conductor or semiconductor	2	36
102	hall effect	The occurrence of an electric field in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current. In ferromagnets, the Hall coefficient reaches a maximum at the Curie point and then decreases	16, 21, 24	62, 71
103	Ettingshausen effect	The occurrence of a temperature difference in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field and current	2, 16, 22, 24	129
104	Thomson effect	Change in the conductivity of a ferromanite conductor in a strong magnetic field	22, 24	129
105	Nernst effect	The appearance of an electric field during the transverse magnetization of the conductor perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and the temperature gradient	24, 25	129
106	Electrical discharges in gases	The occurrence of an electric current in a gas as a result of its ionization and under the action of an electric field. External manifestations and characteristics of discharges depend on control factors (gas composition and pressure, space configuration, electric field frequency, current strength)	2, 16, 19, 20, 26	123, 84, 67, 108, 97, 39, 115, 40, 4
107	Electroosmosis	The movement of liquids or gases through capillaries, solid porous diaphragms and membranes, and through the forces of very small particles under the action of an external electric field	9, 16	76
108	flow potential	The occurrence of a potential difference between the ends of capillaries, as well as between opposite surfaces of a diaphragm, membrane or other porous medium when liquid is forced through them	4, 25	94
109	electrophoresis	Movement of solid particles, gas bubbles, liquid droplets, as well as suspended colloidal particles in a liquid or gaseous medium under the action of an external electric field	6, 7, 8, 9	76
110	Sedimentation potential	The occurrence of a potential difference in a liquid as a result of the movement of particles caused by forces of a non-electric nature (settlement of particles, etc.)	21, 25	76
111	liquid crystals	A liquid with elongated molecules tends to become cloudy in spots when exposed to an electric field and change color at different temperatures and viewing angles	1, 16	137
112	Light dispersion	Dependence of the absolute refractive index on the radiation wavelength	21	83, 12, 46, 111, 125
113	Holography	Obtaining volumetric images by illuminating an object with coherent light and photographing the interference pattern of the interaction of the light scattered by the object with the coherent radiation of the source	4, 19, 23	9, 45, 118, 95, 72, 130
114	Reflection and refraction	When a parallel beam of light is incident on a smooth interface between two isotropic media, part of the light is reflected back, and the other, refracted, passes into the second medium	4,	21
115	Absorption and scattering of light	When light passes through matter, its energy is absorbed. Part goes to reemission, the rest of the energy goes into other forms (heat). Part of the re-radiated energy propagates in different directions and forms scattered light	15, 17, 19, 21	17, 52, 58
116	Light emission. Spectral analysis	A quantum system (atom, molecule) in an excited state radiates excess energy in the form of a portion of electromagnetic radiation. The atoms of each substance have a failure structure of radiative transitions that can be registered by optical methods.	1, 4, 17, 21	17, 52, 58
117	Optical quantum generators (lasers)	Amplification of electromagnetic waves due to their passage through a medium with population inversion. Laser radiation is coherent, monochromatic, with a high energy concentration in the beam and low divergence	2, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 25, 26	85, 126, 135
118	The phenomenon of total internal reflection	All the energy of a light wave incident on the interface of transparent media from the side of the optically denser medium is completely reflected into the same medium	1, 15, 21	83
119	Luminescence, luminescence polarization	Radiation, excess under thermal and having a duration exceeding the period of light oscillations. Luminescence continues for some time after the termination of excitation (electromagnetic radiation, energy of an accelerated flow of particles, energy of chemical reactions, mechanical energy)	4, 14, 16, 19, 21, 24	19, 25, 92, 117, 68, 113
120	Quenching and stimulation of luminescence	Exposure to another type of energy, in addition to exciting luminescence, can either stimulate or extinguish luminescence. Control factors: thermal field, electric and electromagnetic fields (IR light), pressure; humidity, the presence of certain gases	1, 16, 24	19
121	Optical anisotropy	difference in the optical properties of substances in different directions, depending on their structure and temperature	1, 21, 22	83
122	double refraction	On the. At the interface between anisotropic transparent bodies, light is split into two mutually perpendicular polarized beams with different propagation velocities in the medium	21	54, 83, 138, 69, 48
123	Maxwell effect	Occurrence of birefringence in a liquid flow. Determined by the action of hydrodynamic forces, flow velocity gradient, wall friction	4, 17	21
124	Kerr effect	Occurrence of optical anisotropy in isotropic substances under the influence of electric or magnetic fields	16, 21, 22, 24	99, 26, 53
125	Pockels effect	Occurrence of optical anisotropy under the action of an electric field in the direction of light propagation. Weakly dependent on temperature	16, 21, 22	129
126	Faraday effect	Rotation of the plane of polarization of light when passing through a substance placed in a magnetic field	21, 22, 24	52, 63, 69
127	Natural optical activity	The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through it	17, 21	54, 83, 138

Physical effects selection table

References to the array of physical effects and phenomena

1. Adam N.K. Physics and chemistry of surfaces. M., 1947

2. Alexandrov E.A. JTF. 36, No. 4, 1954

3. Alievsky B.D. Application of cryogenic technology and superconductivity in electrical machines and apparatuses. M., Informstandardelectro, 1967

4. Aronov M.A., Kolechitsky E.S., Larionov V.P., Minein V.R., Sergeev Yu.G. Electric discharges in air at a high frequency voltage, M., Energia, 1969

5. Aronovich G.V. etc. Hydraulic shock and surge tanks. M., Nauka, 1968

6. Akhmatov A.S. Molecular physics of boundary friction. M., 1963

7. Babikov O.I. Ultrasound and its application in industry. FM, 1958"

8. Bazarov I.P. Thermodynamics. M., 1961

9. Buters J. Holography and its application. M., Energy, 1977

10. Baulin I. Beyond the barrier of hearing. M., Knowledge, 1971

11. Bezhukhov N.I. Theory of elasticity and plasticity. M., 1953

12. Bellamy L. Infrared spectra of molecules. Moscow, 1957

13. Belov K.P. magnetic transformations. M., 1959

14. Bergman L. Ultrasound and its application in technology. M., 1957

15. Bladergren V. Physical chemistry in medicine and biology. M., 1951

16. Borisov Yu.Ya., Makarov L.O. Ultrasound in the technology of the present and the future. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, M., 1960

17. Born M. Atomic physics. M., 1965

18. Brüning G. Physics and application of secondary electron emission

19. Vavilov S.I. About "hot" and "cold" light. M., Knowledge, 1959

20. Weinberg D.V., Pisarenko G.S. Mechanical vibrations and their role in technology. M., 1958

21. Weisberger A. Physical methods in organic chemistry. T.

22. Vasiliev B.I. Optics of polarizing devices. M., 1969

23. Vasiliev L.L., Konev S.V. Heat transfer tubes. Minsk, Science and technology, 1972

24. Venikov V.A., Zuev E.N., Okolotin B.C. Superconductivity in energy. M., Energy, 1972

25. Vereshchagin I.K. Electroluminescence of crystals. M., Nauka, 1974

26. Volkenstein M.V. Molecular Optics, 1951

27. Volkenstein F.F. Semiconductors as catalysts for chemical reactions. M., Knowledge, 1974

28. F. F. Volkenshtein, Radical recombination luminescence of semiconductors. M., Nauka, 1976

29. Vonsovsky S.V. Magnetism. M., Nauka, 1971

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41. Gubkin A.N. Physics.of dielectrics. M., 1971

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52. Elyashevich M.A. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy. M., 1962

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54. Zhevandrov N.D. Anisotropy and optics. M., Nauka, 1974

55. Zheludev I.S. Physics of crystals of dielectrics. M., 1966

56. Zhukovsky N.E. About water hammer in water taps. M.-L., 1949

57. Zayt V. Diffusion in metals. M., 1958

58. Zaidel A.N. Fundamentals of spectral analysis. M., 1965

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65. Kaganov M.I., Natsik V.D. The electrons slow down the dislocation. Nature, No. 5,6, 1976

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A phenomenon is any manifestation of something, as well as any change in the world around us. Meaning given word determined by the context, namely the adjective, standing next to with the term "phenomenon". It is difficult to understand what a phenomenon is without examples, so we will give them.

• A change in the state of aggregation of a substance can be considered a physical phenomenon.
• In this area, there are such unusual natural phenomena as petrified waves.
• He was frightened by something that could be called a paranormal phenomenon.

Let us consider in more detail the term "Phenomenon" depending on the context.

What is a physical phenomenon

First of all, note that a physical phenomenon is a process, not the result of something. This is the process of ongoing changes in the state or position of physical systems. Remember that a physical phenomenon is one in which there is no transformation of one substance into another. Its composition will remain the same, but the state or position will change.

Physical phenomena are classified as follows:

• electrical phenomena. They involve electric charges. For example, lightning, electric current.
• mechanical phenomena. The movement will be relative to each other. For example, the movement of cars on the road.
• Thermal phenomena. They are associated with changes in body temperature. For example, melting snow.
• Optical phenomena. They are connected with the metamorphoses of the rays of light. For example, a rainbow.
• magnetic phenomena. Occur when magnetic properties appear in an object. For example, a compass with an arrow pointing north.
• Atomic Phenomena. Occur during metamorphoses in the internal structure of matter. For example, the glow of the stars.

What are natural phenomena

Natural phenomena are considered climatic and meteorological manifestations of nature that occur naturally. Rain, snow, storm, earthquake are all examples of natural phenomena.

It is important to understand what a natural phenomenon is and how it is interconnected with physical phenomena. So, in one natural phenomenon, several physical phenomena can be counted. That is, the concept a natural phenomenon"more extensive. For example, such a natural phenomenon as a thunderstorm includes the following physical phenomena: the movement of clouds and rain (mechanical phenomena), lightning (electrical phenomenon), burning a tree from a lightning strike (thermal phenomenon).

What is paranormal activity

When they talk about a paranormal phenomenon, they mean any changes in the surrounding reality that are not the norm, an ordinary phenomenon. They have no scientific explanation, no evidence. Their existence goes beyond understanding the usual picture of the world. Examples of paranormal phenomena are: crying icons, the biofield of living beings.

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We are surrounded by an infinitely diverse world of substances and phenomena.

It is constantly changing.

Any changes that occur to bodies are called phenomena. The birth of stars, the change of day and night, the melting of ice, the swelling of buds on trees, the flashing of lightning during a thunderstorm, and so on - all these are natural phenomena.

physical phenomena

Recall that bodies are made up of substances. Note that in some phenomena the substances of bodies do not change, while in others they change. For example, if you tear a piece of paper in half, then, despite the changes that have occurred, the paper will remain paper. If the paper is burned, it will turn into ashes and smoke.

Phenomena in which the size, shape of bodies, the state of substances can change, but substances remain the same, do not change into others, are called physical phenomena(evaporation of water, the glow of an electric bulb, the sound of strings musical instrument etc.).

Physical phenomena are extremely diverse. Among them are distinguished mechanical, thermal, electrical, lighting and etc.

Let's remember how clouds float across the sky, an airplane flies, a car drives, an apple falls, a cart rolls, etc. In all of these phenomena, objects (bodies) move. Phenomena associated with a change in the position of a body in relation to other bodies are called mechanical(translated from the Greek "mehane" means machine, tool).

Many phenomena are caused by the change of heat and cold. In this case, the properties of the bodies themselves change. They change shape, size, the state of these bodies changes. For example, when heated, ice turns into water, water into steam; When the temperature drops, steam turns into water, water into ice. The phenomena associated with the heating and cooling of bodies are called thermal(Fig. 35).

Rice. 35. Physical phenomenon: the transition of matter from one state to another. If you freeze drops of water, ice will reappear

Consider electrical phenomena. The word "electricity" comes from the Greek word "electron" - amber. Remember that when you quickly take off your woolen sweater, you hear a slight crackle. If you do the same in complete darkness, you will also see sparks. This is the simplest electrical phenomenon.

To get acquainted with another electrical phenomenon, do the following experiment.

Tear off small pieces of paper and place them on the table surface. Comb clean and dry hair with a plastic comb and bring it to the pieces of paper. What happened?

Rice. 36. Small pieces of paper are attracted to the comb

Bodies that are capable of attracting light objects after rubbing are called electrified(Fig. 36). Lightning during thunderstorms, auroras, electrification of paper and synthetic fabrics - all these are electrical phenomena. Operation of telephone, radio, TV, various household appliances are examples of human use of electrical phenomena.

Phenomena that are associated with light are called light. Light comes from the sun, stars, lamps, and some living things, such as fireflies. Such bodies are called luminous.

We see when light hits the retina. We cannot see in absolute darkness. Objects that do not themselves emit light (for example, trees, grass, the pages of this book, etc.) are visible only when they receive light from some luminous body and reflect it from their surface.

The moon, which we often speak of as a night star, is in reality only a kind of reflector of sunlight.

By studying the physical phenomena of nature, man has learned to use them in Everyday life, life.

1. What are called natural phenomena?

2. Read the text. List what natural phenomena are called in it: “Spring has come. The sun is getting hotter. Snow melts, streams run. Buds swelled on the trees, rooks flew in.

3. What phenomena are called physical?

4. From the physical phenomena listed below, write down the mechanical phenomena in the first column; in the second - thermal; in the third - electrical; in the fourth - light phenomena.

Physical phenomena: lightning flash; snow melting; coast; melting of metals; operation of an electric bell; rainbow in the sky; sunbeam; moving stones, sand with water; boiling water.

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1. What does physics study. Some physical terms. Observations and experiments. Physical quantities. Measurement of physical quantities. Accuracy and error of measurements.

Physics is the science of the most general properties of bodies and phenomena.

How does a person know the world? How does he investigate the phenomena of nature, obtaining scientific knowledge about it?

The very first knowledge a person receives from observations behind nature.

To get the right knowledge, sometimes simple observation is not enough and you need to conduct experiment - a specially prepared experiment .

Experiments are carried out by scientists premeditated plan with a specific purpose .

During the experiments measurements are taken using special instruments of physical quantities. Examples physical quantities are: distance, volume, speed, temperature.

So, the source of physical knowledge is observations and experiments.

Physical laws are based and tested on the facts established empirically. An equally important way of knowing theoretical description of the phenomenon . Physical theories make it possible to explain known phenomena and predict new ones that have not yet been discovered.

Changes that occur with bodies are called physical phenomena.

Physical phenomena are divided into several types.

Types of physical phenomena:

1. Mechanical phenomena (for example, the movement of cars, aircraft, celestial bodies, fluid flow).

2. Electrical phenomena (for example, electric current, heating of conductors with current, electrization of bodies).

3. Magnetic phenomena (for example, the effect of magnets on iron, the influence of the Earth's magnetic field on a compass needle).

4. Optical phenomena (for example, the reflection of light from mirrors, the emission of light rays from various sources Sveta).

5. Thermal phenomena (melting of ice, boiling of water, thermal expansion of bodies).

6. Atomic phenomena (for example, the operation of nuclear reactors, the decay of nuclei, processes occurring inside stars).

7. Sound phenomena (bell ringing, music, thunder, noise).

Physical terms are special words used in physics for brevity, definiteness and convenience.

Physical body is every object that surrounds us. (Showing physical bodies: pen, book, school desk)

Substance It is everything that physical bodies are made of. (Showing physical bodies consisting of different substances)

Matter- this is everything that exists in the Universe regardless of our consciousness (celestial bodies, plants, animals, etc.)

physical phenomena are changes that occur to physical bodies.

Physical quantities are the measurable properties of bodies or phenomena.

Physical Instruments- These are special devices that are designed to measure physical quantities and conduct experiments.

Physical quantities:
height h, mass m, path s, speed v, time t, temperature t, volume V, etc.

Units of measurement of physical quantities:

International system of units SI:

(international system)

Main:

Length - 1 m - (meter)

Time - 1 s - (second)

Weight - 1 kg - (kilogram)

Derivatives:

Volume - 1 m³ - (cubic meter)

Velocity - 1 m/s - (meter per second)

In this expression:

the number 10 is the numerical value of the time,

the letter "s" is an abbreviation for the unit of time (seconds),

and the combination of 10 s is the time value.

Prefixes to unit names:

To make it easier to measure physical quantities, in addition to basic units, multiple units are used, which are in 10, 100, 1000, etc. more basic

g - hecto (×100) k - kilo (× 1000) M - mega (× 1000 000)

1 km (kilometer) 1 kg (kilogram)

1 km = 1000 m = 10³ m 1 kg = 1000 g = 10³ g