Abstract: Characteristics of interpersonal and intergroup conflicts. Interpersonal conflicts
Interpersonal conflict is a clash of individuals in the process of their interaction. Such clashes can occur in a variety of spheres and areas of life (economic, political, industrial, socio-cultural, domestic, etc.).
D.) and have different scales of mutual claims: og convenient location in public transport to the presidential chair in state structures; from a piece of bread to a multi-million dollar fortune.
The subjects of interpersonal conflict are individual individuals (personalities) pursuing (protecting) their personal or group interests. The object of the conflict is incompatible needs, interests, values, positions, goals, etc. of interacting individuals. The exception is non-realistic (non-objective) interpersonal conflicts, in which the reason for the confrontation is the mental state of one, two or more subjects. In such a conflict, the incident, as a rule, is presented as the cause (object) of the conflict.
Some researchers interpret interpersonal conflict as "a clash of incompatible desires, aspirations and attitudes of communication partners ..."35. In this definition, in our opinion, the subjects of the conflict are replaced by the object.
In an interpersonal conflict, it is not interests and desires that collide, but real individuals about incompatible interests and desires. The clash of desires, aspirations, etc. is characteristic only of an intrapersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflict also implies a real confrontation between the parties, and not just “mutual negative perception of people.” People can perceive each other very negatively, but do not conflict. Only as a result of actions directed against each other, interpersonal conflict arises.
So, interpersonal conflict is a clash (confrontation) of two or more individuals, the causes of which are incompatible needs, interests, values, positions, roles, goals and / or means to achieve them.
As in other social conflicts, in interpersonal conflicts one can also distinguish objectively and subjectively determined causes.
Objective factors create a potential opportunity for conflict. For example, a vacant position for the head of a department may cause a conflict between two employees of this department, if both of them apply for this position. The social (impersonal) relations between potential participants in the conflict, for example, their status-role positions, that have developed at the time of the beginning of the conflict, can also be considered conditionally objective. Reasons are considered to be objectively determined, the occurrence of which does not directly depend on the will and desire of the potential subject of interpersonal conflict.
Subjective factors in interpersonal conflict are formed on the basis of individual (social-psychological, physiological, worldview and others) characteristics of conflicting personalities. These factors largely determine the dynamics of development and resolution of interpersonal conflict and its consequences.
Interpersonal conflicts arise both between people who first met and constantly communicating. In both cases important role interpersonal perception (interpersonal perception) plays in relationships, which involves the assessment and understanding (misunderstanding) of a person by a person. The process of interpersonal perception has a complex structure, its components are as follows: 1)
identification - comparison, comparison of a person and identification of oneself with him; 2)
socio-psychological reflection - understanding the other by thinking for him; 3)
empathy - understanding another person through empathy; 4)
stereotyping is the perception and evaluation of another by extending to him the qualitative characteristics of some social group.
AT social psychology the process of reflection involves at least six positions that characterize the mutual reflection of subjects: 1)
the subject itself, as it really is; 2)
the subject as he sees himself; 3)
the subject as it is seen by another.
In the relationship of subjects, we have the same three positions on the part of another subject of reflection. The result is a process of doubled, mirror mutual reflection by the subjects of each other (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Interpersonal reflection
Similar in structure to the reflexive, but somewhat different in content, scheme for the interaction of subjects was proposed by the American psychotherapist E. Berne (Fig. 3)36.
In this scheme, the basis of the conflict is the various states of the subjects of interaction, and its “provocation” is the intersecting
Rice. 3. Transaction options and interpersonal perception
all transactions. Combinations "a" and "b" are conflicting. In the combination “c”, one of the subjects of interaction clearly dominates the other or takes the position of a patron, the other subject is content with the role of a “child”. In this combination, conflicts do not arise because both subjects take their positions for granted. The most productive in the communication of people is the position "g" (B-B). This is a communication of equal people, which does not infringe on the dignity of any of the parties. But other equal positions (“parent” - “parent”, “child” - “child”) are also objectively non-conflict.
Adequate perception of a person by others is often hampered by already established stereotypes regarding this category of people. For example, a person has a preconceived notion of an official as a soulless bureaucrat, red tape, etc. In turn, an official may also form a negative image of a petitioner who undeservedly seeks special benefits for himself. In communication, these two personalities will interact not real people, and stereotypes are simplified images of certain social types.
Stereotypes are formed both in the process of socialization of an individual as a way of perceiving (assimilating) complex social concepts and phenomena, and in conditions of information deficiency as a generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived notions accepted in society or in a certain social environment. Examples of stereotypes can be statements like: “all salesmen...”, “all men...”, “all women...”, etc.
The formed, possibly false, image of the other can seriously deform the process of interpersonal interaction and contribute to the emergence of conflict.
An obstacle to finding agreement between individuals can be a negative attitude that has been formed by one opponent in relation to another. Set is the willingness, predisposition of the subject to act accordingly. This is a certain orientation of the psyche and behavior of the subject, readiness to perceive future events. It is formed under the influence of rumors, opinions, judgments about a given individual (group, phenomenon, and others). For example, an entrepreneur has previously arranged a meeting with his colleague from another firm to conclude an important business agreement. In preparation for the meeting, he heard negative comments from third parties about the business and ethical qualities of the prospective partner. Based on these reviews, a negative attitude is formed in the entrepreneur, and the meeting may either not take place or will not give the expected results.
In conflict situations, a negative attitude deepens the split between opponents and makes it difficult to resolve and resolve interpersonal conflicts.
Often the causes of interpersonal conflicts are misunderstandings (“misunderstanding” of one person by another). This is due to different ideas about the subject, fact, phenomenon, etc.
D. “We often expect,” writes M. Moltz, that others will react to the same facts or circumstances in the same way as we do, making the same conclusions, we forget that a person does not react to real facts, but to their ideas about them. People's ideas are different, sometimes diametrically opposed, and this fact should be accepted as a completely natural phenomenon, not to be dismissive of the ideas of others, but to try to understand them or at least take them into account, not to consider your ideas as the only true ones and not to impose them on others.
play an important role in interpersonal interaction individual qualities opponents, their personal self-esteem, self-reflection, individual threshold of tolerance, aggressiveness (passivity), type of behavior, sociocultural differences, etc. There are concepts of “interpersonal compatibility” and “interpersonal incompatibility”. Compatibility implies mutual acceptance of partners in communication and joint activities. Incompatibility - mutual rejection (antipathy) of partners, based on the mismatch (opposition) of social attitudes, value orientations, interests, motives, characters, temperaments, psychophysical reactions, individual psychological characteristics of the subjects of interaction.
Often the basis of interpersonal contradictions and conflicts are the differences (mismatch) of individual biological rhythms (“biological clocks”). One type of people shows increased activity in the morning. They are called "larks". The peak of activity of another type of people falls on the second half of the day. If each of these types does not take into account the characteristics of the other, then their interaction will be fraught with various kinds of conflicts. Especially often such conflicts occur between close people: spouses, relatives, friends, etc.
Interpersonal incompatibility can cause an emotional conflict (psychological antagonism), which is the most complex and difficult to resolve form of interpersonal confrontation. The complexity of resolving such a conflict lies in the fact that there seems to be no real reason for the emergence of contradictions, and the conflict appears, as it were, for no apparent reason. The reason for such a conflict is a negative mutual assessment and inadequate mutual perception of each other's opponents.
In the development of interpersonal conflict, it is also necessary to take into account the influence of the surrounding social, socio-psychological environment. For example, conflicts between gentlemen in the presence of ladies are especially cruel and uncompromising, since in them (whatever the reasons for the conflicts) the honor and dignity of opponents are affected.
Interacting with other people, a person primarily protects his personal interests, and this is quite normal. The resulting conflicts are a reaction to obstacles to achieving goals. And on how significant the subject of the conflict seems to be for a particular individual, his conflict attitude will largely depend on his predisposition and willingness to act in a supposed conflict in a certain way. It includes the goals, expectations and emotional orientation of the parties.
But individuals face in interpersonal conflicts, protecting not only their personal interests. They can also represent the interests of individual groups, institutions, organizations, labor collectives, society as a whole. In such interpersonal conflicts, the intensity of the struggle and the possibility of finding compromises are largely determined by the conflict attitudes of those social groups whose representatives are the subjects of the conflict.
The most characteristic of interpersonal conflicts are the following types. one.
Conflicts, the causes of which are incompatible needs, desires, interests, goals, values, etc. 2.
Conflicts of "incompatible" means to achieve common needs, interests, goals, etc. 3.
Conflict due to limited material resources (money, an apartment, a land plot, a preferential ticket to a resort, and others). 4.
The conflict of dominance (power relations) is manifested in the desire of one subject to impose his will (power) on another (others) and the unwillingness of the other (others) to obey or the desire to challenge the limits of imposed powers (family conflicts, hazing in the army). 5.
A conflict of status positions arises either when individuals claim the same social status, or when they inadequately evaluate the statuses they and opponents occupy, for example, a child disputes the authority of a parent, a citizen - the authority of an official. 6.
Role conflicts can be divided into three subspecies: 1)
two or more individuals strive to fulfill the same role in a social group or impose some role on another; 2)
inadequate assessment of the performance of the role by another individual; 3)
performance of two or more incompatible roles and/or an inadequate social role. 7.
The conflict of possession is most typical for individuals who are in close relationship with each other (friends, parents - children, spouses, lovers), when one or both subjects want to solely own and dispose of the other38. eight.
The conflict of rivalry or competition is observed when two or more individuals compete with each other in any kind of activity, as well as in strength, beauty, wealth, intelligence, courage, and more, while competition and rivalry involve conflict interactions. nine.
unrealistic conflict. As mentioned above, such a conflict arises not about some object (subject), but because of the inadequate mental state of one or both subjects of the conflict. Here conflict is not a means to an end, but an end. ten.
The conflict of psychological incompatibility is a negative mutual assessment and perception of each other by opponents. The danger of such a conflict lies in the fact that incompatibility may not manifest itself in the relationships of individuals for a certain period of time - exist at the subconscious level, but in a certain, difficult situation become the cause of a fierce interpersonal conflict.
Depending on the reasons for the emergence of a conflict situation, the interests and goals pursued by opponents, the balance of opposing forces, the conflict behavior of the parties, an interpersonal conflict can have the following types of outcome:
) avoiding conflict resolution, when one of the parties does not seem to notice the contradictions that have arisen. Such behavior may be due either to a clear superiority in strength of one of the parties, or to the fact that in this moment there are not enough opportunities to resolve the contradictions that have arisen; 2)
smoothing out contradictions, when one of the parties either agrees with the claims presented to it (but only at the moment), or seeks to justify itself. Such behavior may be due either to the desire to maintain normal relations, or to the fact that the subject of the dispute is not significant for one of the parties; 3)
compromise - mutual concessions on both sides. The amount of concessions, as a rule, depends on the balance of opposing forces; 4)
consensus - finding a mutually acceptable solution to a problem. With this option, the parties can turn from adversaries into partners and allies; 5)
escalation of tension and the escalation of the conflict into a comprehensive confrontation. Such conflict behavior is due to the mutual attitude towards an uncompromising struggle; 6)
a forceful version of conflict suppression, when one or both parties are forced by force (threat of force) to accept one or another variant of the outcome of the contradiction.
Interpersonal conflicts
Completed by a 5th year student
FOST, CO departments
Guseva Galina
The concept of interpersonal conflict
Interpersonal conflicts- these are conflicts between individuals in the process of their social and psychological interaction. Reasons for such conflicts- both socio-psychological and personal, in fact, psychological. The former include: loss and distortion of information in the process of interpersonal communication, unbalanced role interaction between two people, differences in the methods of assessing each other's activities and personality, etc., tense interpersonal relationships, the desire for power, and psychological incompatibility.
Features of interpersonal conflicts
There are hardly any among us who have never had to participate in some kind of conflict in their lives. Sometimes a person himself becomes the initiator of the conflict, and sometimes he finds himself in conflict with someone unexpectedly for himself and even against his own will.
It often happens that circumstances force a person to be drawn into a conflict that has flared up between other people, and he willy-nilly has to act either as an arbitrator or conciliator of the disputing parties, or as a defender of one of them, although, perhaps, he I don't want either one or the other.
In all situations of this kind two related aspects can be seen.. The first is the content side of the conflict, that is, the subject of the dispute, the matter, the issue that causes disagreement. The second is the psychological side of the conflict, associated with the personal characteristics of its participants, with their personal relationships, with their emotional reactions to the causes of the conflict, to its course and to each other. It is this second side that is a specific feature of interpersonal conflicts - in contrast to social, political, etc.
In such a conflict, people face each other directly, face to face. At the same time, tensions arise and are maintained. They are drawn into the conflict as individuals, showing in it the traits of their character, abilities, other individual properties and characteristics. In conflicts, the needs, goals and values of people are manifested; their motives, attitudes and interests; emotions, will and intellect.
Interpersonal conflicts have their own distinctive features, which are as follows:
1. In interpersonal conflicts, people confront each other directly, here and now, on the basis of a clash of their personal motives. Opponents face off.
2. In interpersonal conflicts, the whole range of known causes is manifested: general and particular, objective and subjective.
3. Interpersonal conflicts for the subjects of conflict interaction are a kind of “testing ground” for testing characters, temperaments, manifestations of abilities, intellect, will and other individual psychological characteristics.
4. Interpersonal conflicts are characterized by high emotionality and coverage of almost all aspects of relations between conflicting subjects.
5. Interpersonal conflicts affect the interests of not only those in conflict, but also those with whom they are directly connected either by official or interpersonal relations.
Interpersonal conflicts, as noted above, cover all spheres of human relations.
Management of interpersonal conflicts can be considered in two aspects - internal and external.Internal aspect involves the use of technology effective communication and rational behavior in conflict. External aspect reflects the managerial activity on the part of the head (manager) or other subject of management in relation to a specific conflict.
In the process of managing interpersonal conflicts, it is important to take into account their causes and factors, as well as the nature of interpersonal relations of conflictants before the conflict, their mutual likes and dislikes.
In an interpersonal conflict, each side seeks to defend its opinion, to prove the other one wrong, people resort to mutual accusations, attacks on each other, verbal abuse and humiliation, etc. Such behavior causes acute negative emotional experiences in the subjects of the conflict, which aggravate the interaction of the participants and provoke them to extreme actions. In conflict, it becomes difficult to manage your emotions. Many of its participants experience negative health for a long time after the resolution of the conflict.
Interpersonal conflict reveals the lack of agreement in the existing system of interaction between people. They have opposing opinions, interests, points of view, views on the same problems, which at the appropriate stage of the relationship disrupt normal interaction, when one of the parties begins to purposefully act to the detriment of the other, and the latter, in turn, realizes that these actions infringe on its interests, and takes retaliatory actions.
This situation most often leads to conflict as a means of resolving it. The full resolution of the conflict will be carried out when the opposing sides together quite consciously eliminate the causes that gave rise to it. If the conflict is resolved by the victory of one of the parties, then such a state will be temporary and the conflict will necessarily declare itself in some form under favorable circumstances.
Interpersonal conflicts in the family
Family- a unique institution of human interaction. This uniqueness lies in the fact that this closest union of several people (husband and wife, then children, the parents of the husband or wife can live together with them) is bound by moral obligations. In this union, people strive to spend as much time as possible in joint interaction, to bring joy and pleasure to each other in the process of interaction.
The family is constantly in the process of development, as a result of which unforeseen situations arise and family members have to respond to all changes. And their behavior in various situations is influenced by temperament, character and personality. It is not surprising that in every family, various kinds of clashes inevitably arise between its members.
The emergence of interpersonal conflicts in the family can be influenced by various external factors. First of all, these are changes taking place in society, for example, a change in moral and cultural criteria, the establishment of a cult of profit and an orientation towards the satisfaction of sensory needs, the lack of social security for the family, etc.
Contradictions arise when the husband and wife disagree on the problem - which of the functions to give preference to and how to perform it. For example, the wife wants to have many children, and the husband no more than one, referring to the lack of time for education, the desire to “live on their own”, etc.
Causes of conflicts: 1st period
interpersonal incompatibility;
leadership claims;
claims for superiority;
division of household chores;
claims for budget management;
following the advice of relatives and friends;
intimate personal adaptation.
second period, causing dramatic changes, is associated with the appearance of children in the family. At this time, the causes and reasons for the emergence of conflict situations appear much more, problems arise that did not exist before. The child requires attention 24 hours a day. The wife becomes a mother, she feeds the child, devotes more time to him, she accumulates fatigue, especially if the child is restless. She needs rest, not only physical, but also mental unloading. Many women in this position become irritable, react inadequately to some actions of their husband. Conflict can arise for any reason.
Under these conditions, the husband is obliged to treat his wife with more attention than before the birth of the child.
The child grows in the family, the problems of upbringing, training, vocational guidance, etc. are added, new reasons for disagreements arise, which can contribute to the emergence of interpersonal conflicts between parents and children.
A common disease of young parents is the attempt by one of them to lead the process of "correct education" of the new generation, ignoring the opinions of the other spouse. For example, a child is offended by his father, he runs to his mother, and his mother begins to calm him down and says, “We have a bad dad, he offends you.” Such behavior is hard experienced by the husband and can form a split personality in the child, can lead to conflict between spouses. Any parent, no matter how he acts in relation to the child, in the presence of the child, he is always right. Discussion of each other's behavior is permissible only in the absence of the child, in a form that is friendly to each other, in order to find a common solution.
Different opinions of parents on the issues of punishing a child can lead to conflict. One of them may prefer forceful methods, while the other may reject them. The choice of additional activities for the child (music, sports, various circles) can also cause conflict. Attitude to negative assessments of the child can cause an acute conflict situation.
Nowadays, when there is no guarantee of safety anywhere and for anyone, conflicts between parents and children arise because of their late return home. Parents' anxiety especially increases when the agreed time for the child's return home passes, but he did not appear. Some children, being at this time in the company, do not even want to remember the house, although they know that a conflict with their parents is inevitable. This is selfish behavior on the part of children. Their own pleasure from a pleasant pastime in the circle of their peers is more important for them than the feelings and genuine suffering about them of the closest people. Whatever the requirements of discipline by parents, they must be learned to fulfill, they are aimed at the safety of children and the whole family.
In conflicts between parents and children, the position of adults is of great importance. A teenager is not always able to act like an adult. His personality is in its infancy, so the reaction of adolescents to external influence more direct than in adults. They have not yet settled "social brakes." The “I-concept” of adolescents is not as loaded with various social taboos as that of adults, and they are not able to clearly control their emotions in different situations.
Conflicts become especially acute between parents and adolescents where the parents have not gone far from adolescents in their development.
In the third period When new members appear in the family (daughter-in-law or son-in-law), there can be many reasons for interpersonal conflicts. There can be many options for the appearance of a new person in the family, but the most popular is the one when the husband brings his wife to the family, to her parents. In such cases, conflicts are possible: mother - daughter-in-law, mother - son, son - wife. These conflicts inevitably involve the son's father and his wife's relatives into their orbit.
The mother of a son, after his marriage, can claim that he gave her as much attention as before marriage. And the son, as nature itself requires, pays all attention to the young wife. The mother becomes jealous and looks for reasons to find fault with both her son and her daughter-in-law over various trifles. She begins to attract her husband to her side, who is forced to be drawn into a conflict situation.
The son loves his wife and loves his mother and cannot decide which side to take. For some time he tries to reconcile them, but such attempts, as a rule, do not lead to success. The wife eventually comes to the conclusion that everyone in her husband's family offends her, and begins to complain to her parents, seeking their support. Sometimes parents unconditionally take the side of their daughter. The interpersonal conflict covers three families, the supporters of the wife begin to oppose the supporters of the husband. Such a conflict has practically no constructive resolution. However, it can and should be warned.
After the marriage of young people, everyone needs to understand that not only they, but all relatives are moving into a completely new quality, previously unknown to any of them - a new “native” person has appeared in the family. All efforts of relatives should be aimed at helping young spouses find mutual understanding. Everything in the new family should be aimed at strengthening it, and not at destroying it, not at provoking interpersonal conflicts, but at preventing them.
Family interpersonal conflicts always leave severe negative emotional states in the form of discomfort, stress and depression. Therefore, it is better to prevent conflicts. To do this, psychologists and conflictologists offer many different options for their own behavior:
restraint in any situation, do not get involved in the conflict, let the party provoking the conflict fully speak:
treat any incident with close attention, subject it to analysis:
exclude any claims of superiority from communication, do not elevate yourself by humiliating another, showing your bad manners:
admit and analyze openly your mistakes, do not transfer your guilt to others;
do not make disasters for the family when others are wrong (what happened, happened):
excessive experience and empathy for losses is fraught with physical destruction of the body of each of the family members (ulcers, stress, heart attacks, etc.);
find out any comments to each other only in private, and express all claims exclusively in a friendly respectful form (“as it comes around, it will respond”):
if the thought that your wife (husband) has become “your personal enemy” haunts you, ask yourself why this happened, why did you become such that you think so badly about your previously loved person?
look for flaws in yourself, not in your loved ones:
clarify all misunderstandings among yourself in the absence of children, do not involve relatives and friends in resolving conflicts;
direct your efforts in resolving the conflict not to win your own loved one, but on the joint resolution of the situation;
the position in relation to the actions of children should be the same:
do not promise children if you cannot fulfill their request:
do not emphasize the shortcomings of children, find good things in their behavior, desires, aspirations, focus on this:
strengthen the threads that bring you closer to your children (trust, sincerity, truthfulness, etc.):
remember, if you told the baby: “You are quite an adult with us”, he will always try to look like this, but he still can’t do it:
do not reproach the child for any reason, but do not overpraise him either:
listen to any advice, but remember that you live together not with advisers, but with the one you are complaining about.
Conflicts in interpersonal relationships.
Classification of conflicts and their causes.
Conflict personality types.
Conflict management and ways to resolve them.
1. Conflicts in interpersonal relationships. The concept and functions of conflict.
Conflict- a social phenomenon generated by the very nature of social life. One of the main human needs is the need to belong to a community of their own kind. At the same time, individual differences, differences in interests and goals, in ways of building a joint life lead to contradictions between people, the aggravation of which should be called a conflict.
In the psychological dictionary "conflict" (lat. Conflictus - collision) is defined as a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible with each other tendencies in the mind of a single individual, in interpersonal relationships or interpersonal actions of individuals or groups of people, associated with acute negative emotional experiences.
The main role in the emergence of conflicts is played by the so-called conflictogens - words, actions (or inactions) that contribute to the emergence and development of the conflict, that is - leading to conflict directly.
A "single" conflictogen is not capable, as a rule, of leading to a conflict. There should be a "chain of conflictogens" - their so-called escalation.
There are three main types of conflictogens:
striving for excellence;
manifestation of aggressiveness;
manifestation of selfishness.
conflict situations arise in all spheres of public life - be it economics, politics, everyday life, culture or ideology. They are inevitable as an integral component of the development of society and the individual himself. Conflict-freeness is an illusion, a utopia, and even less good.
The conflict situation develops, as a rule, gradually. It distributes and determines the positions of the participants in the future conflict, but it has not yet reached the point of an open clash. The components of a conflict situation are members and thing, i.e. the essence of the disagreement. Participants can take at least two mutually exclusive positions on the subject of conflict, but there may be more. The participants in the conflict occupy a certain hierarchy, where their leaders, initiators and their more or less passive supporters stand out.
A conflict always presupposes an open clash, realized by its participants, i.e. incident. The meaning of the incident lies in the mastery of the subject of the conflict. The incident shows, makes the conflict visible, and its participants are more active than in a conflict situation.
A conflict situation may not always end in an incident, but the subject of the conflict itself remains.
A conflict is a clash of oppositely directed interests, views, positions in the psyche of an individual, in the relationship of people or their groups. Conflict interaction, if it takes place in creative forms, carries a constructive, productive beginning. Such conflict promotes progressive change.
Conflict is a predictable phenomenon, it can be regulated. Conflict interaction is different in that the confrontation of people in it serves as a link for them at the same time (the more dependent the relationship, the more they are fraught with conflict). Since people are in conflict, they are bound to have something in common.
By its very nature, conflict can be the bearer of creative and destructive tendencies, be good and evil at the same time.
Conflict functions:
stabilizing (relationships are strengthened, the norms and values of joint life and activity are more clearly realized);
activating (interaction becomes more dynamic, which affects the pace of socio-economic development both in society and within a single organization);
signaling (factors of dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs are revealed);
emotional response (open expression of their thoughts and feelings allows people to get emotional relief);
innovative (conflict is a means of promoting creative initiative);
preventive (timely conflict prevents destructive behavior).
LECTURE "INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS" (Topic 7).
Conflicts arise in almost all areas human life. They are manifested in interpersonal communication, in joint activities, in the management process, in all relationships between people. The most common form of conflict is interpersonal. Therefore, knowledge of the characteristics of interpersonal conflicts, the ability to identify the causes of their occurrence and apply methods of managing them is so professionally important for a psychologist.
1. The concept of interpersonal conflict and its features
· Interpersonal conflict is an intractable contradiction that arises between people and is caused by the incompatibility of their views, interests, goals and needs. (Morozov A.V., 2000)
There are other approaches to determining the essence of interpersonal conflict:
1. interpersonal conflict represents a situation of confrontation between the participants, perceived and experienced by them (or at least one of them) as significant psychological problem, requiring its resolution and causing the activity of the parties, aimed at overcoming the contradiction that has arisen and resolving the situation in the interests of both or one of the parties (Grishina N.V., 2000)
2. interpersonal conflict - this is an intractable situation that can arise due to the existing disharmony of interpersonal relations of people in a society or group, as well as as a result of an imbalance between the structures existing in them (Krysko V.G., 2003)
3. interpersonal conflict - this is a temporary emotional change in a person's mood in connection with the receipt of new data that significantly changes the old idea of \u200b\u200bthe object or process of interest (Zhuravlev P.V., 2000)
4. interpersonal conflict - this is a struggle for values and claims for a certain status, power, resources, in which the goals are neutralization, damage or destruction of an opponent (Kibanov A.Ya., 1998).
5. interpersonal conflict is a clash of two or more strong motives that cannot be satisfied at the same time. The weakening of one motivating stimulus leads to the strengthening of another and a new assessment of the situation is required (Gubsky E.F., 2002).
6. Interpersonal conflict - this is a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible with each other tendencies in the mind of a single individual, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships, associated with negative emotional experiences (Petrovsky A.V., 1985).
Let us generalize all the variety of formulations of interpersonal conflict by highlighting its features:
1. Conflicts between people do not arise due to the manifestation of objective circumstances, but as a result of their incorrect subjective perception and assessment by individuals;
2. In interpersonal conflicts, there is a direct confrontation between people, i.e. rivals usually face each other;
3. In interpersonal causes, the whole variety of known psychological causes (general, particular, objective, subjective, etc.) is manifested;
4. In the course of interpersonal conflicts, there is a quick test of characters, temperaments, manifestations of abilities, will, intellect, emotional sphere and other individual psychological characteristics;
5. Interpersonal conflicts are characterized by high emotional intensity and coverage of all aspects of interpersonal relations between conflicting subjects;
6. Interpersonal conflicts affect the interests of not only the conflicting parties, but also those who are directly connected with them by official or personal relations.
The conducted studies gave grounds for the assertion that in 85% of conflicts the mood of the right opponent noticeably worsens. The wrong opponent's mood deteriorated in 70% of conflicts. The conflict continues to have a negative impact on the mood of the participants even after its resolution in 50% of cases.
Classification of interpersonal conflicts does not differ significantly from the classification of intrapersonal conflicts. There are the following forms of interpersonal conflicts:
– motivational (conflict of interest);
- moral;
– cognitive (value);
– unfulfilled desire;
– role-playing (hidden and open);
- adaptive;
– inadequate self-esteem.
This classification scheme for interpersonal conflicts can be supplemented by two classification groups, namely:
1. According to the nature of the causes
1.1. caused by labor professional relations;
1.2. caused by psychological features human relationships (likes, dislikes, etc.);
1.3. caused by individual psychological characteristics participants (emotionality, aggressiveness, sociability, etc.).
2. By value for participants interpersonal conflicts can be:
2.1. Constructive , i.e. bringing relations (after conflict resolution) to a higher level of development, leading to mutual understanding;
2.2. destructive, or leading to negative, destructive consequences.
It is of particular interest to study the causes and spheres of manifestation of conflicts.
2. Causes and spheres manifestations of interpersonal conflicts
There are three main positions in studying the causes of interpersonal conflicts. Let's consider them in more detail:
1. Psychoanalytic position (C. Horney) proceeds from the fact that the key to understanding human behavior is the problems once experienced by him in childhood;
2. Need-personal position (K. Levin) is based on understanding the causes of interpersonal conflicts, as contradictions between a person's own needs and an external objective coercive force;
3. Contextual position (M. Deutsch) suggests that the causes of interpersonal conflicts should be explored in the context of common system interactions. In accordance with this position, competitive and cooperative relations between people are distinguished, each of which can be equal and unequal, formal and informal, task-oriented or distribution of power.
Consider the main causes of interpersonal conflicts:
1) Availability contradictions between interests, values, goals, motives, roles of individual individuals;
2) Presence confrontation between different personalities, caused by the difference in social status, the level of claims, etc.;
3) Appearance and stable dominance of negative emotions and feelings as background characteristics of interaction and communication between people;
4) Mismatch reasoning, i.e. disagreement with the order (sequence) of the opponent's conclusions, which in certain situations leads to a feeling of one's own psychological loss;
5) Features perception, during which a significant part of the information is lost. According to research, it has been established that if we take what is conceived as 100%, then what is expressed contains 70% of the primary information. What is heard is 80% of what was said, and in total it is 56% of the original information. 70% of what is heard is understood (39% of primary information). 60% of what is understood is remembered (24% of the initial level). When retelling the memorized, about 30% of the information is lost. As a result of perception, only 16% of the primary information remains, which explains the large number of errors and the possibility of conflicts;
6) Subjective predisposition to conflicts, which manifests itself in a combination of the following psychological qualities: inadequate self-esteem, desire for dominance, conservatism of thinking, excessive straightforwardness, criticism, anxiety, aggressiveness, stubbornness, irritability, resentment.
The main areas of manifestation interpersonal conflicts are the collective (organization), society and family, i.e. social communities in which most of the human activity takes place.
Let's make an attempt to correlate the main causes of interpersonal conflicts with the areas of their manifestation.
1. Conflicts in the team (organization) develop in the following way: supervisor-subordinate», « equal to equal», « official», « unofficial". The causes of these conflicts can be divided into two groups:
1.1. Organizational and technical (allocation of resources, differences in goals, poor communication, interdependence of tasks, differences in methods);
1.2. Psychological (individual, status, role features, differences in positions, attitudes, views, judgments).
2. Conflicts in society develop according to the citizen-society" and " citizen-citizen". Their main reason is the low psychological and pedagogical culture of their participants.
3. Family conflicts represented by diagrams husband-husband», « parents-children" and " spouses-relatives". Among their reasons are the following:
3.1. Deviant behavior one of the participants;
3.2. material problems ;
3.3. Activity restriction (freedom, action);
3.4. Individual psychological characteristics ;
3.5. Sexual disharmony .
Let's move on to studying the technology of managing interpersonal conflicts
3.
In the process of managing interpersonal conflicts, it is important to take into account the factors of their development.
· Conflict factors - these are the driving forces or stimuli of conflict interaction, determining its nature and individual features.
According to the American conflictologist W. Lincoln, five factors of interpersonal conflicts can be distinguished:
1. Information factors reduced to the unacceptability of information for one of the parties to the conflict. They usually manifest themselves in the form of incomplete and inaccurate information, rumors, disinformation, unreliable sources, extraneous factors;
2. Behavioral factors which are negative manifestations in the behavior of one or both participants in the conflict (rudeness, tactlessness, aggressiveness). They manifest themselves in the form of striving for superiority, selfishness, breaking promises;
3. Relationship Factors expressed in dissatisfaction with the interaction between the parties to the conflict. They manifest themselves in the form of incompatibility of values, differences in educational level, mistrust, lack of authority, unbalanced relations;
4. Value Factors manifest themselves in opposition to the principles of behavior of the conflicting parties. They act in the form of prejudices, adherence to traditions, ideas about ethical standards(about good and evil, justice and injustice);
5. Structural factors are relatively stable objective circumstances that are difficult to change. This is the attitude to power, legal norms, property rights, management system, norms of behavior.
Managing interpersonal conflicts can be considered in external and internal aspect. The external aspect represents the impact within a particular conflict. The internal aspect represents the main strategies of behavior in conflict. Let's consider them in more detail.
1. Managing interpersonal conflicts represents an impact on the sphere of conflict relations, leading to its constructive resolution. It includes four stages:
1.1. Forecasting the conflict consists in studying the individual psychological characteristics of partners, analyzing the early symptoms of a conflict at the stage of a conflict situation (restriction of relationships, critical statements, etc.);
1.2. A warningconflict is based on an in-depth analysis of the causes and factors of the brewing conflict, after which measures are taken to neutralize them. Distinguish between pedagogical measures (conversations, clarifications, persuasion, suggestion) and organizational measures (temporary isolation of participants, changing the conditions of communication);
1.3. Regulationconflict is based on the recognition by the conflicting parties of the reality of the conflict, after which conflict management technologies are applied simultaneously with limiting the number of participants;
1.4. Permissionconflict is made on the basis of choosing one of the known methods.
2. Internal aspect involves the use of technologies of rational behavior in conflict. It is based on the choice of strategy and tactics of behavior developed by American psychologists K. Thomas and R. Kilman. There are two main strategies for dealing with conflict:
2.1. Partnership strategy focuses on taking into account the interests and needs of the partner, for which points of contact of views and opinions are used;
2.2. Pressure strategy characterized by the realization of their own interests and goals, for which they use the imposition of one's opinion, selfishness.
Interpersonal Ways of Conflict Resolution associated with a common source of any conflict - a mismatch of interests of two or more parties. These include the following:
1) Way of competition is to resolve the conflict actively, by making their own volitional decisions. This method consists in the fact that one side seeks to satisfy its own interests to the detriment of the interests of others, forcing them to make their own decision. This method is justified if the competing party has a certain power and authority, if the conflict must be quickly resolved. However, the method is not applicable in case of complex conflicts;
2) Evasion method is realized when one of the parties withdraws from cooperation or even from defending its interests. This method is effective if the conflict is not deep, if it is known in advance that one of the parties is wrong, if a delay in solving the problem is necessary;
3) Adaptation method means that the parties to the conflict interact without trying to defend their own interests. It is advisable to choose this method if the significance of the conflict is not the same for its parties;
4) Way of cooperation manifests itself in the fact that the parties actively interact and at the same time defend their interests. This method is the longest in time, it is effective if the parties have different hidden needs, and the solution of the problem is equally important for both.
5) way to compromise lies in the fact that one of the parties gives in a little to the other and is set to resolve differences through mutual concessions. This method is effective if the situation is important for both, and the parties to the conflict have the same power.
A graphical model for choosing a conflict resolution method is shown in Figure 1.
Rice. oneInterpersonal ways of conflict resolution.
As a result of studying this topic, we can formulate the following findings:
· There are various approaches to describing interpersonal conflicts, but most researchers agree that they have objective causes, subjective manifestations, diverse manifestations, specific factors, high emotional intensity;
· Interpersonal conflicts manifest themselves in all spheres of life (team, society, family) and are manageable, which comes down to studying the causes and factors, influencing the sphere of conflict relationships, choosing a strategy and way of behavior.
Task 7
Analyze your attitude to the main ways to resolve interpersonal conflicts. Reflect the results of the analysis in the table. Use your own rating system.
| Conflict resolution method | Relation to the method |
|||
| I use often | I prefer | I use less often | I feel the least comfortable |
|
| COMPETITION | ||||
| EVASION | ||||
| COOPERATION | ||||
| COMPROMISE | ||||
| DEVICE | ||||
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS
BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Department of Social Communication
Interpersonal conflicts
2nd year student of the department of information and communication
Grishkevich I. A.
Supervisor:
Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Social Communication Mazanik M. N.
Minsk, 2013
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 1: MAIN PARAMETERS AND NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflict
3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflict
CHAPTER 2: INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS IN COMMUNICATION AND METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION
3 Interpersonal Conflict Resolution
CONCLUSION
LIST OF SOURCES USED
INTRODUCTION
In the usual, everyday sense, a person interprets conflict as something negative, associated with irrationality with hostility, fear, threats. Some experiences are so intense that a defensive reaction is fixed in people, and they begin to believe that the conflict is an extremely undesirable phenomenon, it should be avoided, and if it occurs, it requires immediate resolution. They cannot be judged for this, because they are partly right: conflicts can be very destructive, take a lot of time and effort. However, no matter how hard we try, conflicts in one form or another always accompany our lives, from family to geopolitical, and everyone can see this from their own experience. Consequently, since we cannot avoid them, we must learn to reduce their number and intensity, learn to manage them. However, all this requires time, which we do not have, since in our time communication is undergoing serious changes, all social processes are accelerating and becoming more complicated, and our life is filled with situations in which numerous contradictions need to be resolved.
Any conflict (interethnic, interstate, organizational, etc.) is reduced to interpersonal. Interpersonal conflicts cover almost all spheres of human relations. They have always been present in a person's life, from the very beginning of his social life and, apparently, to the end. The very problem of interpersonal conflicts has been given much attention, since, as mentioned above, conflicts have always existed at all times, and the most basic type of conflict was interpersonal.
Today, psychology considers conflict in a positive way, as the development of an organization and personality, treats conflict as an engine of progress. It teaches us to look not at the negative, but at the positive sides of conflicts, which the vast majority of us have not done before. If we are not afraid of conflicts, but analyze them every time, then we will find that we could easily avoid many mistakes by simply noticing them in time and taking appropriate measures.
The problem of conflict resolution is now becoming more relevant not only in terms of improving the human condition, but also for practical purposes, mainly in economics and politics, where business relations prevail.
Thus, mastering the skills of successful communication in conflict situations is not only of theoretical importance, but will also help in everyday life and in the career of each person.
Object of work: interpersonal conflict.
Subject of work: conflict interaction in the course of communication and ways to resolve it
Purpose: to study interpersonal conflict as a communication phenomenon.
Describe interpersonal conflict
Identify the causes and functions of interpersonal conflict
Consider the dynamics of interpersonal conflict
Consider communication models in relation to interpersonal conflict
Determine strategies for people's behavior
Identify methods for resolving interpersonal conflicts
LITERATURE REVIEW
Antsupov, A.Ya. Shipilov, A. Conflictology: Textbook for universities / A. Antsupov, A. Shipilov. - Unity: Moscow, 2000. - 507 p.
Contains a generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about conflicts, which are obtained in various fields Russian science. The basics of conflictology are outlined, a conceptual scheme for describing conflicts is given. The principles, methods and methods of settlement, prevention and study of conflicts are considered.
Completely and systematized information about conflicts is presented in a language understandable to the student. Contains the necessary information that serves as the basis for conducting research or self-study subject.
The anthology contains a large amount of useful systematized and structured information aimed at practical application. The ways of resolving conflicts are considered and a list is given useful tips.
CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
1 The concept and characteristics of interpersonal conflict
The word "conflict" came to modern languages from Latin (conflictus - clash), it is international and does not need translation.
In order to define interpersonal conflict, it is necessary to define what “conflict” is. The definition of this concept was given by very many authoritative sociologists and psychologists, considering this phenomenon from many angles, and the variety of interpretations makes it problematic to single out any particular one. However, most authors agree that there is a contradiction in the conflict, which takes the form of a disagreement, in which two or more subjects most often take part.
After analyzing the definitions of many authoritative authors, one can try to give general definition conflict. So, a conflict is a situation in which two subjects clash on the basis of contradictions, each of which seeks to master the object of disagreement or defend its own point of view, which is not only incompatible with the opponent’s point of view, but often opposite to it.
Because of its scope and diversity, conflict has many different types. Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict. It can be defined as a situation of confrontation between specific participants face to face, perceived and experienced by them (or at least one of them) as a significant psychological problem that requires its resolution and causes activity of the parties aimed at overcoming the contradiction that has arisen and resolving the situation in the interests of both. or one of the parties.
A large number of researchers agree on the following signs of interpersonal conflict:
Bipolarity - there are two opposite positions in the conflict.
Competition - the desire to fill the need or the destruction of the opponent.
The presence of the subjects of the conflict.
Activity aimed at overcoming the contradiction.
Just as personality conflicts differ in terms of which problems are affected by the contradiction that has arisen, Krylov identifies the basic characters of interpersonal conflicts:
value conflicts. Situations in which there is a disagreement based on incompatible ideas that are of particular individual importance to the subjects. Each person has a value system that is of great importance to him and reflects what is the meaning for the subject.
Conflicts of interest. Situations in which the goals, motives and plans of the participants are incompatible or contradict each other.
Conflicts as a result of violation of norms or rules of interaction. Norms and rules regulate the order of interaction; without them, it turns out to be impossible.
A factor is also the cause of the conflict, that is, an event that brings hidden difficulties into an open environment, leading to confrontation.
The last factor he singles out is such a parameter as the severity of the conflict. In any conflict there is a problem, but the degree of its significance in different situations and for different subjects will also be different. The more significant the problems that are present in the conflict, the less a person is inclined to concessions and compromises.
According to A.V. Dmitriev, there are the following types of interpersonal conflict:
Sensual-affective. The most common type of interpersonal conflict. It begins with a sharp and unpleasant question that was addressed by one of the parties to the other. The party to whom the question was asked has negative feelings for the other party and tries to ignore it and keep communication to a minimum. First main feature is the gradual development of the conflict situation, the accumulation of irritation, which does not lead to the resolution of the conflict situation. The second feature is the divergent positions of the parties, i.e. the first party tries to get answers to questions, does not receive and gets annoyed, and the second tries to ignore and move away from the first, which leads to a shaken morale of the latter, followed by a conflict situation.
Uncompromising. It begins with mutual remarks, reproaches, which continue to be used as the main arguments until the moment when one of the parties wins, while neither of them intends to make concessions. A very destructive type.
Emotionally unrestrained. It begins with the aggressiveness of one of the subjects, while the other subject interprets the behavior of the aggressor as wrong and maintains the conflict. The conflict itself is characterized by the participants' lack of desire to understand each other and understand the situation, each other's dissatisfaction, a sharp form of communication, and destructiveness. Such a conflict is of a protracted nature.
Politely touchy. Main characteristic this type of politeness. The most peaceful type. The conflict begins with a polite expression of disagreement of one of the partners with the opinion of the other, while both feel awkward and some guilt for participating in the conflict. Both are immediately ready for reconciliation.
Aggressive. Both participants are tuned to destructive behavior and exit from the situation without compromise due to the suppression of reason by emotions. The most dangerous type. The form of interaction is a verbal skirmish, the extreme form is a fight.
Each of the types of conflicts has its own reasons, which require a special approach. These types differ in the aspects of interpersonal relationships or interactions that have been affected. But the same reasons can give rise to different conflicts. Consequently, the nature of conflicts is determined by the nature of the problems between the participants, and the cause of the problems is determined by the external environment and circumstances.
2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflicts
To resolve a conflict, first of all, you need to find out its causes. If this is not done, conflicts can neither be resolved nor, moreover, prevented.
Any specific causes of interpersonal conflicts are very different. It is difficult to single out any one classification, since each author offers his own.
The cause of conflicts are conflictogens - words or actions that can contribute to the emergence of conflict. keyword here is “may”, since not all conflictogens lead to conflict, because we get used to some of them (rudeness, impoliteness) and react differently.
A conflictogen has one pattern that makes it so dangerous, and this property is escalation. People tend to pay less attention to what they say and more to what they are told, which is a kind of catalyst for the development of the conflict. The subject receives the conflict generator x, which was sent to him by another participant, but he does not accept it the way it was sent, but reacts more strongly, multiplying this conflict generator, getting, say, 1.5x. The subject tries to respond to the conflict generator with a large conflict generator, and it turns out that the one who sent the first conflict generator receives a conflict generator in the next turn, suppose 2x, and then starts chain reaction. This can be explained by the fact that the subject, who has received a conflictogen in his address, wants to compensate for the psychological damage inflicted on him, and responds with aggression to aggression in order to get rid of psychological discomfort, while aggression, in order not to miscalculate, comes with a “margin”.
In modern conflictology, there are several groups of causes of conflicts:
Objective.
They are divided according to social spheres into economic, social, political, ideological. These factors cannot be drastically affected by the subject.
Socio-psychological.
Intersection of interests, values, distortion of information, inconsistency with role expectations, psychological incompatibility and natural aspirations for power and wealth.
Organizational and managerial.
Associated with structural features in organizations, functions within them, correspondence between personality and position, and situations in management.
Personal (subjective).
Subjective critical assessments, conflict resistance, attitude towards constructive resolution.
According to the American conflictologist W. Lincoln, there are five types of causative factors of conflicts:
informational factors.
For one of the parties, the information is not acceptable, it is rejected (incompleteness, rumors, relevance, veracity, interpretation, extraneous factors).
behavioral factors.
Characteristics of behavior that are rejected by one of the parties (the desire for dominance, aggression and selfishness, a threat to security, undermining self-esteem, unpredictability, discomfort).
relationship factors.
Dissatisfaction with the interaction between subjects (balance of power, importance of relationships, personal compatibility, difference in educational level, history and duration of relationships).
value factors.
The principles of behavior expected by participants (own systems of beliefs and behaviors, group traditions and values, modes of action and methods of institutions, political, religious, regional and cultural values, belief systems and their corresponding expectations).
Structural factors.
Circumstances that are characterized by stability, objectivity and immutability (governance system, political currents, power, social norms, property rights, standards of behavior, traditions, religions, geographical position, frequency of contacts with society).
This classification allows not only to identify the sources of conflicts, but also to help resolve them, especially when there is a lack of information.
A. Karmin has a classification that is good because it can identify the sources of conflict and the area in which they arise:
Limited resources.
The most common objective cause of conflicts. People are selfish by nature, therefore they believe that it is they who need and have the right to possess certain resources.
Differences in purpose.
Differences in ideas, values, worldview.
Differences in behavior and experience.
Personal characteristics of opponents.
Poor communications.
Various aspects of interdependence.
Among the functions of conflicts, it is customary to single out positive and negative ones.
Positive:
Eliminate contradiction.
Assessment of individual psychological characteristics of people.
Release of psychological stress.
Development of personality and interpersonal relationships.
Improving the quality of individual activities.
Self-assertion.
Negative:
Negative impact on the psyche.
Possible injuries to opponents.
Violation of interpersonal relationships.
Formation of a negative image of the opponent.
Negative reflection on the activities of the individual.
Consolidation in the experience of solving problems by violent means.
Also, in relation to the participants in the conflict, constructive and destructive functions are distinguished.
Structural:
Cognitive (conflict as a symptom of contradictions in relationships).
Function of development (improvement of the participants and the communication process).
Instrumental (conflict as a tool for resolving contradictions).
Perestroika (growth of mutual understanding and removal of factors that exacerbate interpersonal communication).
Destructive:
Destruction of joint activity.
Deterioration of relations between opponents.
negative emotional condition opponents.
Decreased effectiveness of future interaction.
For the most part, people feel only the negative and destructive side of conflicts, since it does not require any knowledge in the field of conflictology or any other efforts on the part of the participants in the conflict, that is, this is an affective state. The positive aspects influence passively and most often imperceptibly for us, give experience in resolving and some stability. They also require participants to have a certain level of preparedness in order to act more effectively.
3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflicts
Conflict is one of the types of the process of interaction between people, and, like every process, it has a certain structure.
The structure is a set of stable connections of the conflict, which ensure its integrity, equality to itself, difference from other phenomena of social life, without which it cannot exist as a dynamically interconnected integral system and process.
Any interpersonal conflict situation has an objective content and subjective meaning, these are two sides of the same coin. Objective elements include participants (subjects), subject, object, conditions. The subjective elements include conflict behavior, the motives of the parties and information models of the conflict situation. More about each of them:
Participants (subjects) - direct parties, people participating in the confrontation. The contradiction of their interests lies at the heart of the conflict. They can act as both private and official or legal entities. Based on the degree of participation in the conflict, the main participants, others and support groups are distinguished.
The main participants in the conflict are subjects who take active actions against each other, whether it be defense or attack.
Support groups. Almost always behind the opponents there are forces that at any moment can influence the conflict by passive or active actions. These are individuals or groups.
Other participants are those who have an episodic impact on the conflict.
The subject is the contradiction that was the reason for which the subjects come into conflict. The contradiction reflects the clash of interests and goals of the parties, and the problem will remain the same until it is resolved. Each side seeks to resolve the contradiction in its favor.
An object is a kind of scarce resource that the parties to the conflict seek to obtain. The object is material, social and spiritual value. The object itself can be divisible and indivisible, and depending on how the subject regards it, the course of the conflict depends.
Conditions (micro- and macroenvironment) - factors, features environment that determine the emergence, course of development and characteristics of the conflict.
Microenvironment - the closest environment of the subject.
Macroenvironment - social groups.
Motives - what drives a person, determines the direction associated with the satisfaction of needs. The parties in most cases hide their motives, so it is rather problematic to reveal them during the conflict.
Conflict behavior is the activity of the subject, which is aimed at the subject of the conflict and saves the current contradiction. This behavior has its own tactics, strategies and principles. The main principles are the concentration and coordination of forces, saving resources and "strike" on the vulnerable parts of the enemy.
Information models are the subjective representation of each of the participants in the conflict of all the above elements.
As for the dynamics, the stages in interpersonal conflict can be distinguished:
pre-conflict situation.
This is the period that precedes the conflict, it can also be prosperous, but is more often characterized by tension in relations. Here comes the objective problem situation and awareness by the participants that the situation is a conflict.
The event that influenced the creation of the conflict. It can also act as a minor incident, which was the "last straw".
Development.
A series of conflict actions of the parties after the start and before the climax of the conflict, or, if the participants are competent enough, before seeking a solution to the conflict.
There are 2 phases: constructive and destructive.
The constructive phase of the conflict is characterized by the fact that the opponent of the goal, the object of the conflict, the means to achieve the goal, the correct assessment of one’s state, “weight”, capabilities are realized, and the ability to adequately assess oneself and the opponent is determined. The only thing that may not satisfy opponents is, firstly, the style of conducting a conversation (high tone, self-orientation, prevalence of personal interests, weak feedback, ignoring), and secondly, non-verbal characteristics of behavior (avoidance of conversations, stopping or deterioration of joint activities, etc.).
The destructive phase of the conflict (which refers only to the non-realistic, i.e. when the conflict is pointless) is characterized by the fact that it begins when the dissatisfaction of the opponents with each other, the way of solving problems is out of control and, therefore, the situation becomes unmanageable. In turn, this phase is divided into 2 stages:
Psychological. The desire to overestimate one's own capabilities and underestimate the opponent's capabilities.
Increasing activity. Mutual insults, lowering perception, etc.
Climax.
It is characterized by the fact that it occurs when the degree of tension of the conflict reaches its peak and causes significant harm to the participants. After that, the participants realize that they need to look for a way out.
Completion.
Transition from conflict to search for a solution to the problem. Here we can distinguish such concepts as the price of the conflict and the price of the exit from the conflict.
The price of conflict is the sum of three indicators:
Energy consumption - how much effort, time and resources were spent on the conflict.
Damage - the severity of the negative consequences that the opponent created.
Losses - deterioration of the situation as a result of conflict actions of both parties.
The price of getting out of the conflict is the difference between the minuses of getting out of the conflict and the pluses. If the value exceeds zero, then the prospect of getting out of the conflict and gaining benefits become obvious to the conflicting parties.
CHAPTER 2
1 Models of interpersonal communication
Interpersonal conflicts are part of communication in society, they are inseparable from each other, they are closely intertwined. It is impossible to resolve a conflict without knowing the principles of communication between people.
To date, there are many models of communication in society - Lasswell, Shannon-Weaver, Newcomb, Jacobson, Lotman, Eco and others. Each of them is unique in its own way, offers something new, and also complements the previous ones, but they are all similar.
To analyze communication in society, you can take the model of Umberto Eco, as it is well-known and one of the latest.
So, what does the Eco model include?
Source.
Sender.
Receiver.
Message.
Some corrections can be made to this model: the source and the signal are combined in the sender (the brain is the source, the articulatory apparatus is the signal), the receiver (sense organs) and the addressee are combined in the same way. As a result, we get the following model:
Sender.
Message.
The message here is a form that the addressee has endowed with meaning based on some code.
A channel is a way of transmitting a message, but there is a risk that the message will distort its meaning under the influence of noise. This risk can be reduced by complicating the coding system or by duplicating information, making it redundant.
In this model, the subjects of the conflict situation are the sender and the addressee. As we can see, almost every element, with the exception of the code and, in part, the channel, can cause a conflict situation to develop.
The sender and the recipient may have some incompatible characteristics, which may lead to a conflict.
The way a message is conveyed can very often vary and take many forms, but it also affects the conflict situation.
Noise here is a destructive element that can destroy communication or change it so much that the meaning of the message can be accepted by the addressee exactly the opposite.
As for the code, the sender encodes the message in advance so that it is understandable to the addressee, or, conversely, not understandable. There is an element of manipulation that can be seen so often in interpersonal conflicts.
And finally, the message. The message is a means of information transfer, communication between subjects. It depends on its content whether the conflict will be resolved, created or preventively stopped.
After the communicative act, the sender and the addressee change places, and the process is repeated anew.
This model is good because it can be applied to any conflict situation and understand where the conflict began.
2 Behavior of people in interpersonal conflicts
Every interpersonal conflict has both a beginning and an end, both a beginning and a resolution. However, there are a great many ways to achieve conflict resolution, and these ways depend on the parameters that people have, namely temperament, character and level of personal development.
A person receives a temperament at birth, it is an inseparable part not only of our psyche, but also of the body, since it is conditioned by the central nervous system. Temperament was considered and classified by such personalities as Hippocrates and I.P. Pavlov, who made the greatest contribution.
There are 4 types of temperament:
Sanguine.
Strong, balanced, mobile.
Most best type temperament for conflict resolution.
Phlegmatic person.
Strong, balanced, inert.
The second best type, but he is not characterized by initiative.
Strong, unbalanced, mobile.
This type can be the most destructive in conflicts, as it relies not on calculation, but on the violent emotional reaction.
Melancholic.
Weak, unbalanced, inert.
In this case, the subject will be passive in the conflict, he can avoid it or adapt.
Temperament has a very strong influence on a person's behavior in interpersonal conflicts, and almost every type has its pros and cons that can be managed.
As for character traits, their typology was developed by Jung, and 4 pairs of opposite types are distinguished in it:
Introvert - Extrovert.
Intuitives - Sensory.
Feeling - Thinking.
Perceiving - Decisive.
Each character type has 4 preferences, one on each row. In accordance with this typology, there are 16 types of character in total. This dualism is due to the fact that the human brain consists of two hemispheres - left and right, which are formed by the age of seven and no longer change. The left hemisphere - rational and logical activity, the right - subconscious activity and emotions. It also explains why some of us are left-handed and others are right-handed.
The problem of conflicts is connected with the inconsistency of types of characters, with opposite sets of characteristics, which hinders the solution of a joint task.
You can try to identify five types of conflict personalities:
Demonstrative.
Good adaptability to situations, likes to be the center of attention, avoids effort, irrational. Feels comfortable in conflicts.
Rigid.
Critical to others, but not to himself, has an overestimated self-esteem, touchy, straightforward. In conflicts, it is characterized by low adaptability, which interferes with behavior in conflict.
Ungovernable.
Impulsive, aggressive, unpredictable, has high self-esteem, lack of self-control. Poorly controls the situation in the conflict and does not accompanies cooperation.
Ultra-precise.
Perfectionist, worries about failures, demanding of everyone, including himself, touchy, outwardly restrained and poor. Poorly oriented in a conflict situation.
Conflict-free.
Suggestible, weak-willed, dependent on the opinions of others, contradicts himself. In conflict, he most often compromises or tries to avoid it.
Purposefully conflict.
Manipulative, active, planned. In conflict, he behaves confidently, evaluates positions and achieves the goal with the help of conflict.
Styles (strategies) of behavior in conflict - the orientation of a person (group) in relation to the conflict, installation on certain forms of behavior.
There are 5 styles:
Cooperation.
Joint actions to solve a problem that involve a different view of the problem. Satisfaction with the decision by both parties.
Compromise.
Concessions on something important on each side to the extent that both are satisfied with the decision.
Rivalry.
Persistent and uncompromising imposition of a solution, dictation of one's own interests and use of all means to win.
Adaptation.
The readiness of the subject to give in in order to maintain relations, lowering aspirations and, as a result, making imposed decisions.
avoidance.
An attempt to get away from the conflict, being in the stage of conflict in the absence of active actions to resolve it.
These styles (strategies) are implemented through the following tactics:
Capturing and holding the object of the conflict. Condition: the object must be material.
Physical abuse. Destruction of property, blocking activities and causing bodily harm.
Psychological abuse. Insult, deceit, slander, discrimination, etc.
Pressure. Demands, threats, orders, blackmail.
demonstrative actions. Attracting attention to oneself, namely public statements, suicide attempts, etc.
Validation. Denial of execution, increase in workload, imposition of a ban.
Coalitions. The goal is to increase the rank in the conflict, i.e. creation of unions, groups, appeal to the media and authorities.
Fixing your position. The most used tactic. Application of logic, facts, criticism, requests and persuasion.
Friendliness. Correct handling, demonstration of readiness to solve a problem, encouragement, apology, etc.
These styles can be both spontaneous and purposefully used. As a rule, combinations of strategies are used in the conflict, sometimes one of them dominates, however, during the conflict, strategies can change.
3 Conflict resolution
Without establishing the causes and motives of the participants, it is impossible to resolve the conflict. Conflict resolution also requires conflict management. Conflict management is a targeted impact to eliminate the causes that caused the conflict, influence on the behavior of the participants in the conflict in order to correct it and maintain a certain acceptable level of conflict.
The management process depends on a number of factors, the main of which are given below:
Adequacy of perception (an objective and accurate assessment of one's own actions and the actions of an opponent).
Willingness to discuss problems with an opponent openly.
Creating a friendly atmosphere for cooperation.
Determination of the basis of the conflict.
There are also other factors, but they are weakly influenced, such as stereotypes, motives and needs, prejudices, etc.
It is worth noting that conflict avoidance is not a solution, but only a delay and respite, so the symptoms that correspond to conflict avoidance do not contribute to solving the problem.
It is also worth avoiding a prolonged escalation phase, as here the conflict can take on rampant proportions, and it becomes increasingly difficult to control such a situation.
However, before moving on to resolving a conflict situation, it is worth considering a number of conditions that are important in the interaction of the parties.
Voluntary actions on both sides.
You cannot force a person to perform the actions that we need, that is, the opponent must be convinced using constructive arguments.
"Mirror reflection".
Each action of the subject will affect the attitude towards him and the actions of the opponent.
It depends on the representative of which social group the subject communicates with, and what personality the opponent has.
These 3 aspects are prerequisites for resolving a conflict situation.
There is a list of conflict-free communication rules that can help resolve interpersonal conflict or at least reduce its intensity:
Do not use conflictogens.
Do not respond with a conflictogen to a conflictogen.
Showing empathy for the opponent.
The use of benevolent messages.
To resolve the conflict, the subject also needs to be aware of a number of certain rules that make the conflict resolution procedure easier. They are the following:
The conflict situation is all that needs to be eliminated.
The conflict situation arises before the conflict.
The wording helps to identify the causes.
Ask yourself the question "Why" until you know the real reason.
Formulate the conflict situation in your own words without using words that describe the conflict.
Keep the wording to a minimum.
Successful conflict resolution requires:
Adopt a mindset to resolve the conflict in a way that is beneficial to both parties.
Regulation of one's behavior towards the opponent in a rational way.
Try to find common ground between positions.
Preparation and conduct of negotiations, functionally - with an intermediary.
There are 2 negotiation models:
mutual benefits.
When solutions are found that satisfy both parties.
The meaning of this model is that at the outcome of the conflict it is not at all necessary that one side wins at the expense of the other, but that there is a possibility of mutual gain. The main thing here is interests, not positions.
Concessions and rapprochement or bargaining of the parties.
The essence of the model is that during a conflict with a conflict of interests, the participants make mutual concessions until they find a common ground.
In our time, the degree and role of such a person as a mediator (intermediary) has significantly increased. However, despite the obvious positive attributes of the presence of a mediator, there are also negative ones:
The intervention of the mediator violates the stability within the relations of the parties to the conflict.
The presence and actions of the mediator can lead to the end of the conflict, but this will only be an external influence, while internal motivation may remain unaffected, which in the future may affect the relationship between the subjects.
The potential danger that the actions of the mediator may lead to the development and deterioration of the conflict.
To avoid such problems, the parties to the conflict need to trust the mediator, and the chances of success when both parties have chosen a mediator are much higher than when only one party has chosen him.
The mediator has the following tactics:
Intervention, which is aimed at establishing and maintaining contact with the subjects of the conflict, gaining their trust.
Contextual intervention, which is used to establish a favorable negotiating climate, prevent complications (also emotional), etc.
Interference related to the decision-making process or the consideration of options.
There are 3 mediation strategies:
Logical (analysis, discussion, etc.).
Aggressive (threats, coercion, etc.).
Paternalistic (gives advice individually to each participant in the conflict, discusses, approves and encourages).
The task of the mediator is difficult because he has to deal with two sides of the conflict, each of which is sure that it is she who has an objective vision of the situation.
The most a big problem in constructive work with the conflict - the unwillingness of the parties to resolve the conflict. The parties will not seek to resolve the conflict, since each of them is comfortable on their own side, and the search for a way out requires leaving this side and starting to search for a joint solution with the opponent.
interpersonal conflict behavior communication
CONCLUSION
Interpersonal conflicts have always been and always will be. They will meet every day several times, some familiar, some new. We cannot prevent the emergence of conflicts, since they are an important and integral part of society and human essence. All that can be done is to facilitate the flow of conflicts, change your attitude towards them, learn how to manage them, and, if desired, use them to achieve your goal.
Interpersonal conflicts will not lose their relevance, just as the ways to resolve them will not lose their relevance, since throughout history, and especially in our time with the development of globalization and the advent of the Internet, communication has constantly evolved and changed, new forms of interaction have changed and added, new forms of interaction have been created. spheres and institutions, in each of which the conflict proceeded differently, changing with the person.
To get out of a conflict situation, it is not at all necessary that both parties to the conflict have certain conflict management skills, it is enough if at least one subject owns them, and then the chances that the situation will be resolved in a rational way with the least losses will increase many times over.
Most often, it is not conflicts that have a destructive effect on people, but how we emotionally experience during them. These are threats, fear, hostility, in a word, any acute emotional experience. These effects, unfortunately, are neither limited nor short-lived. They can spread to other areas of human activity and pursue him for long period life, as well as to transfer these fears and dangers to other people or to raise their children in this atmosphere.
Interpersonal conflicts are closely related to other types of conflicts. Suppose they can arise as a result of an intrapersonal conflict, when a person who cannot find answers to his questions begins to involve other people in his problems, which can lead to conflict. Also, interpersonal conflicts are included in intra-group and inter-group conflicts, since the units of groups are subjects, and in case of interpersonal conflict within a group, the conflict passes into the status of a group conflict, because there are parties to the conflict, certain points of view that can be shared by several people. Thus, interpersonal, intrapersonal and group conflicts create a kind of closed system, the elements of which determine each other.
In psychology, the dual nature of the conflict is recognized. It is recognized that it helps to prevent the ossification of the system of relations and is an incentive for change, for the progress of man and society as a whole. Conflicts will bring real benefits when we learn how to rationally manage them.
LIST OF USED SOURCES
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