Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov Faculty of Psychology Department of General Psychology Utochkin Igor Sergeevich Diploma work Topic: "Resources of attention and processing strategies ..."

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Moscow State University

them. M.V. Lomonosov

Psychology faculty

Department of General Psychology

Utochkin Igor Sergeevich

Graduate work

Topic: "Focus Resources and Recycling Strategies

information in the problem of detecting a sound signal "

Supervisor:

associate professor, doctor of pedagogical sciences A.N. Gusev

Moscow, 2003

Introduction

Section 1. Development of psychological views on the problem of solving sensory tasks 3

1.1. Psychological research of sensory tasks in the framework of the resource approach 4 1.1.1. Sensory tasks and the concept of "mental effort". General logic of the resource approach 4 1.1.2. Activation and productivity of sensory problem solving. Yerkes-Dodson law.

Multidimensional activation theories 6 1.1.3. Interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain as a "neural model"

resource allocation. Lateral presentation method 12 1.2. Psychological foundations of the application of the strategic approach to the analysis of the solution of sensory problems 16 1.2.1. A functional approach to the problem of solving complex problems. Individual strategies as a system of means and as a functional organ of decision 16 1.2.2. Compensatory discrimination as a strategy for dealing with uncertainty. The idea of ​​subject integration of features 20 1.2.3. Functional asymmetry of the brain and strategies for solving sensory problems 24 Section 2. Theoretical and procedural substantiation of the experimental study of the detection of a sound signal 28 2.1. Statement and substantiation of the research problem 28 2.2. Object, subject, goals, objectives of the research 29 2.3. Method 29 2.4. Processing of the results 34 Section 3. Psychological analysis of the study results of the detection of a sound signal 38

3.1. Results 38

3.2. Discussion of results 44

3.3. Conclusions 53 Conclusion 54 References

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Introduction.

This work is interdisciplinary: it is carried out at the intersection of such areas as general psychology, psychophysics, personality psychology and neuropsychology.

The problem that is developed in it is fundamental: it is the problem of the possibility of considering sensation as a process of actively building a sensory image, or solving a sensory problem. Here the subject acts not as a passive "reflector" of an external stimulus, but as a doer who manifests itself in a sense of himself.

Consideration and an attempt to experimentally study the problem in this work is carried out in the context of the polemical interaction of two points of view:

the resource approach characteristic of modern object-oriented psychophysics and ideas about dynamic functional systems, developed in domestic psychology and subsequently applied to psychophysics of sensory tasks;

Sensory strategies considered in this paper are a special case of such systems. The research is carried out on the basis of modern models of functional asymmetry of the cerebral organization.

Section 1. Development of psychological views on the problem of solving sensory problems.

1.1. Psychological research of sensory tasks in the framework of the resource approach.

1.1.1. Sensory tasks and the concept of "mental effort". General logic of the resource approach.

Systematic developments in the field of studying sensory processes as problem solving began in the mid-40s of the 20th century at university research centers in the United Kingdom and the United States.

At this time, the first experimental developments appeared, which then formed the basis of the psychophysical theory of signal detection by D. Green, J. Swets and W. Tanner (Egan, 1983). The most important consequence of this theory was the idea of ​​the process of detecting / discriminating threshold signals as an active sensory process. Simultaneously with the theory of signal detection and in close connection with it, the development of the problem of vigilance began in the context of solving sensory and perceptual problems of detection, discrimination, identification, tracking and others. The two main characteristics of vigilance tasks were singled out: work under conditions of indefinite stimulation characteristics, as well as the requirement for long-term maintenance of attention. Theorists of signal detection drew attention to the relationship between the complexity of a sensory task and the ability to detect or discriminate: the weaker the target stimulus (signal) stands out among the noise (non-signal) stimuli, the more errors the observer makes, considered in this approach by analogy with a device (receiver) with limited bandwidth.

The effect of the duration of the task was considered within the framework of the actual observer vigilance study. In 1948, N. McCworth, studying the reasons for the dynamics of the observer's detection of a target event under conditions of prolonged monotonous observation (it was required to mark the moment when the second hand, rhythmically moving with equal steps on the clock dial, suddenly makes a double leap), described the effect of reducing vigilance (vigilance decrement): the number of correct detections and the increase in the number of false alarms over time (Dormashev, Romanov, 1995; Warm, Dember, 1998). Based on these patterns, modern psychologists studying the problem of vigilance note the so-called “task demands” as the most important initial factor of vigilance (Matthews, Davies, 1998). The concept of mental effort, developed in the cognitive theory of resources, is proposed as the main explanatory construct for understanding the influence of task requirements on vigilance and ability to detect.

The idea of ​​cognitive resources in the form of a developed concept was first formed in the 1973 monograph "Attention and Effort" by D. Kahneman. The main idea of ​​D. Kahnemann was that the ability of the subject at a given moment to focus on a certain set of tasks is limited by natural mental resources common to all information processes. In turn, the amount of resources, according to D. Kahneman, depends on the degree of activation of the subject. If the tasks solved by the subject at the same time are simple, then the resources may be enough to solve several of them at once, and then it becomes possible to distribute attention to different tasks. With an increase in the complexity of the task, the amount of resources spent also grows, and it is impossible to distribute attention according to the previous scheme without compromising the quality of execution. If a person's activity becomes very complex, then it takes up all the resources. A further increase in the complexity of the task with fully loaded attention resources leads to a decrease in the quality of the performed activity. For an adequate allocation of resources, the cognitive system includes a block of "allocation policies", which analyzes the requirements of each task and determines the priority of each of them in relation to the others based on constant dispositions (that is, those incentives to which attention should be paid immediately when they appear. ) and current intentions (Kahneman, 1973; Dormashev, Romanov, 1995). D. Kahneman presents the model of the system of distribution of cognitive resources in the following diagram (Fig. 1).

J. Matthews, R. Parasuraman and D. Davis, being supporters of the theory of resources, explain the effect of reducing the number of correct answers in the threshold problem precisely by the fact that it requires a very high sensory tension from the observer and, thus, maximally loads his cognitive resources. The habituation to stimulation and fatigue during the task reduces the activation of the observer and thus leads to a decrease in the amount of resources - this, from the point of view of the mentioned authors, explains the effect of decreased vigilance (Matthews, Davies, 1998). Further development of the resource approach followed at least three paths. The first direction is associated with the study of the actual tasks for the distribution of attention, the so-called "dual tasks" (dual tasks), their structure and requirements that determine the cost of resources, and finally, the interaction of these tasks. Within this line of research

Fig. 1. D. Kahneman's model of unified cognitive resources (Kahneman, 1973, fig. 1-2, p.10)

Soon after the publication of D. Kahneman's work, the concept of multiple and structural resources emerged (Dormashev, Romanov, 1995). However, this direction in our work will hardly interest us due to the specifics of vigilance tasks. For us, the second and third directions are of greater interest, one of which is related to the study of the activation determinant of vigilance, and the other - to the study of mental processes in the framework of neurosciences (in particular, studies of interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain) with the application of the theoretical models.

1.1.2. Activation and productivity of sensory problem solving. Yerkes-Dodson's Law. Multidimensional activation theories.

Studies of the role of activation in ensuring the functioning of mental processes, both cognitive and emotional-regulatory, have a long history and are truly interdisciplinary in nature: studies of activation are associated both with fundamental problems of general psychology and psychophysiology, and with applied problems of engineering psychology, ergonomics, and others. areas of psychological knowledge.

The logic of the resource approach inevitably requires researchers to address the activation problem. From the point of view of research on the solution of sensory tasks and vigilance, the most interesting are the questions about the effect of activation on the dynamics of vigilance - how the observer's sensory sensitivity changes, and the criterion for making a decision at different stages of the task.

The earliest ideas about activation and its effect on activity developed in the behavioral and non-behaviourist traditions. Activation was presented here as a one-dimensional factor that has a non-linear effect on productivity characteristics. The fundamental law of Yerkes-Dodson (Yerkes, Dodson, 1908), obtained in experiments with learning rats, represents the effect of activation on the productivity of activity as an inverted U-shaped curve (Fig. 2), the maximum of which is the optimal value of activation that provides the highest quality performance of this tasks. For different tasks, this optimum falls on different values.

Rice. 2. Yerkes-Dodson law (Kahneman, 1973, fig. 3-2, p.34).

D.R.Davis discovered the activation effects described by Yerkes-Dodson's Law using vigilance tasks. Thus, the acoustic noise accompanying the performance of the task by the subjects had a positive activating effect under the conditions of an easy task, but extremely difficult to solve a complex one (Davies, 1968). The same author and many of his colleagues propose to associate the classical effect of decreasing alertness in sensory tasks with the attenuation of the activating influence of the orienting reflex (Matthews, Davies, 1998).

Yerkes-Dodson's law fits well into the model of unified cognitive resources by D. Kahnemann. The part of the activation-productivity curve to the left of the optimum point reflects a situation in which low activation does not allow the input effort to reach the required effort level. The negative influence of an excessive activation level for a given task (the part of the productivity curve lying to the right of the optimum point) is associated with the effects of stress and hypermotivation, and the additional power that opens up in this situation is not spent on increasing the resource for solving the problem, since, according to D. Kahneman, the the effort under any conditions does not exceed the level of effort required (Kahneman, 1973).

More recent studies of vigilance show a striking effect attributable to the resource model. This is the influence of the internal reflexive processes that accompany a long experiment with a vigilance task (Sarason et al., 1986 - outlined in Schapkin, Gusev, 2003). A.N. Gusev and S.A. Shapkin, according to the results of an experiment on solving a long (80 minutes) task of auditory detection of a near-threshold signal against a background of noise, note that those subjects who, according to the post-experimental self-report, noted a high frequency of appearance of outsiders (intrusive) thoughts during the execution of the task, found a significantly lower value of d ', compared with the group of "low intrusive" subjects, already in the first third of the samples.

In addition, "highly intrusive" subjects showed a significant decrease in d 'by the end of the experiment, while "low intrusive" subjects almost did not show such a decrease (Gusev, 2003; Schapkin, Gusev, 2003). This result, from the point of view of the resource model, illustrates the interfering effect of a task that is irrelevant with respect to the experimental one, associated with the “borrowing” of resources, as a result of which the input effort does not reach the required level with a potentially sufficient level of activation.

Back in the late 50s and early 60s of the XX century, some psychologists, analyzing the effect of activation on the productivity of activity, according to the Yerkes-Dodson law, specially drew attention to the fact that two areas of the productivity curve, lying on opposite sides of the optimum point, are characterized by important differences in psychological and psychophysiological content: in one case we are talking about a lack of tone, i.e. energy, and in the other - about the destructive influence of anxiety. In this regard, the idea arose of considering activation as a combination of at least two independent dimensions, the interaction of which at different levels affects activity in different ways. This idea gave rise to a whole class of models called multidimensional activation theories. The term "multidimensional activation theories"

R. Thayer believes that the one-dimensional model of the activation process identified by most researchers, where at one pole of the measurement there is maximum excitement, and at the other - relaxation and sleep, is not enough. At least two dimensions can be distinguished. Moreover, the need to introduce such a model follows precisely from psychological, and not physiological, research (Thayer, 1978).

The main measuring tool in R. Thayer's research is the AD ACL - Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (Thayer, 1986), which first appeared in 1964 and was subsequently used with various changes in all subsequent studies by R. Thayer and his collaborators. In the initial version, it consists of 22 adjectives describing the actual state of the subjects. According to factor analysis, these adjectives can be categorized into 4 factors. Initially, it was assumed that these factors are independent. These factors are as follows: general activation (General Activation, G Act - adjectives "live", "active", "energetic", etc.), deactivation-sleep (Deactivation-Sleep, D-Sl - adjectives "sleepy", " tired "," lethargic "), high activation (High Activation, H Act - adjectives" nervous "," tense "," scared ", etc.), general deactivation (General Deactivation, G Deac - adjectives" leisurely ", "Calm", serene ", etc.).

However, further studies showed (two studies were conducted using AD ACL) that, factor G Act and Deac-S1 have a significant negative correlation (according to one study -0.58, on the other -0.48), as well as factors H Act and G Deac. In other words, these factors are combined in pairs into two factors of the second order, called by R. Thayer activation dimensions (Thayer, 1978).

R. Thayer proposes the designations A and B as the names of activation dimensions. Dimension A (energy-sleep) is associated with most forms of normal behavior that require one degree or another of activation, and includes the factors G Act and D-Sl.

The change in state according to this measurement is associated with the circadian rhythm (sleep-wake cycle). In later works, the dimension A is called "energy arousal". Dimension B (tension-serenity) concerns defensive and other forms of behavior associated with the urgent mobilization of organic resources, emotional, affective and stressful reactions; it includes the factors H Act and G Deac. The later name for dimension B is tense arousal (Thayer, 1978; 1986).

If we analyze the contribution of both measurements to the total activation, then at different levels of arousal, the relationship between the actions of the measurements is different. At a moderate level of arousal, a positive correlation is found between A and B. At a high level of arousal, the interaction of factors is reciprocal (negative correlation). At low levels of arousal, activation decreases in both dimensions (Thayer, 1978).

The issue of negative correlation between measurements of A and B at a high level of the general background of activation requires a separate discussion. R. Thayer divides this effect into two separate cases - a decrease in A and an increase in B (hereinafter - A-, B +), an increase in A and a decrease in B (A +, B-). An example of the manifestation of this effect in the case of A-, B + is an increase in fatigue with strong emotional stress or stress, and in the case of A +, B-, such an example is the fact that with a high degree of activation according to factor A, subjectively experienced as vigor and liveliness, anxiety and tension are reduced (Thayer, 1978).

Additional data, cited by R. Thayer, show that states such as anxiety and depression can also be represented as certain activation levels, and various manifestations of these states can be described, according to measurements using the AD ACL, as a certain factor combination in terms of activation measurements A and B (Thayer, 1978).

R. Thayer also conducts an overview analysis of research directions, which can also be understood as multidimensional (or rather, two-dimensional) activation theories.

D. Broadbent, in the context of considering information processes in human activity on the basis of the study of the influence of noise and insomnia, introduces the idea of ​​two activation systems involved in the process of information processing.

The Lower Level system at one activation pole contains a state of indifference (lit. - lack of response (unreactive)), on the other - hyperactivity. This system is comparable to the measurement of B, according to R. Thayer. The second system is the Upper Level system. It maintains a certain level of behavioral constancy and noise immunity. The factors of noise and insomnia lead to the rapid consumption of the activation resource of this system, which affects the efficiency of activities in the form of a decrease in speed and an increase in the number of errors. Thus, the action of the upper level system is comparable to the measurement of A, according to R. Thayer (Broadbent, 1971; Thayer, 1978).

Neuropsychologist A. Rauttenberg put forward the proposition of the existence of two interacting brain activation systems. The activation system I (Arousal System I) refers to the reticular system for maintaining the tone of the cerebral cortex, that is, it brings the energy component into the work of the brain structures. Thus, it is associated with activation according to the Thayer dimension A and the upper-level system according to D. Brodbent. Activation system II (Arousal System II) is associated with the work of the limbic system, which is responsible for the emotional component of activation and is thus comparable with the measurement of B, according to R. Thayer, and with the lower level system, according to D. Broadbent (Thayer, 1978) ...

Similar considerations were considered earlier and in a more general context by G.

Eysenck when he characterized two polar personality activation dispositions

- extraversion and introversion (Eysenck, 1999). R. Thayer also writes about this, proposing to correlate his model with the activation theory of G. Aysenck. G. Eysenck considers the factors of introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-emotional stability as innate dispositional levels of activation of certain brain structures.

The first system, the corticoreticular system, is a system for maintaining a certain level of activation (activation) of the entire functional system of the brain. Eysenck calls people with a low background of activation of this system extroverts, with a high background - introverts.

Introverts at the background level are close to their activation optimum, therefore, they are able to effectively perform the task for a long time without additional stimulation (motivation). In contrast, extroverts, being low-activated at the dispositional level, achieve optimal performance with constant external stimulation. The second system - the limbic (or visceral brain) - produces a certain constant level of arousal (in this model, the terms "activation" and "arousal" are clearly divorced). A low background of excitation of the limbic system characterizes calm, or emotionally stable individuals, a high level - anxious, or neurotic (Thayer, 1978).

In order to empirically compare and establish the correlation of their own conclusions on activation with the data of G. Aysenck, R. Thayer and his colleagues conducted a series of tests. In the studies, we used a survey of subjects using R. Thayer's AD ACL and H. Eysenck's EPI. It has been shown that neuroticism is comparable to the construction of stress activation, but is a more stable indicator (dispositional anxiety).

Extraversion, measured by H. Aysenck, according to these studies, reveals a dependence on the circadian rhythm, as well as energy activation, according to R. Thayer (Thayer et al., 1988).

Consideration of the influence of various components of activation on the productivity of solving problems on vigilance is also given in the works of M. Humphries and W. Revell and A.N. Gusev (Humphreys, Revelle, 1984; Gusev, 2002).

1.1.3. Interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain as a "neural model"

resource allocation. Lateral presentation method.

The existence of asymmetric cerebral localization of mental functions was discovered back in the 19th century. As E.D. Khomskaya notes, from that time and almost until the end of the 60s of the XX century, neuropsychology stubbornly adhered to the idea of ​​the absolute dominance of one large hemisphere (usually the left) over the other (right) - this is dominance in manual and speech functions. Only in the early 70s, works began to appear proving the existence of dominance in other functions. Thus, ideas about the relative nature of asymmetry arose (Khomskaya, 1987).

In the concepts of the relative dominance of the hemispheres and cerebral asymmetry, in general, the supporters of the resource approach saw a good natural science base for their theoretical constructions. This is proved by a considerable number of studies of interhemispheric asymmetry from the standpoint of the resource approach.

To study the specialization and interaction of the hemispheres in sensory and perceptual processes, neuropsychologists have developed various techniques based on the paradigm of lateral presentation of stimuli. Various variants of lateral presentation are used in research according to the tasks set by the researchers. Research on "pure" asymmetry involves the use of unilateral stimulation: for example, presentation of visual stimuli sequentially to the right or left visual half-fields; for hearing - monaural presentation of sound stimuli. For the tasks of studying interhemispheric interaction, preference is given to bilateral stimulation (that is, dual tasks), designed to generate a situation of competition between two hemispheric fields of vision, two auditory canals, two hands, etc. (Simernitskaya, 1978; Chomskaya et al., 1997). Both those and other methods were widely used to solve neuropsychological problems and within the framework of the resource approach.

S. Diamond and G. Beaumont presented their subjects with the sensory task of detecting noisy visual stimuli presented laterally. The experiment analyzed the percentage of correct detections and false alarms.

The subjects responded by pressing the buttons on the remote control with their right hand. The main result was that the percentage of correct detections in the right and left hemispheres did not differ, and the number of false alarms in the left hemisphere was significantly higher than in the right (i.e.

E. sensory sensitivity was lower). Based on this, the authors conclude that the motor “loading” of the left hemisphere by the operation of a response pressing the button interferes with the detection task, “pulling off” the resource 1 intended for the main task (Dimond, Beaumont, 1971). In this work, however, it remains unclear whether the requirement to give a motor response is reflected in overall productivity, i.e., whether this effect on the productivity of information processing also appears in the right hemisphere. In other words, it remains unclear here whether each hemisphere has its own independent energy pool (the idea of ​​multiple resources) or there is a central limited capacity of brain resources, which are distributed, depending on the requirements of the task, both to the right and to the left (the idea of ​​common resources).

A. Friedman and her colleagues in the 80s of the XX century developed the concept of multiple resources in relation to the functioning of the brain. A. Friedman, on the one hand, criticizes the concept of common resources, since they do not explain the empirical fact of non-interfering controlled actions obtained for a number of dual tasks. On the other hand, most of the concepts of multiple resources, in her opinion, are also unsatisfactory, since they make it possible to allocate a very large number of specialized resources, as, for example, K. Vickens does. The “binding” of multiple resources to specific brain models, such as the concept of functional asymmetry of the brain, according to A. Friedman, is more reasonable (Friedman, Polson, 1986). These authors do not use the term “resource” in their studies, since the article was published before the publication of D. Kahneman's monograph.

used unilateral (monaural presentation, control conditions) and bilateral auditory tasks (dichotic listening, experimental condition):

under one condition, only verbal (meaningless words with the task of subsequent reproduction) or only non-verbal (tonal stimuli with the task of detection) stimuli were presented to one ear. Under the dichotic condition, the subjects were first given the words for memorization in one channel, then the sound tone - in the other channel. At the same time, he had to solve the problem of detection immediately after the presentation of the sound, and only after that he could begin to call meaningless words. Using the payment matrix, the priority of the memorization task was set. Further, the results for verbal and non-verbal conditions were compared with each other for unilateral (control) and bilateral (experimental) conditions. The left ear (right hemisphere) did not show significant differences in productivity for both verbal and non-verbal material, and in both conditions, an advantage was found in the processing of non-verbal material. The right ear (left hemisphere) in the control condition did not show significant differences in the two types of material; in the experimental condition, productivity in the memorization task significantly decreased, and in the detection task, on the contrary, it increased significantly. In other words, an interference pattern was observed. Based on this result, A. Friedman and her colleague K. Herdman make three main conclusions: 1) each hemisphere uses its own source of resources;

2) each hemisphere has its own capabilities to solve the same problem, therefore, to achieve the same level of efficiency, each of the hemispheres requires a different amount of resources (here the necessary effort is determined not only by the requirements of the task, but also by certain functional features of the "processing organ"); 3) intrahemispheric resources are one, therefore two (or more) tasks performed by one hemisphere can interfere with each other (Herdman, Friedman, 1985).

R. Davidson points out the lateral resource effect associated with the level of activation, assessed on the Thayer scale "stress activation" (Thayer, 1978): according to neurophysiological studies, animals showing positive emotions show preferential activation of the right hemisphere, while animals showing negative emotions give an asymmetric activation pattern shifted to the left. In this regard, positive emotions should give an advantage in processing unilaterally presented stimuli to the right, and negative ones - to the left hemisphere (Davidson, 1998). A similar effect was discovered by K. Sander and H. Sheikh. They monaurally presented the sounds of male or female laughter or crying. The task was to detect in these sounds subtle differences in pitch, artificially synthesized using a computer program. For the perception of laughter (as an expression of positive emotions), the right hemisphere received the advantage, for crying - the right. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), predominant excitation of the right amygdala and auditory cortex in the presentation of laughter and predominant excitation of the same zones of the left hemisphere when crying was presented was recorded (Sander and Scheich, 2001). On the whole, similar results were obtained in the joint work of Russian and German psychologists S.A.

Shapkina, A.N. Gusev and Y. Kulya on the perception of emotional words on the evoked brain potentials (Kuhl et al., 1994; Schapkin et al., 1999).

Interesting from the point of view of the resource approach is a study carried out with the participation of leading experts on the problem of vigilance, concerning the role of the right and left hemispheres in the regulation of prolonged attention (vigilance), using the method of transcranial Doppler sonography, a non-invasive procedure that allows tracking long-term dynamics of cerebral blood flow. The subjects solved the problem of tracking the movement of air transport under conditions of high and low distinguishability of the signal, as well as with different frequencies of anticipatory prompts (cueing) - 100, 80, 40 and 0%. For both conditions (high and low discernibility), with different probabilities of prompts, a direct dependence of productivity on the probability of prompting was noted, but the activity of the right hemisphere changed in a mirror-opposite manner for the condition of low discernibility: the more often the subject had to make decisions without prompting, the higher was the activation of the right hemisphere.

The authors directly associate this fact with an increase in mental effort and thereby emphasize the role of the right hemisphere in ensuring vigilance. At the same time, the resource system itself is presented here as a central mechanism, in contrast to most models of cerebral resource allocation (Hitchcock et al., 2003).

In sensory psychophysics, studies of the role of cerebral asymmetry are few in number. From modern publications, we note only the work of S.A. Shapkina and A.N.

Gusev (also performed within the framework of the resource approach), in which the influence of asymmetry on the indicators of the level of sensory sensitivity, the severity of the decision criterion and the value of the reaction time in the task of detecting a threshold auditory signal against the background of impulse noise was investigated (Schapkin, Gusev, 2001).

In this section, we briefly reviewed the concepts of vigilance and the process of solving sensory problems, most characteristic of early and modern cognitive psychology, associated with the development of a resource approach to the study of cognitive processes. Despite certain discrepancies in some issues, for example, on the possible number of sources of resources, all the models considered have more in common than different. They are based on two main provisions: on the existence of restrictions in the information processing system and on the energetic nature of these restrictions. The resource metaphor works well in a wide variety of contexts of research on perception, attention, and memory. Almost any fact obtained by the experimenter can be explained from the point of view of the resource approach, as well as the fact opposite to the first: for example, if the researcher receives the fact of interfering interaction of two tasks, this may be due to an insufficient level of available resources for their joint execution; if no interference was observed, then it can be assumed that the sources of resources for each of the tasks exist independently of each other. Such an expansive use of the explanatory capabilities of the resource approach, in principle, reduces its value and is subject to criticism. Another criticism of resource models can be that an appeal to the energy metaphor levels out the structural and functional specifics of solving a particular cognitive task.

The approach to the problem of solving sensory tasks analyzed below, in our opinion, is a worthy alternative to resource models precisely because it takes this specificity into account.

1.2. Psychological foundations for applying the strategic approach to the analysis of sensory tasks.

1.2.1. A functional approach to the problem of solving complex problems.

Individual strategies as a system of means and as a functional organ of the decision.

As we noted above, the energy metaphor of resources, with all its effectiveness in solving fundamental and, especially, applied problems, does not allow considering the psychological process of solving a cognitive task from the point of view of its specific structural and functional content. Therefore, it seems to us very productive to consider another, functional, or rather, functional-activity approach to this problem, including with its application to the sensory tasks we are investigating. This approach is inextricably linked with the names of Russian scientists: N.A. Bernstein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, their colleagues and students. Within the framework of psychophysics, the implementation of the principles of the activity approach is presented in a few works of domestic researchers, in which the introduction of the concept of "sensory task" is substantiated and experimental facts are collected that prove the productivity of the activity approach in psychophysics (Asmolov, Mikhalevskaya, 1974; Skotnikova, 1998; 2002; Gusev, 2002 ).

A.R. Luria, based on the results of his own research, as well as a large number of studies of domestic and foreign colleagues, proposed a general conceptual model of three functional brain blocks (Luria, 1973). This functional system is a dynamic formation of three interacting components: the regulation of tone and wakefulness (the first block of the brain

Reticular formation); receiving, processing and storing information (the second block of the brain is the convexital posterior parts of the cortex); programming, regulation and control of action (the third block of the brain is the anterior parts of the cortex). Thus, the first block of the brain is associated with the activation process of the "sleep-wake" type. It is a necessary component of any cognitive activity, as it is presented in resource models.

The excitation of the reticular formation is transmitted to all overlying cortical and subcortical formations, thereby providing a certain tonic state of these formations. In other words, under the influence of the action of the first block at the level of the second block of the brain, a certain degree of pre-tuning of the sensory zones of the cortex to the processing of incoming information is provided (that is, a certain degree of vigilance). The processing turns out to be the finer and more precise, the more the corresponding fields of the posterior cortex are activated. The activity of the second block is associated with such characteristics of the subject's work in solving a sensory task, such as the level of sensory sensitivity and the sensory component of the reaction time. In turn, the apparatus of the second brain block is connected by descending fibers with the first. The influx of new sensory information causes an increase in the excitation of the posterior cortex. This excitation is transmitted to the reticular formation, which in response increases the state of brain activation, ensuring the normal functioning of the orientation reflex (novelty response), in which the formation of a memory image for a new stimulus is possible (Sokolov, 1958; Sokolov, 1958; 2002). Depletion of the sensory environment or its monotony leads to attenuation of the excitation of the sensory cortex, and, consequently, to a decrease in overall activation, which in a sensory task can manifest itself as an effect of decreased vigilance.

Finally, the tone of the first brain block, depending on the level of activation of the reticular formation, determines the parameters of the subject's response, such as the criterion for making a decision and the motor component of the reaction time. In addition, the third block of the brain is also capable of exerting a modulating effect on the degree of excitation of the first block (due to this, it is possible to regulate voluntary attention, which is necessary when solving a complex sensory or perceptual task). Finally, there is a connection between the second and third blocks of the brain: the second block is a source of information for the third about the changes taking place in the environment in order to implement adequate behavior, change strategies and decision criteria (Luria, 1973).

Thus, we note that in the ideas of A.R. Luria, an important place is occupied by the energy (activation) regulation of the implementation of activities, but, in contrast to resource models, the emphasis is on the functional structure of the brain. The idea of ​​A.R. Luria about the dynamic functional organization and cerebral localization of mental functions makes it possible to consider mental processes as a hierarchically and chronogenically organized system of functional links consistent with the logic of the tasks performed by the system (Luria, 1973; 2000).

N.A. Bernshtein in his works on the problem of construction and regulation of movements introduced a representation of the systemic structure of the mechanism of regulation of movements, highlighting five levels of action control. An important place here is occupied by the idea of ​​exercising control at the leading and background levels: the already formed movements are automated and go to the background level, freeing the leader for higher-order regulations, and, conversely, when a skill breaks down, its components again enter the leading level for repeated training ( Bernstein, 1947). AN Leontiev proposed the development of the idea of ​​a functional system, introducing the concept of "functional organ". We are talking here about a system of stable nerve connections developed in activity, providing a detailed action. In the course of the development of the activity, many activities are reduced. This means that all intermediate links of the functional organ are inhibited, and only the initial and final links of the action take part in ensuring the action. In the case of inhibition of the final link, which arises in difficult conditions of activity (note that it is under such conditions that the observer usually works in the sensory task of near-threshold detection or discrimination), the intermediate links are again included in the provision of action. Thus, the intermediate links of a functional organ, according to A. N. Leontiev, represent a system of means, or intermediate operations as part of an action, consistent with the specific conditions for achieving the goal, that is, with the task (Leontiev, 1981).

The ideas about the system of internal means of solving a cognitive task lead us, finally, to the main subject of this section - the concept of "strategy".

Even before psychologists began to use the term "strategy", within the framework of the theory of signal detection, the role of non-sensory factors in deciding on the presence or absence of a signal in a given presentation was described in detail.

The researchers set the possibility of manipulating non-sensory factors using a priori probabilities of the appearance of a signal, payment matrices, or a motivating instruction. The critical point dividing the “yes” and “no” response areas on the sensory axis was called the “criterion”. The criterion was an indicator of the subject's consciously accepted tendency to make a positive or negative decision (Egan, 1983). Below we will show that the concept of "criterion"

we can reasonably include in the concept of "strategy".

J. Bruner is considered the founder of the strategic approach in the psychology of cognition. For the first time in 1956, he described two strategies for making hypotheses in the problem of classifying figures: a scanning strategy and a focusing strategy, associated with a partial or complete analysis of the set of features seen in the presented material. In the same study, in addition to describing the operational features of strategies, J. Bruner also set the task of assessing the effectiveness of each of the selected strategies (Bruner, 1981). In this regard, in the then developed strategic approach, the leading areas of research were the analysis of the procedural characteristics of strategies and their effectiveness.

As I. G. Skotnikova notes in her survey works, many researchers soon after the appearance of the first works on the study of strategies began to confuse this concept with another term “cognitive style” that had already taken root in psychology.

(Kochetkov, Skotnikova, 1993; Skotnikova, 1998). In both cases, it was about an individualized system of cognitive means (or operations) for receiving, processing information and finding a solution to a problem. On the other hand, strategies began to be understood as the most different-level formations - from strategies for proposing and testing hypotheses (sequential advancement / testing or analytical filtering) in intellectual tasks to oculomotor strategies when performing the "rod-frame" test by G. Witkin (see the review in: Kochetkov, Skotnikova, 1993). The use of the term "strategy", however, presupposes, in addition to the above characteristics, common for both strategies and cognitive styles, to take into account the specifics of specific conditions for performing an action, that is, a task: 1) the type of task; 2) the degree of its novelty for the subject; 3) the nature of the activity for its decision; 4) the decision phase (Skotnikova, 1998). Thus, the correspondence of the strategy to the level of the task, according to A. N. Leontiev, gives us reason to consider it as a system of operations, optional in relation to the main goal (Leontiev, 1981). From this point of view, we can include in the concept of "strategy" and the idea of ​​the criteria for optimality of decision making, developed in the theory of signal detection, since this is a measure reflecting the characteristics of the subject's work in different probabilistic environments, that is, under different conditions of the problem.

Let us emphasize once again that the analysis of strategy as a system of operations does not make sense without taking into account its individualized nature, which, as M.V. Falikman notes, forces many researchers of cognition as a fundamental process to consider strategies as an individual artifact and avoid their analysis (Falikman, 2001) ... In this regard, the strategic direction, unfortunately, is poorly represented in modern studies of sensory and perceptual tasks, especially in foreign cognitive science. In domestic psychophysics, we are interested in the work carried out at the school of K.V. Bardin and associated with the phenomenon of compensatory discrimination. We will also be interested in neuropsychological studies related to the role of hemispheric strategies in different tasks, as well as to the dynamic nature of interhemispheric asymmetry.

1.2.2. Compensatory discrimination as a strategy for dealing with uncertainty. The idea of ​​subjective integration of features.

Above, speaking about the functional approach to the problem of solving various problems, we noted the mediating role of the intermediate links of the functional organ of the decision in ensuring the solution of complex problems (Leontiev, 1981). The most interesting attempt to find such links in complex sensory (acoustic) tasks was carried out in the 80s and early 90s of the XX century within the framework of the subject direction of psychophysics, developed by K.V. Bardin (Bardin, Indlin, 1993). The main idea in this direction is to consider the observer not as a device for receiving and processing information, but as an active person, whose attitudes, experience, individual characteristics are directly or indirectly manifested in sensory processes (Bardin, Indlin, 1993; Khudyakov, 2001; Gusev, 2002; Skotnikova, 2002).

In simple sensory tasks, for example, when comparing two tonal stimuli that clearly differ in loudness, a single sensory scale works in the solution, on which all possible sensations of loudness are distributed (Fig.3a). Loudness in this case is the main sensory feature. It is very easy to make a decision in this situation.

A difficult task, where the differences in volume of two stimuli are barely noticeable, as noted by K.V. Bardin, one sensory axis, as a rule, is not enough to ensure effective detection. In this case, the observer begins to form new axes of signs (Fig. 3b). These signs are not objectively embedded in the stimuli - they are created by the subject himself. In K.V. Bardin's model, such features are called additional, and the differentiation of stimuli based on these features is called compensatory. As a result, we can talk about a multidimensional sensory space of simple sound stimuli. However, it is not worth talking about the absence of multidimensionality in an easy sensory task, it simply inhibits additional sensory features (Bardin, Indlin, 1993).

Fig. 3. Distribution of sensory effects from two stimuli (shown by circles): a) in one-dimensional sensory space; b) in a multidimensional sensory space (Bardin, Indlin, 1993: Fig. 5.14, p. 109).

In the dissertation research of T.P. Voitenko, the role of sensory learning in the formation of a multidimensional sensory space and the influence of individual variables (cognitive styles) on the nature of the signs used was shown. The subjects underwent a daily acoustic psychophysical experiment for two months to distinguish loudly between two stimuli, the differences between which were in the near-threshold range. The analysis used both psychophysical indicators and self-reports of the subjects. During training, all subjects developed a space of additional features. Signs were divided into acoustic and modal-nonspecific. Acoustic signs suggested that the subjects caught additional differences in sound: voiced, pitch, duration, etc. Modal-nonspecific features were associated with images that came as if from the outside, not associated with the sounds themselves. They could arise both in the auditory and in other modalities (in the form of simple synesthesia or more complex object images). It was shown that the use of acoustic features has a positive effect on the growth of sensory sensitivity, and modal-nonspecific - on the stabilization of the criterion (bringing it to a symmetrical position). It was also noted that field-dependent and rigid subjects mainly use acoustic additional features (by the end of training, their sensitivity increased, but the criterion was suboptimal);

field-independent and hyporigid patients relied mainly on modal-nonspecific signs (a stable symmetric criterion was formed, but there was no significant improvement in sensitivity); bright field-independent and flexible ones used both types of traits (respectively, increased sensitivity and optimization of the criterion) (Voitenko, 1989).

As can be seen from the described study, the mechanism of compensatory discrimination satisfies the main characteristics of strategic education: compliance with the problem being solved (it occurs more often in conditions of a complex sensory problem);

individual specificity (a connection with cognitive styles was found); finally, the characteristic of efficiency (in terms of influence on psychophysical indicators).

From the point of view of the role of feature analysis in a sensory or perceptual task, we are also interested in developments within the framework of the object-oriented cognitive model of feature integration (Fig. 4), proposed by A. Treisman for the task of visual search (as well as common to a number of other visual tasks) , where the chronometry method is traditionally used (Posner, Raichle, 1997). A. Treisman assigns the leading role in visual search to the analysis of signs. At an early stage of processing, the perceptual system analyzes simple features (color, spatial orientation, size, etc.). For each such feature, the analysis is carried out in parallel and automatically (before identification). Thus, in a situation where the target stimulus and distractors differ in only one feature, the phenomenon of “jumping out” of the target stimulus is noted: it is detected immediately and involuntarily (the situation of searching for a feature).

For a connection situation in one search, several signs of "jumping out" are not observed:

the subject is able to detect the target stimulus after careful sequential "scanning" of the visual field. In the case of searching for compounds, according to A. Treisman, the stage of controlled processing is included in the processing process, when each simple feature is sequentially joined to others (their integration occurs) for each object. Only after the integration is complete, attention is directed to the target object, its mental representation (object dossier) is created, and identification takes place (Fig. 4) (Treisman, Gormican, 1988 - outlined after Posner, Raichle, 1997).

Fig. 4. A. Treisman's feature integration model (Posner, Raichle, 1997, p. 101).

In our opinion, it is possible, with a certain degree of conventionality, to draw an analogy between the ideas of compensatory distinction and integration of features. So, for an easy task of acoustic detection, where analysis is applied almost exclusively on the basis of the main feature, there is a situation of searching for features and the effect of "jumping out"

signal (that is, its clear detection). In the case of a complex sensory task, where the subject builds a multidimensional sensory space, we are dealing with a search for a connection, when additional sensory features used in a situation of uncertainty are integrated into a sensory image. The most important difference between the situation of visual search and the task of near-threshold detection or discrimination is that in the first case we are dealing with the signs inherent in the stimulation, in the second - with the arbitrary generation of these signs, that is, with the strategy. Here we should talk about the subjective integration of features. Despite this significant difference between the two models, we admit the possibility of assimilation of the idea of ​​integration of signs by subjective psychophysics, if not theoretically, then methodologically: we consider the use of chronometry to be very productive for solving various research problems.

1.2.3. Functional asymmetry of the brain and strategies for solving sensory problems.

Speaking about functional interhemispheric asymmetry, E.D.

Chomskaya introduces three main provisions:

1. Laterality is not global, but partial. So, there are motor (manual, foot, oculomotor, etc.), sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.) and "mental" (related to the organization of speech and other HMF) asymmetries.

It is indicated that if we take n types of asymmetry, then we can distinguish 2n (2 to the nth power) profiles of lateral organization (PLO), if we do not take into account people with relative symmetry of one or another function (such as, for example, handedness in ambidexters) ... Usually PLO is determined by three dimensions: hand-eye-ear.

2. For each specific form of asymmetry, there is a characteristic of the measure of severity.

3. Functional interhemispheric asymmetry is a product of the action of biosocial mechanisms (Chomskaya, 1987).

Based on these provisions, it seems possible to consider interhemispheric asymmetry from a strategic point of view. From this point of view, the following layers of research are interesting for us: the role of the right and left hemispheres in ensuring the solution of sensory problems (obtained in clinical studies, as well as in the analysis of PLO of healthy subjects), as well as the study of intraindividual fluctuations in asymmetry under various conditions.

The most general ideas about the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres were obtained on the basis of long-term studies of patients with local brain lesions and are reflected in two dichotomies: “analyticity-holisticity” and “simultaneous syntheses - successive syntheses” (Luria, 1973;

Chomskaya, 1984; Razumnikov, 1997). The role of the left hemisphere in the implementation of sequential analytical processing of information is noted, while the activity of the right hemisphere is associated with a parallel integral processing. The second considered dichotomy is also connected with the idea of ​​a sequence of parallelism: temporal (successive) synthesis is associated with the activity of the left hemisphere, and simultaneous spatial (simultaneous) synthesis is associated with the activity of the right hemisphere. Thus, with damage to the posterior temporal cortex of the left hemisphere, the perception of rhythmic figures is impaired, and with damage to the inferior parietal and antero-occipital parts of the right hemisphere, the syndrome of simultaneous agnosia (inability to perceive more than one object simultaneously in the visual field) (Luria, 1973).

There are interesting data on the role of lateralization in solving sensory tasks, which show the relative nature of asymmetry, determined by the nature (in this case, modal differences) of the task. Thus, A.D. Vladimirov and T.V. Timofeeva compared in experimental conditions the time of the choice reaction (SVT) to the presentation of visual and auditory stimuli in healthy subjects and subjects with local brain lesions in right and left hemispheric lesions.

It was revealed that VRV and its spread are significantly higher for the affected hemisphere, compared with the healthy hemisphere and compared with healthy subjects, both for visual and auditory modality. At the same time, the research data very clearly demonstrate that the indicators of the difference in HR and the difference in the variance of HR across the hemispheres are adequate for assessing the functional interhemispheric asymmetry. In general, in terms of work efficiency (general indicator by experience): 1) for vision: with lesions of the left hemisphere, the VVV is higher than with lesions of the right (an indirect sign of the dominance of the left hemisphere); 2) for hearing: with a lesion of the right hemisphere, the VRV is higher than with a lesion of the right (an indirect sign of the dominance of the right hemisphere) (Vladimirov, Timofeeva, 1997).

ED Khomskaya and her colleagues over the past 15 years have been studying the role of PLO in the organization of solving problems of various classes: from sensory to intellectual. The main interest for us is the study of the lateral features of the regulation of sustained attention. The subjects filled out the forms of the Bourdon proofreading test when the requirements for the optimal fast and the fastest pace of work in silence and when exposed to acoustic noise. Subjects with a predominantly right PLO (left hemisphere) demonstrated an advantage in speed and regulatory (quality of performance) characteristics under noise conditions, while subjects with a predominantly left PLO (right hemisphere) showed clearer voluntary control, easier switching between different speed modes. works (Chomskaya et al., 1997).

In recent decades, the literature has been actively discussing the issue of the extreme variability of the asymmetry for the same function, depending on the specific conditions of the problem. This position is important for us from the point of view of strategic views and ideas about the functional body. Thus, F.B. Berezin notes an increase in the value of manual asymmetry with an increase in the effect of stress (Berezin, 1976). ED Khomskaya and co-authors point to the variability of PLO indicators not only in its absolute value, but also in sign during repeated testing. So, according to their data, with four-fold neuropsychological testing of students with an interval of 5-7 days, only 21.8% of men and 27.7% showed a stable sign of asymmetry in all measurements of PLO, while most of the subjects showed variability in the sign of asymmetry in at least one indicator. (Chomskaya et al., 1997).

R. Naatanen and his colleagues, according to the study of evoked potentials (MMN component - "mismatch negativity"), indicate the dominance of the left hemisphere when distinguishing speech stimuli in silence and the dominance of the right hemisphere for the same task under conditions of background acoustic noise (Shtyrov et al. ., 1998).

In the work of G.P. Udalova and I.A.Kozachenko (Udalova, Kozachenko, year unknown), the problem of the participation of the left and right hemispheres in the formation of noise immunity during the recognition of visual stimuli was discussed. The studies were carried out on visual modality using a tachistoscope. A number of noisy figures were proposed, only one of which (the square) was a “positive” target stimulus and required the subject to answer “yes”, while all the others - “no”. When analyzing the results, the authors propose to introduce an idea of ​​the components of information processing in the general process of signal detection. First, this is the process of detecting similarity-difference, which requires a special adjustment of attention to the signal stimulus and constant comparison with the image of the reference stimulus in memory. The verbalization process is also involved. The more verbalization the stimulus material requires, the greater the advantage is given to the left hemisphere (Udalova, Kozachenko, year unknown).

S.A. Shapkin and A.N. Gusev point to the increasing role of the right hemisphere in very complex and long-term sensory tasks (Schapkin, Gusev, 2001, 2003), that is, where vigilance is especially required and where the decision is often made almost intuitively, on the basis of irrational impressions, which include the use of modal-nonspecific additional features (Bardin, Indlin, 1993).

In this section, we examined the methodological foundations for applying the strategic approach to the analysis of the process of solving sensory problems. They are the ideas of the functional-activity approach in Russian psychology, the strategic approach in foreign cognitive psychology, subjective psychophysics, as well as neuropsychological ideas about the functional asymmetry of the brain as a model adequate for testing general psychological hypotheses.

It should also be noted that the strategic approach is considered by us as an adequate alternative to the resource approach, which dominates at this stage in the research of solving sensory tasks and vigilance. We see the main advantage of the strategic approach in the possibility of revealing the psychological (and not only energetic) side of the reality we are considering.

Section 2. Theoretical and procedural substantiation of the experimental study of the detection of a sound signal.

2.1. Formulation and substantiation of the research problemBased on our review of the problem of solving sensory problems, we will try to formulate the main questions and hypotheses of interest to us.

In this study, we will be interested in the role of two factors in relation to sensory processes: on the one hand, this is the activation factor as an energetic basis for action (this is a traditional aspect of consideration, from the point of view of the resource approach), on the other, the dynamics of the subject's strategies (here we stand to the position of the functional approach to the analysis of the observer's activity). We are interested in how these factors manifest themselves under varying degrees of uncertainty in sensory stimulation, i.e. at different levels of difficulty of the task.

As shown above, an effective model for solving this problem is the functional asymmetry model of the brain. Two functionally asymmetric hemispheres, both from the resource and from the strategic point of view, can be considered as two (to one degree or another) specialized and, at the same time, interacting blocks for solving the problem in conditions of lateral presentation (the brain as a "paired organ" - Chomskaya, 2002 ). In this study, we also plan to use this particular model: we will be interested in behavioral asymmetry, that is, calculated only on the basis of psychophysical data about the responses of the subjects.

The main hypothesis is that the complication of the sensory task (under the condition of unilateral presentation) leads to an increase in the specialization of the hemispheres due to the inclusion of high-level components of action regulation in the structure of the solution. We also assume that it is these components, and not activation resources, that are decisive for the manifestation of interhemispheric differences and the productivity of the solution in general.

Proceeding from the low level of knowledge of the solution of auditory sensory tasks, in comparison with visual ones, we chose the task of detecting a sound signal for research.

2.2. Object, subject, goals, objectives of the study.

The object of research is the process of solving the sensor problem of signal detection.

The subject of the research is the processes of resource allocation and sensory strategies, considered on the model of interhemispheric asymmetry.

Research objectives:

1. To reveal the influence of the factor of complexity of a sensory task on the dynamics of interhemispheric asymmetry.

2. To reveal the influence of the factors of dispositional and situational activation on the dynamics of interhemispheric asymmetry and the effectiveness of solving a sensory task, in general.

3. Using the analysis of individual detection strategies, identify the relationship between the dynamics of interhemispheric asymmetry and the effectiveness of solving a sensory task.

Research objectives:

1. Carrying out an experimental psychophysical study of the process of solving the problem of detecting a sound signal in conditions of lateral presentation;

2. Analysis of the data of self-reports of the subjects to identify possible strategies and compare them with psychophysical data.

2.3. Methodology Subjects The experiment involved 83 people aged 16 to 56 years (average age - 20 years), 65 women and 18 men. Most of the subjects were students of various universities in Moscow. For the experiment, the subjects received a monetary reward.

Only right-handed subjects were selected for the experiment (on the basis of the results of the questionnaire of the hands - 8 questions).

Equipment The subjects were faced with the task of detecting a short sound signal against the background of impulse noise in three series of different complexity. The "Yes-No" method was used. The stimuli were synthesized on a personal computer. A standard sound card was used to present stimuli on a computer. Computer versions of stimulus presentation and data processing programs were prepared by A.E. Kremlev and A.V. Syromyatnikov under the guidance of A.N. Gusev.

(SB-128) and stereo headsets (AIWA HP-X350). Before the start of the experiment, the headphone selection and rejection procedure was carried out.

The criterion for this was a subjective change in the sensations of differences between the right and left ears, empirically revealed in preliminary experiments, and which turned out to be = 3 dB. Sound pressure values ​​in six headphones selected for the experiments, measured with an "artificial ear" device

(Brüel & Kjr firm) were as follows:

L = 85.0; R = 84.0

L = 84.6; R = 84.0

L = 86.6; R = 85.2

L = 84.0; R = 85.6

L = 80.0; R = 80.0

L = 85.5; R = 84.0 Thus, the acoustic parameters of the headphones and amplifiers of sound cards were chosen to be quite the same.

The noise test was a white noise pulse with a duration of 200 ms and an intensity of 70 dB (SPL scale). In the signal test, a tonal addition of 1000 Hz of the same duration was added to the noise. The probability of presenting a signal test throughout the experiment was 0.5.

The interstimulus interval varied at random from 3 to 3.5 s. Several signaling stimuli were prepared, in which the signal-to-noise ratio varied from S / N = 0 dB (both components of equal intensity) to S / N = -18 dB (tonal addition was 6 times less than noise). The S / N level was the characteristic that determines the degree of complexity of the task. Variant S / W = -5 was used only in the introductory series and was not taken into account during processing.

The main series included the following degrees of difficulty:

Easy (S / N = -10 dB): signal and noise tests are noticeably different, and signal detection does not require much effort, while the percentage of correct answers is at the level of 100%;

Medium (S / N = -15 dB): the differences between the signal and noise tests become smaller, in this regard, more voltage is required on the part of the subject in comparison with the easy series, but the percentage of correct answers is still close to 100%;

Complex (SN = -18 dB): signal and noise become barely distinguishable (that is, information processing reaches a threshold level).

In order to take into account the possible influence of the factors of fatigue and training of the subjects, a positional adjustment procedure was carried out. For this, six experimental designs were created on each of the three personal computers used in the experiment.

Each computer was programmed with one of six main series task sequences:

1. easy - medium - difficult;

2. easy - difficult - medium;

3. medium - difficult - easy;

4. medium - easy - difficult;

5. difficult - easy - medium;

6.Difficult - Medium - Easy.

The sequences varied between subjects, that is, each subject went through only one sequence.

The subjects gave an answer using the keypad of the remote controls specially designed for this experiment and calibrated (to exclude the error in registering the subject's response BP). A necessary requirement for the characteristics of the control panel was that the accuracy of the BP measurement should be at least + 1 ms. This was ensured, firstly, by the mechanical design of the consoles - the test subjects' answer buttons (microswitches of the MP1-1 type) were selected in such a way that they were produced by the same manufacturer, were from the same production series, and structurally had a very small "stroke". These microswitches are used in most VR recording experiments. The answer buttons were located at such a distance from each other that the subject could freely press them with the fingers of one hand without moving the hand. Secondly, by software

With the beginning of presentation of sound stimuli, the port was polled (with a frequency significantly exceeding the frequency of the counter, which was allowed by the Intel CELERON 400 MHz processor), to which the response registration panel was connected, and a timer was started, which increased the counter with a frequency of 18295 times per second, and at the moment of pressing the button, the value of the counter was memorized.

The subject's responses and reaction time (RT) were recorded. Having made a decision on the presence / absence of a signal in the sample, the subject pressed the "YES" / "NO" buttons.

Procedure The experiments were carried out on the basis of the computer class of the Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University. MV Lomonosov (2002) and the laboratory of electroencephalography of the State University - Higher School of Economics (2003) in the daytime with groups of 2-3 subjects at a time. The 2002 study was a pilot study in relation to the 2003 study, therefore, the procedure for conducting it lacks some additional points that appeared already in the 2003 study. Nevertheless, since the research plans do not differ significantly, and the procedures for conducting the main psychophysical experiment are almost identical, we considered it legitimate to use the results of both studies in a single analysis scheme. For technical reasons, the hardware (personal computers) and software used in different years were different, but every effort was made to minimize the impact of these differences on the results of experimental studies carried out in 2002 and 2003.

To take into account the possible influence of handedness on the speed characteristics of the responses of the subjects (VR and its variance), different subjects gave their answers with different hands, for which the experimenter alternated the hand in the sequence of subjects to which they had to give answers, which was reported to each subject before the start of the experiment.

Before the start of the introductory series, the experimenter gives an instruction (in the version of the computer program-constructor of 2003 “SoundMake” (authors A.N. Gusev and A.E. Kremlev) the instruction appears on the display screen): “We are starting an experiment to study auditory perception. It will consist of 7 episodes. Your task is to distinguish between "signal" and "noise" stimuli. First episode

Introductory. Its purpose is to show you what "signal" and "noise" stimuli are. Further - three training series, differing from each other in complexity. And finally, there are three main series, which also differ from each other in complexity. "

An introductory series is demonstrated (-5 dB, 20 samples, a hint appears on the monitor screen after each test: the word "Signal" or "Noise" (in the version of the 2003 program "SoundMake" the words "Yes" and "No", respectively). the purpose of the series is to enable the subject to formulate for himself the main signs of distinguishing between signal and noise and to practice using the remote control for response.

At the end of the series, numbers appear on the screen: the probability of correct hits (P (H)) and false alarms (P (FA)). The experimenter explains to the subject the meaning of these numbers.

Before the beginning of the training series, the experimenter informs the subject that there will be no more prompts on the screen and he should be guided only by his auditory sensations. 2003 version of the program “SoundMake” Demonstrates training series 1 (easy, -10 dB, 20 samples, no prompts on the screen). At the end of the series, the experimenter encourages the subject in case of small mistakes or recommends to continue working at the same pace.

Training Series 2 is demonstrated (average, -15 dB, 20 samples, no on-screen prompt). If there are many errors of the "false alarm" type, the experimenter gives a recommendation to answer "YES" only when the subject is sufficiently sure that there was a signal (tightening of the criterion). If there are many mistakes of the "omission" type, it gives a recommendation to answer "YES", even when the subject is not 100% sure that there was a signal (softening of the criterion).

Training Series 3 is demonstrated (hard, -18 dB, 20 samples, no on-screen prompts).

If, according to the results of the training series, the subject demonstrates zero or negative measure of sensitivity (that is, P (H) = P (FA)), the subject is not allowed to participate in the main series.

At the end of the training series of psychophysical experience and before the beginning of its main series, the subject is asked to fill out the AMC answer form for the Russian-language modification of the AD ACL questionnaire by R. Thayer (Gusev, 2002).

Before the start of the main series, the experimenter asks the subjects to concentrate and take a comfortable posture.

Further, depending on the experimental design, the subject is shown a sequence of three main series (easy, medium and difficult, 260 trials in each, without a prompt on the screen, 11-12 minutes each, with a break between series up to 1 minute). In a variant of the 2003 experiment, in order to avoid the influence of possible differences in loudness between two channels (headphones) associated with the features of sound cards that were not specifically tested, each main series was divided into two subseries (130 samples in each), in the intervals between which the subject it was suggested to turn the headphones over.

Before the start of the familiarization series, the subjects answered the hand questionnaire, after which they were presented with Eysenck's EPI questionnaire in the Russian-language adaptation of Rusalov (Rusalov, 1991). To present the questionnaire, the computer psychodiagnostic system TESTMAKER was used (authors: S.A., Shapkin, A.E. Kremlev, A.N. Gusev). In addition, in the version of the 2003 study, before the start of the experiment, the subjects underwent a diagnostic procedure to identify auditory asymmetry using the method of dichotic listening by D. Kimura in the Russian-language version: the subject was dichotically presented with 16 series of monosyllabic words in the Russian language; each series consists of 4 pairs of words; after each series, the subject reports on all the words that he could remember in this series; the main series is preceded by an introductory series, consisting of 12 pairs of words that the subject must listen to without a subsequent report (for a detailed description of the technique, see: Simernitskaya, 1978).

The SoundForge 4.5 computer program was used to present a digital sound recording of the verbal material to be reproduced.

The presentation took place through the same stereophonic head phones with which the subject then worked in the main psychophysical experience.

In a variant of the experimental procedure in 2003, after the end of the psychophysical experience, the subjects were asked to fill out the answer form to the AMC questionnaire again, as well as to set out in writing the answers to 10 questions concerning their subjective experience during the performance of a sensory task in the main series of the experiment (standardized self-report procedure * - Appendix 5).

2.4. Data processing For the processing of psychophysical data, a special computer program “SoundMake” was developed and created. We calculated the number and probabilities of correct detections and false alarms, reaction time, reaction time dispersion, nonparametric indices of sensory sensitivity A 'and * In this work, the answers to only a part of the questions proposed to the subjects for self-report are analyzed.

the severity of the decision criterionYesrate. Calculations were carried out separately for each series and for each ear.

The data processing of the questionnaires and their preparation for analysis in the statistical package was carried out using the TESTMAKER system.

The SPSS program was used for statistical processing of the results.

10.0. The following methods were used: analysis of variance in variants of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of variance with repeated measures (Repeated Measures Design ANOVA) (since it makes it possible to take into account the factor of individual differences, and thereby does not violate the assumption of analysis of variance about the independence of samples) ( Gusev, 2000), correlation analysis using parametric Pearson's coefficient and nonparametric Spearman's coefficient, nonparametric analysis of distributions by Pearson's chi-square test and qualitative analysis of distributions, analysis of an individual case.

For processing, only the data of the three main series were used, and the results of the introductory and training series were not taken into account.

Independent variables (factors) were: task complexity (3 levels: easy, medium, difficult), extraversion (2 levels: extraversion, introversion), neuroticism (2 levels: neuroticism, emotional stability), 2 activation factors, according to AMC data filled in before the start of the main series of the experiment: energy activation, voltage activation (two levels for each factor: high and low degrees), as well as auditory dominance, according to the results of Kimura's dichotic test, estimated by the formula for the coefficient of the right ear (Simernitskaya, 1978 ):

Kpu = (P-L) / (P + L), where P is the number of words correctly named if presented from the right channel;

L is the number of words correctly named if presented from the left channel;

The division into groups according to the EPI and AMC scales was based on the median criterion. Determination of the dominance group according to the dichotic test

- according to the described norms (Simernitskaya, 1978).

In order to analyze the stability of the subjects' state during the experiment, the results of AMS filled in before the start of the main series and after their end were statistically compared.

The dependent variables were: the probability of correct hits (P (H)), the reaction time with correct hits (VR), and the standard deviation of the reaction time with correct hits (VR) separately for the right and left ears.

For the second and third series, the nonparametric sensitivity indices A 'and the Yesrate criterion were also used, calculated by the following formulas (Macmillan, Creelman, 1990):

A = 0.5 + (P (Hit) - P (FA)) * (1 + P (Hit) - P (FA)) / 4 * P (Hit) * (1 - P (FA)) Yesrate = P (Yes ) / 2 = (P (H) + P (FA)) / 2 For the easy run, A 'and Yesrate were not calculated. This is due to the fact that in an easy task, a detection rate of about 100% and a false alarm rate of about 0% are assumed. Thus, there is no area of ​​overlap in the distributions of signal and noise sensations; therefore, the indicators A 'and Yesrate in this situation are not informative.

Lateral effects (LE), or degrees of asymmetry) were also assessed for P (H), BP, BP, A 'and Yesrate: they were calculated as the absolute values ​​of the differences of the corresponding indicators for the ears in this series:

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

For the indicators P (H), ВР, ВР, A 'and Yesrate, the values ​​of the asymmetry coefficient were not calculated (by analogy with the dichotic test of D. Kimura) due to the fact that the normalization by the total sum of values ​​for different ears according to the indicators P (H) , A 'and Yesrate distorts the picture of asymmetry: a regular decrease in their values ​​for individual ears also decreases the total sum itself, and, thus, dividing by this sum will almost always give an increase in asymmetry as the task becomes more complicated. For the speed characteristics of VR and VR, the asymmetry coefficient is also not informative, since the very logic of the application of the chronometry method from the point of view of the structural-functional approach to the study of the microstructure of mental actions presupposes a meaningful analysis of the absolute increases in VR.

Separately, the sign of ear asymmetry (AA) was taken into account as an indicator of the dominance of one of the hemispheres for this indicator in this series.

UA P (H) n = P (H) n_l - P (H) n_r UA BPn = BPn_l - BPn_r UA BPn = BPn_l - BPn_r UA A '= A'n_l - A'n_r UA Yesrate = Yesraten_l - Yesraten_r, where l / r - on the left / right ear; n is the series number.

Depending on UA, the subject according to this indicator belonged to the group of left hemispheric (LPD), right hemispheric (PPD) dominance or symmetric (SIM) distribution of this indicator (Table 1).

Tab. 1. Determination of the dominance group by psychophysical indicator based on the sign of ear asymmetry.

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

VR PPD SIM LPD

VR PPD SIM LPD

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

* Those values ​​of the studied indicators were considered symmetric, which were equal to 0 +/- 1 standard error of the mean.

** Dominance according to the Yesrate criterion is conditional: “dominant” is the hemisphere that applies the more liberal criterion.

For further analysis of dominance, the distribution by dominance groups *** was used.

Additionally, the influence of the “hand on the console” factor on VR, VR, LE VR, LE VR was assessed.

Section 3. Psychological analysis of the results of the study of the detection of a sound signal.

3.1. Results The complexity of the problem.

Table 2 shows the group data of 83 subjects on the main measurable indicators, depending on the complexity of the task. The results are presented averaged over the right and left ears, as well as the absolute values ​​of LE.

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

Analysis of variance showed a significant effect of the complexity of the problem on the dynamics of the average values ​​for each of the analyzed indicators: an increase in the complexity of the problem tends to decrease the values ​​of P (H) and A ', increase the values ​​of BP and BP, as well as toughening the criterion. Also, with the complication of the problem, a significant increase in the LE values ​​was noted in terms of P (H) (F = 37.66; sig. = 0.00), BP (F = 14.0; sig. = 0.00), BP (F = 4.76, sig. = 0.01) and Yesrate (F = 34.57, sig. = 0.00), as well as an insignificant decrease in A '(F = 0.13;

*** Additionally, it would be required to take into account the dynamics of dominance for all three indicators, that is, to introduce PLO for each subject, but such a procedure can split the sample into many (up to 27) small subsamples, which turned out to be unrealistic based on the total number of subjects.

sig. = 0.72) (Appendix 1). Figure 5 shows graphs reflecting the dynamics of changes in the LE according to the measured indicators.

Fig. 5. Inter-series dynamics LE P (H), LE VR, LE VR (sdVR), LE Yesrate.

Nonparametric analysis of frequencies using the Pearson chi-square test showed significant frequency changes in the signs of hemispheric dominance for the indicators P (H) (2 = 85.31; sig. = 0.00), VR (2 = 26.43; sig. = 0 , 00) and Yesrate (2 = 25.31;

sig. = 0.00). For the P (H) and Yesrate indicators, as the task becomes more complex, the proportion of the SIM group decreases and the frequency of occurrence of the PPD and LPD groups increases, and in all cases these groups increase with approximately the same absolute increments (Appendix 2). For the BP index in the light series, a low occurrence of the CIM and LPD groups was noted (12 and 15%, respectively), compared with the PPD group (72%). With an increase in the complexity of the task, against the background of a regular decrease in the occurrence of the SIM group (8% for a task of medium complexity and 1% for a difficult task), there is a systematic decrease in the PPD group and an increase in the APD group. In a difficult task, the subjects of the APD group make up the absolute majority of the sample (58%) (Appendix 2). Pearson's chi-square test did not show significant shifts in terms of BP and A '(Appendix 2).

Fig. 6. Inter-series dynamics of dominance groups: a) by VR; b) by Yesrate.

According to self-report data, the subjects showed no significant differences in the number of stimuli used in different tasks. However, it should be noted that as the task becomes more complex, there is a tendency to an increase in the frequency of using the so-called modal-nonspecific features (Bardin, Indlin, 1993): 46.5% of the subjects reported their use in an easy task, 60.5% - in the average ; 65.1 - difficult. The complexity of the problem was not reflected in the frequency of using various acoustic features.

A significant dependence of the subjective perception of the nature of the task on the degree of its complexity was also noted (2 = 42.01; sig. = 0.00):

as a simple sensorimotor task (to hear - to press a button) 79.1% perceive an easy series, an average - 27.9%, a difficult - 14% of subjects; respectively;

20.9% perceived an easy series as a difficult analytical task, 72.1% - an average one, and 86% - a difficult one.

Activation.

For the results according to the EPI questionnaire by G. Aysenck, according to the analysis of variance, the following significant effects on VR were revealed:

According to the factor "extraversion" - group differences in the average value of the VR for all tasks: in all cases, the extroverts showed a lower VR (Appendix 3);

According to the factor "neuroticism" - group differences in the mean value of VR for all tasks: in all cases, lower VR was shown by neurotic subjects (Appendix 3).

Thus, in general, according to the experience, the least VR was shown by extraverted neurotic subjects, the greatest - by introverted stable subjects.

A significant interaction of the factors "extraversion" and "neuroticism" was also noted for the indicator of stability of VR in experience (VR) in a complex task: in the group of introverts, emotionally stable subjects gain an advantage, in the group of extraverts - neurotic subjects (Appendix 3). Similar differences, but at the tendency level (F = 2.11; sig. = 0.1), were also noted for the mean BP in the middle series.

Rice. 7. Influence of dispositional activation on indicators for a complex task: a) VR;

b) BP (sdBP).

Correlation analysis of the results of the survey by the AMC method before and after the main series of the experiment yielded the following results: Spearman's nonparametric correlation coefficient between repeated measurements for the "energy activation" factor is 0.45, for the "voltage activation" factor - 0.68. Both results are significant at the p = 0.01 level. This allows us to consider the state of the subjects relatively stable over the time interval in which the main series of the experiment are carried out, and to extend the results of the survey using the AMC method to all tasks.

The factor "energy activation" had a significant impact on:

The average value of VR in the task of medium complexity: highly activated subjects showed a lower value compared to low activated ones;

LE A 'in a difficult task: highly activated subjects showed a lower LE value (see Appendix 4).

At the level of tendencies that do not reach the required level of significance (0.1p0.05), the advantages of highly activated subjects in terms of the level of sensory sensitivity (A ") for a task of medium complexity were also found, as well as lower values ​​of LE HR for tasks of medium and high complexity, and there is also a tendency for a decrease in LE VR in highly activated subjects, compared with low activated ones.

On the factor "activation of tension", two significant effects were obtained: in the task of medium complexity, the subjects from the tense group showed a more liberal criterion than the more calm ones, and also a lower LE A 'than the subjects from the calm group (Appendix 4). At the tendency level, stressed subjects also showed lower values ​​of LE VR and LE VR than those of calm subjects.

Also, significant effects from the interaction of the factors "energy activation" and "stress activation" were found, which manifested themselves exclusively in the task of medium complexity (Appendix 4). So, for the average value of P (H), among the low-activated subjects, the more tense subjects received an advantage, and among the highly activated subjects, the calm ones. A similar effect was obtained for the mean A '. It was noted that higher values ​​of LE P (H), LE VR and LE Yesrate in the group of low activated subjects were shown by more stressed subjects, in the group of highly activated subjects - more calm ones (for the LE VR index, the same tendency was found at the tendency level). According to LE A ', the more stressed subjects showed a higher value in the group of low activated subjects, and in the group of highly activated subjects, the groups of calm and tense subjects showed approximately the same values. Figure 6 shows the effect of factor interaction for the LE of VR in the average problem.

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

The “hand on the control panel” factor did not significantly affect the manifestations of interhemispheric asymmetry in any of the three conditions of the detection problem.

Leading ear.

The coefficient of the right ear, measured according to the results of passing the dichotic listening test, according to the correlation analysis using the parametric Pearson correlation coefficient and the nonparametric Spearman coefficient, did not find links with the severity of LE and signs of ear asymmetry of the indicators measured in a psychophysical experiment in any of the conditions of the detection problem.

3.2. The discussion of the results.

Based on the results of the experimental study, we found that due to the complication of the sensory task, an increase in LE is observed in all measured parameters (except for the sensory sensitivity index A`), as well as an increase in statistically significant dynamics of asymmetry signs for three of the five measured indicators. Just as it was done above, when analyzing the literature data, we will consider the obtained result from two points of view: resource (that is, in terms of activation of mental effort) and functional (as an analysis of decision strategies).

First of all, it should be noted that changes in the severity of asymmetry do not affect the sensory component of the problem solving process, that is, the value of the A 'index. All changes in the lateral effect are recorded only for those variables that are somehow related to decision making. Thus, the increase in asymmetry in P (H) is most likely associated with the interhemispheric variability of the criterion observed according to the results, and not with the dynamic differences between the two channels of the analyzer in sensitivity. single or multiple resources. In the event that the resources for both hemispheres are the same, then, based on the most general concepts of lateral interaction, it is necessary to describe at least three blocks to which resources should be allocated, two of which are the processes of intrahemispheric interaction for each hemisphere, the third - block for the implementation of interhemispheric interaction. Further, as prescribed by the resource hike, we describe the requirements of the problem. From the point of view of the structure of activity, they are the same for all three conditions: this is the task of unilateral detection, therefore, the priority, from the point of view of the distribution policy, is to ensure intrahemispheric interaction, and the interhemispheric one will be provided only if there are free resources. At the same time, at the “pre-exposure” stage, this task is a task for distributed attention (since the subject does not know in advance which ear the stimulus will be presented to), and therefore resources are equally required by both “intrahemispheric” blocks (unless the subject tries in advance guess where the next stimulus will be presented, which in itself refers us to the analysis of orienting strategies, which are an artifact in relation to the "objective" requirements of the problem). Based on the foregoing, the dynamics of the lateral effect in terms of resources is described as follows: more resource-intensive conditions of an average and, moreover, a complex task, imply an increase in the amount of resources to ensure the operation of the “intrahemispheric” blocks, thereby “robbing” the block of interhemispheric interaction, for which the resources only enough for an easy task. Meanwhile, the manifestation of asymmetry is possible only if the block of the distribution policy somehow determines the priority of one or another hemisphere.

From the point of view of the idea of ​​multiple resources, based on the assumption of only two independent resource receptacles, each of which is associated with one hemisphere, as suggested by A. Friedman and her co-authors (Friedman, Polson, 1981), we can assume the dynamics of the lateral effect is a consequence of the inequality of the optima activation required for the solution of the same problem by different hemispheres (Herdman, Friedman, 1985). This inequality is almost invisible in an easy task, but manifests itself in an average, and especially in a resource-intensive complex task. In addition, asymmetry may be due to the specific nature of hemisphere activation, related to the emotional asymmetry of the brain: for example, an increase in a negative emotional state can increase the resource available to the left hemisphere, thereby increasing its efficiency in processing (Davidson, 1998; Schapkin, Gusev, 2003) ...

Considering possible explanations of the results obtained in the framework of the resource approach, we come across its limitations when analyzing the solution of the problem under study.

Thus, in the unified resource model, it remains unclear how the asymmetric distribution of resources between the hemispheres occurs in complex sensory tasks. As an explanation, ideas about the functional asymmetry and the asymmetry of the “resource” (Herdman, Friedman, 1985) can act here; a number of other studies (eg, Chomskaya et al., 1997). In connection with this objection, we also recall that the asymmetry value obtained in our experiment, in none of the problems, did not correlate with the indicator of the leading ear obtained from the results of the dichotic test. It is worth noting, however, that the dichotic test is aimed at diagnosing asymmetry by verbal hearing, while in the main experiment the subjects worked with non-verbal signals.

In connection with the named limitations of the resource approach, we consider it necessary, in addition to analyzing the energy component of the sensory process, to use the analysis of its structural and procedural side, taking into account its variability at the level of the observer as an active subject of activity, using a flexible individual system of internal means, or strategies consistent with logic specific conditions of the problem being solved. In this context, we will consider interhemispheric asymmetry in the light of A.R. Luria's idea of ​​the dynamic functional localization of higher mental functions (Luria, 1973;

2001), which are undoubtedly involved in solving the sensory task. In this regard, the data of self-reports of the subjects as subjects actively solving and experiencing the problem are especially useful to us.

As can be seen from the analyzes of self-reports, the complication of the task is clearly associated with the dynamics of the subjective perception of this task by the observer. The vast majority of our subjects noted the increasing role of careful analysis of their sensations with increasing complexity, while almost all subjects described the easy series as sensorimotor (in this regard, we note a significant increase in VR and its variability with increasing complexity). In this regard, it is especially worth paying attention to the dynamics of dominance signs in terms of VR (Appendix 2b). The absolute predominance of subjects with dominance in the right hemisphere, apparently, is associated with a simple sensory dominance of the right hemisphere in the perception of non-speech sounds, described in detail by neuropsychologists (Luria, 1973; Chomskaya, 1987;

Razumnikova, 1997; Chomskaya et al., 1997). The growing role of the left hemisphere in intermediate and complex tasks, in our opinion, is associated with an increase in the role of the analytical approach to the detection task. At the same time, the preservation of the dominance of the right hemisphere for about half of the subjects in a complex task, in contrast to an easy one, is presumably mediated by somewhat different mechanisms than acoustic dominance; these mechanisms lead us to consider the possibility of individual sensory strategies.

Based on the analysis of classical and modern literature data on sensory psychophysics, we distinguish two main understandings of sensory strategy:

criterion strategies (which was assessed by the dynamics of the decision criterion index, this is a macrodynamic aspect that can be assessed only by a whole experience or a block of samples) and compensatory discrimination strategies (which make it possible to take into account the microstructural dynamics of the sensory process).

The flexibility of the criterion strategy is reflected in the increase in interhemispheric differences. At this stage, it is not possible to draw conclusions about the nature of this phenomenon, moreover, such a task was not set in this study. However, it does not appear to be related to the sensory characteristics of detection. Perhaps, we are talking here about strategies for orienting the subject in a situation of high uncertainty, more complex strategies than are described in the classical theory of signal detection in connection with the concept of “criterion”.

It is now interesting for us to dwell in more detail on the strategies of compensatory discrimination (Bardeen, Indlin, 1993), which, according to the self-reports of the subjects, are evident in our sensory tasks. We are primarily interested in the following points: how extensively the subjects use non-sensory signs (their number), the nature of these signs, as well as the nature of operations for their use.

As noted, no statistical regularities were found in the analysis of descriptions of features in self-reports. Nonetheless, the insightful analysis was helpful. First of all, an interesting phenomenon was noted, which we called "post-experimental reflexive paradox". It was associated with the peculiarities of the self-report structure (where the subjects, when answering the question about the possible acoustic signs of the signal, given their inexperience in solving such problems, were given an approximate list of such signs: loudness, voiced, pitch, etc.) and consisted in the fact that for an easy task, many of them wrote as many features even more (very rarely - fewer) than for an average and complex task, while in the answer to the question about the subjective perception of the task, the absolute majority noted it as a simple sensorimotor task ... For medium and complex tasks, the subject leaves, as a rule, 2-3 (much less often - 4-5 signs). We offer several possible explanations for this phenomenon. First of all, it can be associated with the subjective obvious presence of all the signs proposed to him in stimulating an easy task, although he did not use them in solving the problem itself. Another possible explanation may be related to the partial interference of memories of each of the tasks, since self-reporting was given about the entire experiment immediately after its complete completion. Both of these hypotheses describe the “post-experimental reflexive paradox” as an artifact in relation to the main research objective.

It seems important to us to consider the third hypothetical explanation of this phenomenon, which is directly related to the problem of strategies.

To do this, we compared the data of self-reports on an easy task (answers to questions about signs and subjective perception of the task) with psychophysical data, in particular, with data on VR and VR (Table 2). The average RT for an easy task is 537 ms, which is higher than the average time for simple recognition (Posner, Raichle, 1997). In addition, significant group variability was noted for the easy task (VR = 192 ms).

Thus, comparing all these data, we can put forward the following hypothesis: apparently, the task is easy for the subject, the stimulus is analyzed according to the main sensory feature (it "pops out", but some subjects are inclined to carry out a confirmatory test). This interpretation of the resulting phenomenon of “post-experimental reflexive paradox” is consistent with the literature data on the phenomenon of under- or over-confidence - the paradoxical tendency of subjects in psychophysical experiments to assess their confidence in the correctness of the answer for light sensory tasks as low, and for complex ones - as high (Gusev, 2002; Skotnikova, 2002). Nevertheless, all hypothetical explanations for the phenomenon of "post-experimental reflexive paradox" we received

need careful checking.

As in the studies of the school of K.V. Bardin (Voitenko, 1989; Bardin, Indlin, 1993), additional sensory features, according to the self-reports of the subjects, can be divided into acoustic and modal-nonspecific. Compared to acoustic signs, the use of modal-nonspecific signs was much less pronounced. It should also be noted that these signs are much more individualized: they were presented as simple synesthetic images (“hard-soft”, “dark-light”, etc.), as complex object images (“loudness sliders on a stereo tape recorder: the greater their total content, the sooner it is a signal "- use KB;" water and syrup are mixed in one vessel): more water - noise, more syrup - signal "isp. A.U.), finally, as emotional experiences ("a signal is akin to joy, excitement, noise is an unpleasant sensation" - isp. EM). Compared to acoustic signs, modally nonspecific ones seem to be more irrational, they contain a complex idea that is captured by a single act ("parallel"), that is, they relate more to a holistic strategy, which is usually associated with the activity of the right hemisphere. We also note that, according to the analysis of isolated cases, the subjects with the brightest modal-nonspecific images were at the same time the most productive in the psychophysical experiment (in terms of sensitivity and speed characteristics). For some of them, BP remained stable in all tasks, which corresponds to the concept of parallel processing of information. In contrast, the use of acoustic features suggests sequential analysis, which neuropsychologists usually associate with the functions of the left hemisphere (Chomskaya, 1987;

Razumnikov, 1997). However, our attempt to "localize" the signs in one or another hemisphere failed. It is important that the use of acoustic and modal-nonspecific features for compensatory discrimination makes it possible in principle to see two operationally different strategies aimed at increasing the efficiency of solving a sensory problem of a high degree of uncertainty. And these strategies, apparently, are associated with the manifestation of the lateral effect.

Finally, let's analyze the operational side of the discovery process and the place of strategies in it. All the subjects from among those who were able to give a detailed answer to the direct question about the techniques and methods of detection (unfortunately, only 7 subjects gave such an answer), noted the important role of referring to the memory system in order to check the correspondence of the current stimulus to the image of the “ideal” signal. formed in the training series and previous trials of the main series. According to the data obtained, this process resembles a test of sensory hypotheses (in two reports the word “hypothesis” is found in direct use): in this case, signs are successively “tried on” to the stimulus.

This result, on the one hand, confirms the legitimacy of using the idea of ​​“subjective integration of features” to describe our task (Treisman, Gormican, 1988, cited in Posner, Raichle, 1997). On the other hand, this idea develops the idea of ​​A.V. Zaporozhets about the formation of sensory standards (Zaporozhets, 1975).

Finally, we come to an attempt to generalize the considered data from the point of view of methodological representations of the functional-activity approach.

Based on the analysis carried out, the strategies of the subject's work can be considered by us as an individualized system of internal means (operations, attributes), which the observer uses in accordance with the requirements of the problem (Leontyev, 1981). We assume that for simple tasks the subject uses a limited number of these means, while the rest are at the background level of action regulation (Fig. 9a) (Bernstein, 1947). Complication of the conditions of the problem, in accordance with the concept of a functional organ (Leontiev, 1981), requires the inclusion of background components in the leading level of regulation, turning them into a system of actually acting means. According to the concept of dynamic functional localization of higher mental functions (Luria, 1973; 2000), we assume that the actualization of these means generates asymmetric patterns of excitation of the cerebral cortex, which can be conventionally called "strategic centers."

Rice. 9. Schematic representation of a functional model of decision-making in a sensory task: a) in an easy one (minimized and directly); b) in a complex (expanded and mediated).

S - stimulus, O - sensation itself, P - memory system, C1, ..., C6 - lateral strategies.

In this case, the abbreviated connections between the components of sensation and response unfold into a system of mutual connections that combine sensory and motor links with a mediating link - strategy. As a result of this, behavioral asymmetry manifests itself, which is apparently associated with the uneven distance of the sensory and motor components of different hemispheres relative to the “strategic center” of the brain, the effect of which is enhanced due to the cyclical nature of the processes of comparing the current and reference stimulus images (Fig. 9b) (Transmission et al., 1987; Gusev, 2002).

Finally, we turn to a discussion of the role of activation in sensory task. As noted, extroverts and neurotic ones gained an advantage over introverts and stable ones in terms of VR in all series. At first glance, this contradicts the conclusions of G. Aysenck and other researchers in this area (stated in: Gusev, Shapkin, 2001; Gusev, 2002): the theoretical model predicts opposite results.

However, a careful analysis of the conditions of our problem allows us to comprehend the results obtained in terms of activation optima. In our task, extraverts received a sufficient amount of additional stimulation, since they worked in a group, which is a good motivational and activation reinforcement for them, while for introverts the most beneficial conditions are complex (more difficult or longer) tasks that require prolonged concentration in monotonous conditions. The experimental series in our experiments were short in duration, and even a complex series did not seem tiresome to the subjects. Apparently, under these conditions, solving the problem did not require introverts to attract additional resources, as was the case in A.N. Gusev and S.A. Shapkin (Schapkin, Gusev, 2003). In terms of activation theory, it can be assumed that extraverts were closer to the optimal level (moving up - from suboptimal to optimal), introverts, on the contrary, could be at the post-optimal level of activation (moving down - from optimal to post-optimal). As for the second factor EPI - "neuroticism" - our tasks did not contain expressed personally and emotionally significant conditions. Therefore, for neurotic subjects, in general, more activated, the conditions were optimal, while stable ones, perhaps, required additional resources. Our hypothetical analysis is in good agreement with the model of M. Humphries and W. Revelle (1984), in which various kinds of nonlinear dependences of the effectiveness of performance of vigilance tasks on the level of activation and neuroticism are considered in detail (Humphries, Revelle, 1984).

Finally, we turn to the data related to situational activation. Here we got significant differences, mainly in the problem of medium complexity. The results correspond to R. Thayer's model (Thayer, 1978): more activated and less stressed subjects receive benefits in terms of overall productivity. At the same time, as predicted by R. Thayer's model, and even earlier - the Yerkes-Dodson law, the most optimal combination of factors turns out to be "high activation" - "low voltage", creating a moderate general activation background. This fact, as well as the noted decrease in lateral effects in the group of optimal activation, clearly agrees with the model of unified cognitive resources by D. Kahneman (Kahneman, 1973).

It is also worth noting that the observed effects of the influence of situational activation on overall productivity took place only in the task of medium complexity.

A characteristic feature of this task was that with high requirements for maintaining active attention (as opposed to an easy one, where these requirements were lower), this task contained suprathreshold stimuli, which were quite well distinguishable when the conditions for maintaining attention were observed, that is, with regular and moderate mental effort. ... Therefore, in our opinion, resource models work successfully here.

In a complex problem, where, in addition to the vigilance condition, the problem of near-threshold detection is also introduced and where, as has been shown, mental mediation of the sensory process by individual detection strategies and voluntary control are of particular importance, the resource model stops working. Similar considerations were expressed by A.R. Luria based on the data of studies of patients with lesions of the brainstem structures of the midbrain (apparatus of the first functional block of the brain). In these cases, the defect was compensated by training voluntary attention (apparatus of the third functional block) (Luria, 1973).

Thus, we conclude that the energy (resource) support of activity is a necessary basis for solving a sensory task, but its role should be considered in relation to the means used to carry out the action.

3.3. Conclusions.

1. The influence of the complexity of the task of signal detection on the manifestation of interhemispheric asymmetry has been revealed: with the complication of the task, an increase in the lateral effect is noted in all measured parameters, except for the index of sensory sensitivity.

2. The influence of factors of dispositional activation ("extraversion"

and "neuroticism") on VR for all levels of task complexity: the extraverted and neurotic subjects got an advantage

3. The influence of the factors of situational activation ("energy activation" and "activation of tension") on the efficiency of work and the value of the lateral effect in the task of medium complexity was found: the advantage in efficiency and a smaller lateral effect was shown by the subjects with the combination of "high activation" - "low tension" ...

4. A relationship was found between the dynamics of the lateral effect and the sign of asymmetry with an increase in the role of the strategy of sequential analysis of incoming stimulation.

Conclusion In this paper, we examined the importance of energy activation factors and the use of individual strategies for solving a problem in the regulation of effective decision and vigilance. Throughout the work, we discussed this problem in the form of a dialogue between two positions: the resource approach, which has undoubted dominance in modern psychology of sensory tasks, and the functional-activity approach, the application of which to the study of the solution of sensory problems can be traced, mainly, in the domestic psychophysics of the last 20 years. This approach allows us to consider the observer not as a device for processing information with limited bandwidth, but as a subject of sensory activity, actively building a system of internal means (strategies) that allow solving the problem with a high uncertainty of stimulation.

It is precisely this interaction with the task that, in our opinion, was shown by the subjects in our experiment.

Based on the results of the study, we will highlight possible prospects for the development of this issue. We believe that the further use of the method of lateral presentation and analysis of the dynamics of interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain in the study of sensory tasks is effective. It is also necessary to study the microstructure of strategies in more detail, especially from the procedural side, for which it seems necessary to improve the self-report procedure of the subjects, and it also seems possible to use neurophysiological research methods. Finally, attention should be paid to studying not only stimulus analysis strategies, but also strategies for orientation in the sensory environment.

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• Candidate of Sciences in Psychology: specialty 19.00.01 "General Psychology, Personality Psychology, History of Psychology", dissertation topic: Psychological mechanisms for solving the problem of signal detection

Specialty: Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, specialty "Psychology"

Additional education / Continuing education / Internships

2016, October-December - scientific internship at Vision and Memory Laboratory, University of California San Diego (La Jolla, USA)

2015, October-December - scientific internship at Visual Attention Laboratory, Harvard Medical School / Brigham & Women 's Hospital (Cambridge / Boston, USA)

Graduation qualification works of students

• Undergraduate

2016 5

Article Utochkin I. S. // The Russian Journal of Cognitive Science... 2016. Vol. 3.No. 1-2. P. 4-20.

Article Utochkin I.S., Yurevich M.A., Bulatova M.E. // Russian Journal of Cognitive Science. 2016.Vol. 3.No. 3.P. 58-76.

The head of the book, Utochkin I.S. // In the book: The Seventh International Conference on Cognitive Science: Abstracts. Svetlogorsk, June 20-24, 2016 M.: Institute of Psychology RAS, 2016. P. 585-586.

Article, Utochkin I.S. // Petersburg psychological journal. 2016. No. 17. S. 104-124.

2012 6

2011 6

2009 4

The head of the book is Utochkin I.S., Gusev A.N. // In the book: Modern psychophysics / Otv. ed .: V. Drummers. M.: Institute of Psychology RAS, 2009.S. 92-109.

In 1998 he graduated from high school with a gold medal and entered the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov.

In 2003 he graduated from the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University, Department of General Psychology. Thesis topic: "Resources of attention and information processing strategies in the problem of detecting a sound signal." Scientific adviser: Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. A.N. Gusev.

Since 2003 - postgraduate student of the Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University, Department of Personality Psychology. Topic of Ph.D. thesis: "Psychological mechanisms for solving the problem of signal detection." Scientific adviser: Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, prof. A.N. Gusev.

Research Interests

General psychology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, psychophysiology, differential psychology. Research into the problems of sensation, perception, attention, memory, speech, movement: their mechanisms and dynamic brain organization. Subjective psychophysics: the influence of higher mental processes and individual differences on the organization of a simple sensory image. Strategies for solving cognitive tasks. Spatial attention mechanisms.

Current line of research: spatial attention in vigilance problems. Spatial selection strategies.

Participation in scientific conferences and competitions

2002

Diploma-recipient of the competition for the best scientific work in the category "Works of senior students" in the framework of the II International conference "A.R. Luria and Psychology of the XXI Century "(work" Interhemispheric asymmetry and activation in the problem of detecting a sound signal ", 3rd place).

2003

February (Moscow-Zvenigorod) - Memorial Winter Psychological School dedicated to the 100th anniversary of A.N. Leontyev.

March (Moscow) - interuniversity scientific-practical conference on military psychology, report "On the role of interhemispheric brain asymmetry in the regulation of vigilance in military personnel of operator specialties."

March-April - I All-Russian Internet Conference on Cognitive Science, report "The Application of Psychological Analysis of Activity in Studying Signal Detection Problems: Facts, Hypotheses, Models".

September (Divnomorsky) - International conference "Intelligent Systems".

October (Kazan) - The first Russian conference on cognitive science.
Slides in PPS format. Transcript of the report in WMA format.

Publications

1. Teaching at Moscow State University

   2004

   Course "Experimental Psychology" (seminars).

   2005

   Course "General Psychology", section "Memory and Attention" (seminars).

   Teaching at SU HSE (State University - Higher School of Economics)

   2005

   Course "General Psychology", section "Feeling and Perception" (seminars).