Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism. Abstract Anthropocentrism and Humanism of the Philosophy of the Italian Renaissance
Since the XV century. the transition begins in history Western Europe era - the era of the Renaissance, which created its brilliant culture. The most important condition for the flourishing of culture in the Renaissance was the breakdown of the dictatorship of the church.
Anthropocentrism- the doctrine according to which man is the center of the Universe and the goal of all events taking place in the world.
Humanism - a kind of anthropocentrism, views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom and happiness.
Secular interests, a full-blooded earthly life of man were opposed to feudal asceticism:
– Petrarch, who collected ancient manuscripts, calls to "heal the bloody wounds" of his native Italy, trampled by the boot of foreign soldiers and torn apart by the enmity of feudal tyrants;
– Boccaccio in his "Decameron" ridicules the depraved clergy, parasitic nobility and glorifies the inquisitive mind, the desire for pleasure and the ebullient energy of the townspeople;
– Erasmus of Rotterdam in the satire "Praise of Folly" and Rabelais in the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" they express humanism and the unacceptability of the old medieval ideology.
A huge influence on the development of ideas of humanism was also exerted by: Leonardo da Vinci(his works of painting, sculpture and architecture, works in mathematics, biology, geology, anatomy are dedicated to man, his greatness); Michelangelo Buonarroti(in his canvas "Lamentation of Christ", in the painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, in the statue "David" the physical and spiritual beauty of man, his unlimited creative possibilities are affirmed).
The philosophy of the Renaissance is filled with the recognition of the value of a person as an individual, his right to free development and the manifestation of his abilities.
Stages of development humanism:
- secular free-thinking, which opposes medieval scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church;
- value and moral emphasis of philosophy and literature.
A new culture and philosophy appeared in Italy, then covering a number of European countries: France, Germany, etc.
The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance:
- denial of "book wisdom" and scholastic words based on the study of nature itself;
- the use of materialistic works of philosophers of Antiquity (Democritus, Epicurus);
- close connection with natural science;
- study of the problem of man, the transformation of philosophy into anthropocentric in its direction.
Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527) - one of the first social philosophers of the Renaissance to reject the theocratic concept of the state.
He substantiated the need for a secular state, proving that selfishness and material interest are the driving motives of people's activities. The evil of human nature, the desire for enrichment by any means reveal the need to curb human instincts with the help of a special force - the state.
Necessary order in society creates legal worldview people that the church cannot bring up, but only the state, that is the main idea of Niccolo Machiavelli.
Questions Machiavelli considers:
- "Which is better: to inspire love or fear?"
- "How are sovereigns supposed to keep their word?"
- "How to avoid hatred and contempt?"
- "What should a sovereign do to be honored?"
- "How to avoid flatterers?" and etc.
17. SPECIFICITY OF RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY: NEOPLATONISM, NATURPHILOSOPHY, THEOSOPHY, PANTHEISM
Renaissance- the era of the revival of classical antiquity, the emergence of a new sensation, a sense of life, considered as akin to the vital feeling of Antiquity and as the opposite of the medieval attitude to life with its detachment from the world, which seemed sinful.
The Renaissance in Europe takes place from the 14th to the 16th century.
Neoplatonism- one of the forms of Greek philosophy, which arose as a result of mixing the teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Stoic, Pythagorean, etc. with Eastern and Christian mysticism and religion.
The main ideas of Neoplatonism:
- mystical-intuitive knowledge of the higher;
- the existence of a number of steps in the transition from higher to matter;
- the liberation of a materially burdened person for pure spirituality with the help of ecstasy or asceticism.
The Renaissance uses Neoplatonism to develop philosophical thought. From ancient Neoplatonism, he adopted aesthetic attention to everything bodily, natural, especially admiration for the human body. The understanding of man as a spiritual person was inherited from medieval Neoplatonism.
Natural philosophy Is a set of philosophical attempts to interpret and explain nature.
The goals of natural philosophy:
- generalization and integration of general knowledge about nature;
- clarification of basic natural science concepts;
- cognition of connections and laws of natural phenomena.
The natural philosophy of the Renaissance was of a pantheistic nature, that is, without directly denying the existence of God, it identified him with nature.
The natural philosophical views of the Renaissance philosophers are combined with elements of spontaneous dialectics, which in many respects comes from ancient sources. Noting the constant variability of all things and phenomena, they argued that for many centuries the surface of the Earth changes, the seas turn into continents, and the continents - into seas. Man, in their opinion, is a part of nature, and his boundless love for the knowledge of the infinite, the power of his mind, elevate him above the world.
Theosophy - wisdom from God. Theosophy is called the highest knowledge of God and the divine, which is achieved by direct contemplation and experience, due to which the secret of divine creation becomes available.
A vivid adherent of theosophy in the Renaissance is Nikolai Kuzansky. He, like other thinkers, believed that knowledge was given to man by God. If we consider that knowledge is from God, and God is unknowable, then God is the limit of knowledge. God is the limit beyond which there is no knowledge, but there is faith, there is the realization of God. God is truth, and truth is not cognized, but realized by man.
Pantheism - doctrine that deifies the Universe, nature.
Pantheism exists in four forms: 1) theomonistic pantheism endows only God with existence, depriving the world of its independent existence;
2) physiomonistic pantheism asserts that there is only the world, nature, which the supporters of this trend call God, thereby depriving God of independent existence;
3) mystical pantheism;
4) immanent-transcendental pantheism, according to which God is realized in things. Supporters of pantheism during the Renaissance exalted the person through God.
PHILOSOPHY OF NEW TIME
Since the 17th century. natural science, astronomy, mathematics, mechanics are developing rapidly; the development of science could not but have an impact on philosophy.
In philosophy, the doctrine of the omnipotence of reason and limitless possibilities arises. scientific research.
A characteristic of the philosophy of modern times is a strong materialistic tendency, arising primarily from experimental natural science.
Major philosophers in 17th century Europe. are:
- F. Bacon (England);
- S. Hobbes (England);
- J. Locke (England);
- R. Descartes (France);
- B. Spinoza (Holland);
- G. Leibniz (Germany).
In the philosophy of modern times, much attention is paid to the problems of being and substance - ontologies, especially when it comes about movement, space and time.
The problems of substance and its properties are of interest to literally all philosophers of modern times, because the task of science and philosophy (to promote human health and beauty, as well as to increase his power over nature) led to an understanding of the need to study the causes of phenomena, their essential forces.
In the philosophy of this period, two approaches to the concept of "substance" appear:
- ontological understanding of substance as the ultimate foundation of being, the founder is Francis Bacon (1561-1626);
- epistemological understanding of the concept of "substance", its necessity for scientific knowledge, the founder - John Locke (1632-1704).
According to Locke, ideas and concepts have their source in the external world, material things. Material bodies have only quantitative features, there is no qualitative diversity of matter: material bodies differ from each other only in size, figure, movement and rest (primary qualities). Smells, sounds, colors, tastes are secondary qualities, they, Locke believed, arise in the subject under the influence of primary qualities.
English philosopher David Hume(1711-1776) sought the answers of being, opposing the materialistic understanding of substance. He, rejecting the real existence of material and spiritual substance, believed that there is an “idea” of a substance, under which the association of human perception, inherent in everyday, and not scientific, knowledge is subsumed.
The philosophy of modern times has made a huge step in the development of the theory of knowledge (epistemology), the main ones are:
- problems of the philosophical scientific method;
- methodology of human cognition of the external world;
- connections between external and internal experience;
- the task of obtaining reliable knowledge. There were two main epistemological directions:
– empiricism(founder - F. Bacon);
– rationalism(R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz). The main ideas of the philosophy of modern times:
- the principle of an autonomously thinking subject;
- the principle of methodological doubt;
- inductive-empirical method;
- intellectual intuition or rational-deductive method;
- hypothetical-deductive construction of a scientific theory;
- development of a new legal outlook, substantiation and protection of the rights of a citizen and a person. The main task of the philosophy of modern times was an attempt to implement the idea autonomous philosophy, free from religious premises; build a coherent worldview on reasonable and empirical foundations identified by research on human cognitive ability.
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| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Topic of the article: | Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism |
| Category (thematic category) | The culture |
Renaissance, or Renaissance, - important stage in the history of philosophy. The Renaissance in Europe (primarily in Italy) takes place from the 14th to the 16th century.
The very name of the era speaks of a revival of interest in ancient philosophy and culture, which are beginning to be seen as a model for modernity. The ideal of knowledge becomes not religious, but secular knowledge. Along with authority Holy Scripture the authority of ancient wisdom is recognized. At the same time, there is a revival of the "true" Christian spirituality, the Christian tradition is being rethought.
There are also new philosophical trends - deism and pantheism. Deism rejected the idea of a personal God and his daily intervention in the life of nature and society.
Deism considered God only as a primary cause, as the creator of the world, that is, an impersonal principle that informed the world of its laws, which, after creation, act independently. Deism made it possible to consider the laws of nature and society outside of divine predestination.
In pantheism, God and the world were identified. One of the first representatives of pantheism was Nikolai Kuzansky. Considering God as an infinite maximum and bringing him closer to nature as a limited maximum, he formulated the idea of the infinity of the Universe. In the teachings of the pantheists, God, remaining an infinite and invisible Absolute, increasingly merged with nature until he essentially became her pseudonym.
main feature philosophy of the Renaissance - anthropocentrism. Now, not God, but man is placed at the center of research Man's place in the world, his freedom, his fate are worried about such thinkers as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Nicolo Machiavelli, Thomas More, Michel de Montaigne and others.
Emerged new system values, where man and nature come first, and then religion with its problems. Man is a natural being. Hence another feature of the Renaissance culture and philosophy - "secularization" - liberation from church influence. Gradually, the problems of the state, morality, science cease to be considered entirely through the prism of theology. These areas of being acquire an independent existence, the laws of which can be studied by secular sciences. But this does not mean that religious problems concerning the existence of God, good and evil, the salvation of the soul, are forgotten. They are simply no longer in the focus of philosophy. The Renaissance era is the time of the formation of experimental sciences, which are gradually being promoted to the rank of the most important sciences that give true knowledge about nature (Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Bruno, etc.)
If for ancient Greek philosophy the completed and the whole is more beautiful than the incomplete, then for the philosophy of the Renaissance, movement and becoming are preferable to motionless unchanging being. This allowed a person to feel the strength and power over everything that exists, to improve and develop without divine grace. Man realized myself the creator. For this reason, in the Renaissance, any activity was perceived differently than in the early Middle Ages and even in the era of antiquity. In the creations of God, that is, natural things, a person strives to see the law of their construction and express it in scientific knowledge.
Renaissance thinkers are characterized by a reluctance to analyze concepts, carefully distinguishing (as the scholastics did) the smallest shades of categories. Οʜᴎ strive to comprehend the very phenomena of nature and society and not argue about definitions (definitions).
Most of them rely on experience and reason, not intuition and revelation. A kind of skepticism is also developing (Montaigne). On the basis of the rational, the first utopias are created, depicting an ideal state - T. Mora's "Utopia"; ʼʼCity of the Sunʼʼ T. Campanella et al.
Being conditioned by social reality, philosophy actively influences social life, contributes to the formation of new ideals and cultural values.
Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Humanism and Anthropocentrism of the Renaissance" 2017, 2018.
Anthropocentrism and humanism of the philosophy of the Renaissance.
Anthropocentrism and humanism in the philosophical thought of the Renaissance.
The Middle Ages end in the XIV century, and the two centuries of the Renaissance begins, followed by the New Age in the XVII century. In the epoch of modern times, a person is placed at the center of philosophical research (in Greek, a person is called anthropos). In the philosophy of the Renaissance, however, there are two centers - God and man. This corresponds to the fact that the Renaissance is a transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. The term "revival" gave the name to an entire era, primarily due to the fact that the task was to revive on a new, Italian soil, the ancient cultural heritage, especially philosophy, primarily the works of Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus. A shift towards anthropocentrism. The attention of the Renaissance philosophers is directed primarily at the person, it is he who becomes the addressee of philosophical interest. Thinkers are no longer interested in transcendental religious distances, but in man himself, his nature, his independence, his creativity, his self-affirmation, and finally, beauty. The origins of this philosophical interest were largely determined by the transition from the feudal-rural to the bourgeois-urban way of life and industrial economy. The very course of history revealed the special role of human creativity, his activity.
Understanding a person as creative personality... The shift towards anthropocentrism meant understanding creativity as the primary human dignity. In the Middle Ages, it was believed that creativity is the prerogative of God. Now they think differently. Man, Ficino believes, is powerful like God. He is able and must realize himself in art, politics, and technology. The Renaissance man seeks to expand the field of his daring as much as possible. Leonardo da Vinci is a painter and inventor, Michelangelo is a painter and poet, both talented philosophers.
Humanism (from the Latin humanos — humane) is an outlook based on the intrinsic value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, well-being. Humanism had a long prehistory in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but as a broad social movement with the most important political, social and moral applications, it took shape for the first time precisely in the Renaissance. The dispute was fundamental - about a new world outlook, moral and political ideal. Scholasticism was subjected to criticism and comprehension, i.e. fruitless speculation, divorced from life. In an effort to achieve a fair social and state structure in Italy, parliamentary government was introduced. There was also a search for ways to harmonize the interests of people. The humanists believed that the basis of human relations is love, friendship, mutual respect, which does not contradict the protection of private interests and individualism. Humanism, in this connection Dante's work is indicative, raises the question of the true nobility of man.
The era was on the border of the Middle Ages and Modern Times. The philosophy of the Renaissance arose on the territory of modern Italy, it is closely connected with the ideas of the national revival of the country and the restoration of an independent state. On the coast Mediterranean Sea cities developed rapidly, a layer of very rich people arose who could engage in patronage. This contributed to the development of art.
The connecting link between antiquity and the Middle Ages were the Arabs, who preserved the written monuments of antiquity. These monuments were used as a rationale for Islam, which is 6 centuries younger than Christianity. The Renaissance is called the era of free thought, which should not be regarded as atheism. Some figures of the Renaissance were atheists (God created the world, which began to develop according to its own laws, a person must rely on himself).
Basic concepts of the philosophy of the Renaissance (God, Nature, Man)
· Anthropocentrism: the attention of philosophers is directed mainly to a person, while neo-Platonic constructions are cultivated in a new way.
· Humanism, recognition of a Person as a person, his right to creativity, freedom and happiness. It meant that this could be achieved primarily through the revival of the interest in the humanities, which is characteristic of antiquity, and not in knowledge about nature.
· The postulation of the creative essence of man: he does not imitate anyone, neither God nor nature, he is active in himself, he creates, mainly by hand, handicraft.
· Personal-material understanding of the world: everything that exists is understood in projection onto a person with maximum interest in the bodily principle.
· The idea of the dominance of the aesthetic understanding of reality over moral and scientific ideas.
· Antischolasticism: the desire to debunk the imaginary authorities and the dogmas propagated by them. From this point of view, the Reformation, a movement in favor of religious reforms, the heroes of which were J. Hus, M. Luther, T. Münzer, and J. Kalvin, was of particular importance.
· Geometrical-structural understanding of the world, supplemented by the dialectic of the transition, characteristic of the infinitely small and the infinitely large and their relationship to each other.
· Pantheism. Identification of God and Nature.
The philosophy of the Renaissance is a set of philosophical trends that arose and developed in Europe in the XIV-XVII centuries. , which were united by an anti-church and anti-scholastic orientation, an aspiration to a person, faith in his great physical and spiritual potential, a life-affirming and optimistic character.
The preconditions for the emergence of the philosophy and culture of the Renaissance were:
1.improving tools of labor and production relations;
2. the crisis of feudalism;
3. development of crafts and trade;
4. the strengthening of cities, their transformation into trade and craft, military, cultural and political centers, independent of the feudal lords and the Church;
5. strengthening, centralization of European states, strengthening of secular power;
6. the emergence of the first parliaments;
7. lagging behind life, the crisis of the Church and scholastic (church) philosophy;
8. raising the level of education in Europe as a whole;
9. great geographical discoveries (Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan);
10. scientific and technical discoveries (invention of gunpowder, firearms, machine tools, blast furnaces, microscope, telescope, book printing, discoveries in the field of medicine and astronomy, other scientific and technical achievements).
The main directions of the philosophy of the Renaissance were:
1.humanistic (XIV-XV centuries, representatives: Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Lorenzo Valli, etc.) - put a person in the center of attention, praised his dignity, greatness and power, mocked the dogmas of the Church;
2. Neoplatonic (mid-15th - 16th centuries), whose representatives - Nicholas of Cusansky, Pico della Mirandola, Paracelsus and others - developed the teachings of Plato, tried to know nature, space and man from the point of view of idealism;
3. natural philosophical (XVI - early XVII centuries), to which belonged Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei and others, who tried to debunk a number of provisions of the Church's teaching about God, the Universe, the Cosmos and the foundations of the universe, relying on astronomical and scientific discoveries;
4. Reformation (XVI-XVII centuries), whose representatives - Martin Luther, Thomas Monzer, John Calvin, John Usenlif, Erasmus of Rotterdam and others - sought to radically revise the church ideology and the relationship between believers and the Church;
5. political (XV - XV] centuries, Nicolo Machiavelli) - studied the problems of government, the behavior of rulers;
6. Utopian-socialist (XV - XVII centuries, representatives - Thomas More, Tommaso Campanella, etc.) - was looking for ideal-fantastic forms of building society and the state, based on the absence of private property and universal equality, total regulation by state power.
TO characteristic features Renaissance philosophies include:
1) anthropocentrism and humanism - the predominance of interest in a person, faith in him endless possibilities and dignity;
2) opposition to the Church and church ideology (that is, the denial not of religion itself, God, but of an organization that has made itself a mediator between God and believers, as well as a frozen dogmatic philosophy serving the interests of the Church - scholasticism);
3) moving the main interest from the form of the idea to its content;
4) a fundamentally new, scientific and materialistic understanding of the surrounding world (sphericity, not the plane of the Earth, the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, and not vice versa, the infinity of the Universe, new anatomical knowledge, etc.);
5) great interest in social problems, society and state;
6) the triumph of individualism;
7) wide use ideas of social equality
Humanism as a philosophical trend spread in Europe in the XIV - the middle of the XV centuries. Italy was its center.
The main features of humanism were:
· Anti-church and anti-scholastic orientation;
· The desire to reduce the omnipotence of God and to prove the self-worth of man;
Anthropocentrism - Special attention to a person, praising his strength, greatness, capabilities;
· Life-affirming character and optimism.
In its genre, humanistic philosophy merged with literature, was presented allegorically and in artistic form. The most famous humanist philosophers were also writers. These were primarily Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Lorenzo Balla.
a. glorifies Christianity, but at the same time ridicules the contradictions and inexplicable truths (dogmas) of Christian teaching between the lines;
b. praises a person;
c. departs from the interpretation of man exclusively as a divine creature;
d. recognizes for a person the presence of both divine and natural principles, which are in harmony with each other;
e. believes in a happy future of man, his initially good nature.
Petrarch introduces ideas alien to scholasticism into literature, philosophy, and cultures:
a. human life is given once and is unique;
Man should not live for God, but for himself;
c. the human person must be free - both physically and spiritually;
d. a person has the freedom of choice and the right to express himself in accordance with this;
e. a person can achieve happiness, relying only on himself and his strength, has sufficient potential for this;
f. the afterlife, most likely, does not exist and immortality can be achieved only in the memory of people;
g. a person should not sacrifice himself to God, but should enjoy life and love;
h. appearance and inner world human are beautiful.
b. criticized scholasticism for being artificial, far-fetched and untruthful;
c. put man in the center of the universe;
d. believed in the capabilities of man and his mind;
e. rejected asceticism and self-denial;
f. called for active action, struggle, courage in changing the world;
g. was a supporter of equality between men and women;
h. He considered pleasure to be the highest good, which he understood as the satisfaction of a person's material and moral needs.
Anthropocentrism in the Renaissance
In the Renaissance, the value of the individual has increased like never before. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in human being in all the variety of its manifestations. Above all, in this era, the originality and uniqueness of each individual is put. A sophisticated artistic taste is able to recognize and emphasize this originality everywhere; originality and dissimilarity become the most important sign of a great personality.
Often, therefore, one can come across the assertion that it was in the Renaissance that the concept of personality as such was first formed for the first time. Indeed, if we identify the concept of personality with the concept of individuality, then such a statement will be completely legitimate. However, in reality, the concept of personality and individuality must be distinguished. Individuality is an aesthetic category, while personality is a moral and ethical category. If we consider a person from the point of view of how and in what way he differs from all people, then we look at him, as it were, from the outside, with the eye of an artist; in this case we apply only one criterion to a person's actions - the criterion of originality. As for the personality, the main thing in it is different: the ability to distinguish between good and evil and to act in accordance with such a distinction. Along with this, a second most important definition of personality appears - the ability to take responsibility for one's actions. And the enrichment of individuality does not always coincide with the development and deepening of the personality: the aesthetic and moral-ethical aspects of development can differ significantly from each other. Thus, the rich development of individuality in the XIV-XVI centuries was often accompanied by the extremes of individualism; the intrinsic value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to a person.
In the period of the Late Renaissance (XVI-XVII centuries) in Europe (especially Italy), natural-philosophical ideas spread.
Representatives of natural philosophy:
a. substantiated a materialistic view of the world;
b. sought to separate philosophy from theology;
c. formed a scientific worldview free from theology;
d. put forward a new picture of the world (in which God, Nature and Space are one, and the Earth is not the center of the Universe);
e. believed that the world is knowable and primarily thanks to sensory knowledge and reason (and not Divine revelation).
Most prominent representatives Natural philosophy of the Renaissance was Andreas Vesalius, Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei.
Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564) revolutionized philosophy and medicine.
Vesalius materialistically explained the origin of the world, in the center of which he placed man.
Vesalius refuted the views that had dominated medicine for more than a thousand years since the time of Galen (130-200), an ancient Roman doctor who described the physiology and structure of man, based on animal studies. On the contrary, Vesalius based his conclusions on numerous anatomical experiments and published the book "On the Structure of the Human Body", famous for his time, where he described in detail human anatomy, which was much more consistent with reality than the anatomy described by Galen.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543), relying on astronomical research, put forward a fundamentally different picture of life:
a. The Earth is not the center of the Universe (geocentrism was rejected);
b. The sun is the center in relation to the earth (geocentrism was replaced by heliocentrism), the earth revolves around the sun;
c. all cosmic bodies move along their own trajectory;
d. space is endless;
e. the processes occurring in space are explainable from the point of view of nature and are devoid of "sacred" meaning.
Giordano Bruno (1548 - 1600) developed and deepened the philosophical ideas of Copernicus:
a. The sun is the center only in relation to the earth, but not the center of the universe;
b. The universe is centerless and infinite;
c. The universe is made up of galaxies (clusters of stars);
d. stars - celestial bodies similar to the Sun and having their own planetary systems;
e. the number of worlds in the Universe is infinite;
f. all celestial bodies - planets, stars, as well as everything that is on them, have the property of motion;
g. there is no God separate from the Universe, the Universe and God are one.
Giordano Bruno's ideas were not accepted by the Catholic Church, and he was burned at the stake in 1600.
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) in practice confirmed the correctness of the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and Giordano Bruno:
a. invented the telescope;
b. explored celestial bodies with a telescope;
c. proved that celestial bodies move not only along a trajectory, but also simultaneously around their axis;
d. discovered spots on the Sun and a varied landscape (mountains and deserts - "seas") on the Moon;
e. discovered satellites around other planets;
f. investigated the dynamics of falling bodies;
g. proved the plurality of worlds in the Universe.
Galileo put forward a method of scientific research, which consisted in:
a. observation;
b. putting forward a hypothesis;
c. calculations of the implementation of the hypothesis in practice;
d. experimental (experimental) verification in practice of the hypothesis put forward.
During the Renaissance, a new philosophical worldview was developed, primarily thanks to the work of a whole galaxy of outstanding philosophers, such as Nikolai of Cusansky, Marsilio Ficino, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Giordano Bruno, etc. The main principles of the philosophy of the Renaissance: Fortunately, the World Mind, the World Soul, the Cosmos; in it there is still no clear division into subject and nature. In the medieval f. this concept underwent a significant transformation: God was put in the place of the One-Good, in accordance with this they began to understand the content of the World Mind (read: Christ), the World Soul (read: Holy Spirit), the Cosmos. In the Renaissance, man (anthropos) will be placed at the center of the universe. Philosophical base of the revival worldview: Formally, as before, God was placed at the center of the universe, but the primary attention was paid not to him, but to man. Thus, the philosophical basis of Renaissance philosophy was anthropocentric neoplatonism. Now thinkers are interested not so much in the systematic nature of philosophical constructions, as in man, his nature, his independence, his creativity and beauty, his self-affirmation, finally. At the same time, the philosophers of the Renaissance sought to make the most of the advantages of both ancient and medieval Neoplatonism. From the first, the aesthetic attention to everything bodily, natural, especially admiration for the human body is taken over. Anthropocentrism, could not but contribute to the development of humanism, an outlook that recognized the value of a person as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness and development. Humanism had a long prehistory in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but as a broad social movement it took shape for the first time precisely in the Renaissance. The principle of humanism marks a revolution in the entire culture and, accordingly, the worldview of mankind. One of the forms of expression of this coup was opposition to scholasticism. Humanists revives the ideals of the ancient Epicureans, but without their calm and passive attitude to life. The Renaissance was the ethics of the emerging active young bourgeoisie in the first place. The question is about the nobility of a person, about true nobility. This question was posed by Dante. Human nobility does not lie in someone else's glory, even if that glory is the glory of God. not in the greatness of the race and not in the accumulation of wealth, but in the valor of the spirit. All people equally receive from nature, each no less than the sons of kings and emperors, but the point is only to bring their valor and nobility to perfection, whether in science, art or production. Many humanists defend the ideals of moderate utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is understood as the teaching according to which the purpose of life and virtue are identified with benefit. Humanists believe that people should be a source of joy for each other, and this is impossible without love and friendship being the basis of human relations. Thus, the humanism of the Renaissance is guided by free-thinking and, accordingly, a just ordering of social and state life.
Glorifies Christianity, but at the same time ridicules the contradictions and inexplicable truths (dogmas) of Christian teaching between the lines;
Praises the person;
Departing from the interpretation of man exclusively as a divine creature;
Recognizes for a person the presence of both divine and natural principles, which are in harmony with each other;
Believes in a happy future for a person, in his initially good nature.
Other works of Dante are permeated with the same spirit (" New life" etc.).
Francesco Petrarca(1304 - 1374) - the author of the "Book of Songs", the treatise "On Contempt for the World" (in Latin) and other works. He is close to Dante in his views. Petrarch introduces ideas alien to scholasticism into literature, philosophy, and cultures:
Human life is given once and is unique;
Man should not live for God, but for himself;
Human personality must be free - both physically and spiritually;
A person has the freedom of choice and the right to express himself in accordance with this;
A person can achieve happiness, relying only on himself and his strength, has sufficient potential for this;
The afterlife, most likely, does not exist and immortality can be achieved only in the memory of people;
A person should not sacrifice himself to God, but should enjoy life and love;
The outer appearance and inner world of a person are beautiful.
Criticized scholasticism for its artificiality, artificiality and untruth;
He put man in the center of the universe;
I believed in the possibilities of man and his mind;
Rejected asceticism and self-denial;
He called for active action, struggle, courage in changing the world;
He was a supporter of equality between men and women;
The highest good he considered pleasure, which he understood as the satisfaction of the material and moral needs of a person.
19. Natural philosophy of the Renaissance.During the Late Renaissance in Europe (especially Italy), natural philosophical ideas.
Representatives of natural philosophy:
Substantiated the materialistic view of the world;
Seeked to separate philosophy from theology;
Formed a scientific worldview free from theology;
Put forward a new picture of the world (in which God, Nature and Space are one, and the Earth is not the center of the Universe);
They believed that the world is knowable and primarily thanks to sensory knowledge and reason (and not Divine revelation).
The most prominent representatives of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance were Andreas Vesalius, Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei.
Andreas Vesalius revolutionized philosophy and medicine.
Vesalius materialistically explained the origin of the world, in the center of which he placed man. Vesalius refuted the views that had dominated medicine for more than a thousand years since the time of Galen (130-200), an ancient Roman doctor who described the physiology and structure of man, based on animal studies. On the contrary, Vesalius based his conclusions on numerous anatomical experiments and published the book "On the Structure of the Human Body", famous for his time, where he described in detail human anatomy, which was much more consistent with reality than the anatomy described by Galen.
Nicolaus Copernicus, relying on astronomical research, put forward a fundamentally different picture of life:
The Earth is not the center of the Universe (geocentrism was rejected);
The sun is the center in relation to the earth (geocentrism was replaced by heliocentrism), the earth revolves around the sun;
All cosmic bodies move along their own trajectory;
The cosmos is endless;
The processes taking place in space are explainable from the point of view of nature and are devoid of "sacred" meaning.
Giordano Bruno developed and deepened the philosophical ideas of Copernicus:
The sun is the center only in relation to the earth, but not the center of the universe;
The universe is centerless and infinite;
The universe is made up of galaxies (clusters of stars);
Stars are celestial bodies similar to the Sun and having their own planetary systems;
The number of worlds in the Universe is infinite;
All celestial bodies - planets, stars, as well as everything that is on them, have the property of motion;
There is no God separate from the Universe, the Universe and God are one.
Giordano Bruno's ideas were not accepted by the Catholic Church, and he was burned at the stake in 1600.
Galileo Galilei in practice, he confirmed the correctness of the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and Giordano Bruno:
Invented the telescope;
With the help of a telescope, he explored celestial bodies;
He proved that celestial bodies move not only along a trajectory, but also simultaneously around their axis;
Discovered sunspots and varied landscapes (mountains and deserts - "seas") on the Moon;
Discovered satellites around other planets;
Investigated the dynamics of falling bodies;
Proved the multiplicity of worlds in the Universe.
Galileo was nominated scientific research method, which consisted in:
Observation;
Making a hypothesis;
Calculations to translate the hypothesis into practice;
Experimental (empirical) verification in practice of the hypothesis put forward.
