CPU clock speed. What is CPU clock speed and what does it affect
Probably, every user little familiar with a computer has come across a bunch of incomprehensible characteristics when choosing a central processor: technical process, cache, socket; asked for advice from friends and acquaintances competent in the issue of computer hardware. Let's look at the variety of all kinds of parameters, because the processor is the most important part of your PC, and understanding its characteristics will give you confidence when buying and further using it.
CPU
The processor of a personal computer is a microcircuit that is responsible for performing any operations with data and controls peripheral devices. It is contained in a special silicon package called a die. For short designation use the abbreviation - Cpu(central processing unit) or Cpu(from the English Central Processing Unit - central processing unit). There are two competing corporations in the modern computer component market, Intel and AMD who are constantly racing for the performance of new processors, constantly improving their technological process.
Technical process
Technical process Is the size used in the manufacture of processors. It defines the size of the transistor, the unit of which is nm (nanometer). Transistors, in turn, constitute internal framework CPU. The bottom line is that continuous improvement in manufacturing techniques allows you to reduce the size of these components. As a result, much more of them are placed on the processor die. This helps to improve the characteristics of the CPU, therefore, the technical process used is always indicated in its parameters. For example, Intel Core i5-760 is made according to the 45 nm process technology, and Intel Core i5-2500K at 32 nm, based on this information, one can judge how the processor is modern and superior in performance to its predecessor, but when choosing, it is necessary to take into account a number of other parameters.
Architecture
Also, processors are characterized by such a characteristic as architecture - a set of properties inherent in a whole family of processors, as a rule, produced over many years. In other words, architecture is their organization or the internal design of the CPU.
Number of Cores
Core- the most important element of the central processor. It is a part of the processor capable of executing a single stream of instructions. The cores differ in the size of the cache memory, bus frequency, manufacturing technology, etc. Manufacturers assign new names to them with each subsequent technological process (for example, the AMD processor core is Zambezi, and Intel's is Lynnfield). With the development of processor technology, it became possible to place more than one core in one case, which significantly increases the performance of the CPU and helps to perform several tasks at the same time, as well as use several cores in the work of programs. Multi-core processors will be able to cope faster with archiving, video decoding, the work of modern video games, etc. For example, Intel's Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processor lines, which use dual-core and quad-core CPUs, respectively. On this moment processors with 2, 3, 4 and 6 cores are massively available. Their large quantity used in server solutions and is not required for an ordinary PC user.
Frequency
In addition to the number of cores, performance is affected by clock frequency... The value of this characteristic reflects the performance of the CPU in the number of cycles (operations) per second. Another important characteristic is bus frequency(FSB - Front Side Bus) demonstrating the speed at which data is exchanged between the processor and computer peripherals. The clock frequency is proportional to the bus frequency.
Socket
In order for the future processor to be compatible with the existing motherboard during the upgrade, you need to know its socket. A socket is called connector, into which the CPU is installed on the computer's motherboard. The socket type is characterized by the number of legs and the processor manufacturer. Different sockets correspond to specific types of CPUs, so each socket allows for a specific type of processor. Intel uses socket LGA1156, LGA1366 and LGA1155, while AMD uses AM2 + and AM3.
Cache
Cache- the amount of memory with a very high access speed required to speed up access to data residing in memory with a lower access speed ( random access memory). When choosing a processor, remember that increasing the size of the cache has a positive effect on the performance of most applications. The CPU cache is distinguished by three levels ( L1, L2 and L3), located directly on the processor core. It receives data from RAM for higher processing speed. It is also worth considering that for multi-core CPUs, the amount of L1 cache is indicated for one core. The L2 cache performs a similar function, with a lower speed and higher volume. If you intend to use the processor for resource-intensive tasks, then the model with a large L2 cache will be preferable, given that the total L2 cache is indicated for multi-core processors. The L3 cache is equipped with the most productive processors, such as AMD Phenom, AMD Phenom II, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, Intel Core i7, Intel Xeon. The third-level cache is the least fast, but it can reach 30 MB.
Energy consumption
The power consumption of a processor is closely related to its manufacturing technology. With a decrease in nanometers of the technical process, an increase in the number of transistors and an increase in the clock frequency of processors, an increase in CPU power consumption occurs. For example, Intel's Core i7 processors require up to 130 watts or more. The voltage supplied to the core clearly characterizes the power consumption of the processor. This parameter is especially important when choosing a CPU to use as a multimedia center. Modern processor models use various technologies that help fight unnecessary power consumption: built-in temperature sensors, automatic voltage and frequency control systems for processor cores, power-saving modes with low CPU load.
Additional features
Modern processors have acquired the ability to work in 2- and 3-channel modes with random access memory, which significantly affects its performance, and also support a larger set of instructions, which raises their functionality by new level... GPUs process video on their own, thereby offloading the CPU, thanks to technology DXVA(from the English DirectX Video Acceleration - video acceleration by the DirectX component). Intel uses the above technology Turbo Boost to dynamically change the clock frequency of the central processor. Technology Speed Step manages the power consumption of the CPU depending on the activity of the processor, and Intel Virtualization Technology hardware creates virtual environment to use multiple operating systems. Also, modern processors can be divided into virtual cores using the technology Hyper threading... For example, a dual-core processor is capable of dividing the clock speed of one core by two, which contributes to high processing performance using four virtual cores.
Thinking about the configuration of your future PC, do not forget about the video card and its GPU(from the English. Graphics Processing Unit) - the processor of your video card, which is responsible for rendering (arithmetic operations with geometric, physical objects, etc.). The higher the frequency of its core and the higher the memory frequency, the less will be the load on the central processor. Gamers should pay special attention to the GPU.
Historically, processor clock speeds represent main indicator the speed of a computer, and at one time even an uneducated person who did not know how an optical disk differs from a flexible one could say with confidence that the more gigahertz in a car, the better, and no one would argue with him. Today, in the middle of the computer era, this kind of fashion has passed, and developers are trying to move towards creating a more perfect architecture, increasing the number of cache memory and the number of processor cores, but the clock speed is the "queen" of performance. In a general sense, this is the number of elementary operations (clock cycles) that the processor can perform per second of time.
It follows from this that the higher the clock frequency of the processor, the more elementary operations the computer can perform, and, therefore, the faster it works.
The clock speed of advanced processors ranges from two to four gigahertz. It is determined by multiplying the processor bus frequency by a certain factor. For example, the Core i7 uses a x20 multiplier and has a 133MHz bus speed, resulting in a processor clock speed of 2660MHz.
Modern and Kernels
Despite the fact that previously "multicore" was a novelty, today there are practically no single-core processors left on the market. And there is nothing surprising in this, because the computer industry does not stand still.
Therefore, you should be clear about how the clock speed is calculated for processors with two or more cores.
It is worth saying that there is a common misconception about calculating the frequency for such processors. For example: "We have a dual-core processor with a clock speed of 1.8 GHz, therefore, its total frequency will be 2 x 1.8 GHz = 3.6 GHz, right?" No, it’s wrong. Unfortunately, the number of cores does not affect the final clock speed in any way, if your processor was running at 3 GHz, it will work this way, but with more cores, its resources will increase, and this, in turn, will greatly increase performance.
It should also be remembered that the amount of cache memory is especially important for a modern processor. This is the fastest computer memory, in which working information is duplicated, for which faster access is required at a given time.
Since this one is very expensive and time consuming to manufacture, its values are relatively small, but these indicators are enough to increase the performance of the entire system without changing parameters such as clock frequency.
Maximum CPU clock speed and overclocking
No matter how good your computer is, it will eventually become outdated. But do not rush to carry it to the trash and run to the nearest electronics store with an open wallet. Most modern processors and video cards provide for additional (in addition to the factory) overclocking, and, having good system cooling, you can raise the nominal frequency level by 200-300 GHz. For extreme lovers and fans of big numbers, there is also "overclocking" calling to squeeze the maximum out of the technique. Many people involved in such a dangerous business can easily overclock a single-core processor up to 6-7 GHz, and some even set a record figure of 8.2 GHz.
The processor (CPU or CPU) is the centerpiece of almost everyone modern device... He is able to simultaneously carry out any calculations and execute commands of various programs. Mainly, the CPU determines how fast and efficient the computer or laptop will be. It is his choice that gives further direction to the process of selecting the rest of the components.
Choosing a processor for a computer or laptop is not difficult. First you need to decide on the goals for which it is acquired. After that, you need to understand the main parameters of his central "brain".
Socket types for AMD, Intel processors and system bus frequency
A socket is a processor connector for connecting to a motherboard (see photo). Most motherboards today are made for either Intel or AMD CPUs. It is important to know that the CPUs of these brands are not interchangeable - their sockets differ both in shape and electrically. They are divided into classes according to the type of connector. Each such class consists of models with sockets of the same shape. In this case, it is possible to insert them into the same motherboard. The main thing is that its chipset has the appropriate support.
Also, when buying a CPU, for example, with an LGA1155 socket, the motherboard must be purchased with the same socket. Over time, new connectors began to have more and more pins, which led to a constant increase in bus frequency - the speed of communication between the CPU and the motherboard. Thus, the more modern the socket type, the higher the bus frequency. It is, like the clock frequency, measured in hertz. The higher this value, the faster the information exchange process takes place. It is best to choose a CPU with a bus frequency of 1.6 GHz or higher.
At the time of this writing, Intel's most popular socket is LGA1155. For more powerful servers with a Core i7 or Xeon CPU, the LGA1366 socket is made. The latest development was the LGA2011 socket. It is used in some Ivy Bridge CPUs. Although the price of such CPUs is falling, but motherboards with such a connector are very expensive. There is no need to overpay for small productivity gains.
AMD has "+" series compatible sockets. For example, the most common AM3 + connectors are also suitable for AM3. This allows you to expand the possibilities for improving the CPU. The FM1 and FM2 sockets were designed for AMD Fusion CPUs, which have the most powerful integrated graphics, perfect solution for those who have no desire to spend cash to a discrete video card.
CPU clock speed: choose for games and everyday tasks
The clock rate is the total number of actions that the central processor can perform in one second. This characteristic is measured in hertz (Hz). For example, a clock speed of 1.8 GHz per second is 1 billion 800 million operations. The higher the number, the faster the CPU works. Therefore, you should choose a CPU with a higher clock speed. To run office applications, comfortably watch videos in Full HD resolution and listen to music, the power of a dual-core CPU with a frequency of about 1500-2000 MHz is enough. For modern games and multimedia tasks, a clock frequency from 2000-2500 MHz is already required - 4-6 or 8-core (according to the requirements of the programs).
Note, modern models from Intel are equipped with proprietary Turbo Boost technology. it automatic boost rated frequency on request operating system(see photo).
Processor cache: select the required amount
The cache memory is the ultra-fast memory of the CPU into which the data of the executable program is loaded. The larger the cache, the faster this data will be processed. There are currently 3 cache levels:
L1 is the fastest memory because it has smallest size(8-128 Kb);
L2 - slower than L1, but larger (128-12288 KB);
L3 is the slowest memory. She possesses largest size or it may be completely absent (0-16384 KB). The latter is possible for specially designed processors or specific servers.
When choosing a CPU, the L3 cache must be sized so that each core has a minimum of 1 MB. It should be borne in mind that in its characteristics they indicate completely the entire processor. Based on this, you should not buy a 4-core CPU with less than 4 MB of L3 cache.
The number of processor cores: more is not always better
The core is called small size crystal made of silicon. Its area is approximately 1 square centimeter. It contains the CPU implemented using the smallest logic gates. At the moment, the clock frequency of the CPU cannot be raised higher, since its value has reached its maximum value. Therefore, manufacturers switched to increasing the number of cores. The advantage of multicore is especially pronounced when simultaneously running resource-intensive multitasking programs, but only those that support this property. Therefore, if the CPU has 4 cores, and the running program is designed to use only 2 cores, the other 2 will not be used. In the opposite case, for example, the Ghost Recon game optimized for four cores demonstrates a confident superiority over the dual-core mode (see photo).
Therefore, when choosing a CPU for everyday tasks, it is more important to rely not on the number of cores, but on the indicator of its clock frequency and the amount of cache memory. However, when buying a computer or laptop for gaming, it is better to get a modern quad-core version.
Processor capacity: 32 and 64 bits
The number of bits of information processed by the CPU during one cycle is characterized by the bit depth. It can have a value of 8, 16, 32 and 64. Nowadays, all major programs are designed for a 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.When choosing a computer or laptop, it should be borne in mind that 32 discharge systems support no more than 3.75 GB of RAM. 64-bit ones allow you to transfer volumes of RAM more than 4 GB, which is necessary for modern applications, where 4 GB is already a minimum.
Processor graphics core, heat dissipation and technologies
In addition to a number of conventional cores, the CPU can be optionally equipped with a graphics-capable core. This significantly reduces the load on the integrated GPU or discrete graphics card. The latest developments in models with a graphics core are quite capable of replacing budget options video cards. They support Full HD video as well as low power gaming. For desktop computers, Intel has released similar hybrid models of the Clarkdale family, and for mobile computers - Arrandale. There are more cheap option- Lynnfield. The company's graphics solution in the Sandy Bridge CPU was rather weak. It was significantly inferior to similar developments of competitors - ARM or AMD Llano. Therefore, for the new CPUs Ivy Bridge, the architecture of the graphics core has been changed, which has improved its performance.
Heat dissipation, this parameter that determines how much the CPU heats up during operation, is called heat dissipation (TDP). Its unit of measurement is considered to be a watt. The heat dissipation value can be used to select the appropriate cooling system. For example, if the TDP of the CPU is 75 W, then the cooler should be of the same power, or better even a little higher.
For laptops and netbooks, heat dissipation should not exceed 45W, because they do not have the ability to use bulky cooling systems. This characteristic is also taken into account in those cases when a quieter system is selected that operates on battery power for a longer time.
If you choose between the same models that have different heat dissipation, you should purchase the one for which this value is lower.
A set of specific instructions aimed at increasing the performance of the CPU is called a technology. For example, SSE4 technology includes 54 commands that improve the process of working with more serious programs. These include 3D modeling, powerful games, and audio and video processing.
If you plan to use the above programs, then the selected central CPU must support such technologies.
In conclusion: AMD and Intel - which processor is better
Intel models are preferred over AMD because other internal components and some applications work more correctly with them, although in general Intel are more expensive than AMD. Objectively, for expensive devices, the choice of a system based on Intel is more justified, and AMD - a good option for budget solutions. Intel also makes Atom-series processors with half the cache compared to the Core, but the Atom has the advantage of lower power consumption. According to the testimony of testing, when deciding different types tasks, different CPUs show different results: some run faster in games, others in multimedia applications. Therefore, the choice is made based on the needs of the owner.
Employees of simple offices work with light text and graphic editors, and also carry out a little surfing on the Internet. It is enough for them to opt for modern, moreover, not very expensive series. These include Intel's Pentium Dual-Core or Phenom II X2 (AMD).
For home use, including modern games and watching videos in high definition, you will need a more powerful 2-core CPU with the highest possible clock speed. It can be Core i3 5xx, 6xx (Intel) or Phenom II X2 5xx (AMD).
When installing the most demanding toys, you need to choose a 4-core CPU of a higher price category, for example, Core i5 750 (Intel) or Phenom II X4 95x.
If you run programs designed for professional 3D graphics or media applications, they are required to process a very large amount of data. For such purposes, it is recommended to select a model with at least 6 cores. The Core i7 8xx, 9xx (Intel) or Phenom II X6 (AMD) models are suitable here.
Clock frequency is called a parameter that is measured in gigahertz. A higher frequency allows faster data processing. This is one of the most important parameters that you should pay attention to when choosing a processor.
The number of cores is no less important, the fact is that the clock frequency at this stage of development can no longer be increased, this prompted the continuation of development in the direction of parallel computing, expressed in an increase in the number of cores. The number of cores informs about how many programs can be run simultaneously without losing performance. However, it should be borne in mind that if the program is optimized for two cores, then even if there are more of them, the computer will not be able to fully use them.
Processor Cache and Bus Frequency
The bus frequency demonstrates the transfer rate of information entering and leaving the processor. The higher this indicator, the faster the exchange of information is, the units of measurement here are gigahertz. Of great importance is the processor's cache, which is a high-speed block of memory. It is located directly on the core and serves to improve performance, since data is processed in it at a significantly higher speed than in the case of RAM. There are three levels of cache memory:
L1 - the first level is the smallest in size, but the fastest, its size varies from 8 to 128 KB.
L2 is the second level, much slower than the first, but exceeds it in volume, here the size ranges from 128 to 12288 KB.
L3 is the third level, loses in speed to the first two levels, but the most voluminous, by the way, it may be absent altogether, as it is provided for special editions of processors or server solutions. Its size reaches 16384 KB, it can be found in such processors as Xeon MP, Pentium 4 Extreme Edition or Itanium 2.
Socket and heat dissipation
Less significant, but therefore not losing their relevance when choosing a processor, are such characteristics as the socket and heat dissipation. Socket called the connector where the processor is installed in the motherboard. By indicators heat release you can determine the degree of heating of the processor during operation. This indicator is measured in watts, and it varies between 10 - 165W.
The average cost of processors in the Moscow market is Intel Core 2 Duo 5000 rubles, and AMD Athlon X2 Dual-Core 3000 rubles, according to http://price.ru
Tab. 3 Comparison of processors
For working with graphics, the frequency of the bus and the processor is important, therefore, in accordance with the minimum hardware requirements when choosing between the two offered CPUs, relying on the above key characteristics, as well as on the price qualities, I prefer the AMD ATHLON II X2 CPU http://www.nix.ru .
Processor size - this is the number of bits simultaneously processed by the processor, so the processor can be 8-, 16-, 32-, 64-bit. The larger the processor capacity, the more information it can process. The processor capacity is measured in bits. Sometimes the width of the address bus is also specified. It shows how many cells (addresses) internal memory can be used by this processor (the so-called processor address space).
Clock frequency – the number of clock cycles (elementary actions) performed by the processor per second. Clock speeds are measured in megahertz (1 MHz = million ticks per second) or gigahertz (1 GHz = billion ticks per second). Obviously, the clock frequency affects the speed of work, the speed of the processor. The higher it is, the faster the processor works and the more information it can process. The increase in clock frequency occurs from one processor model to another. For example, the first models of Intel processors (8088) worked at a clock speed of 8 MHz, and modern ones (Pentium IV) - up to 4 GHz.
Multi-core processor , i.e. can consist of several processors combined in one package.
Input Devices
Input Devices are designed to enter information from the user into a computer.
A person receives information from the outside world with the help of the senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste. However, a person does not perceive electrical impulses and very poorly understands information presented in the form of sequences of zeros and ones, therefore, the computer must include special devices for input and output of information.
Input devices "translate" information from human language into machine language of a computer, and output devices, on the contrary, "translate" information from machine language into forms that are accessible to human perception.
Input Devices – devices with the help of which a person enters information into a computer.
Keyboard –A device for manual input of numerical and textual information into a computer from the user.
Light feather - a special pen with which you can draw on the computer screen.
Mouse - manipulator for entering information and working with a graphical interface.
Trackball- similar to a mouse, but made in the form of a ball. Used mainly by laptop PCs.
Touchpad – touch panel that is sensitive to finger pressure.
Scanner - for entering photos, drawings into the computer.
Joystick - game manipulator.
Digital cameras (cameras and camcorders) - form images in a computer format (digital format, have a memory similar to a computer.)
Microphone– for input of sound information, it is connected to the input of the sound card.
Output devices
Output devices are designed to output information from the computer memory.
Monitor - a device for displaying information on the screen.
a printer– device for printing information on paper.
Plotter (plotter)- a device for printing complex drawings, diagrams, large-format posters (A1). The principle of operation of a plotter is the same as that of an inkjet printer.
Acoustic speakers or headphones- are used for audio output and are connected to the output of the sound card. A sound card is the latest device in a personal computer that performs computational operations related to the processing of sound, speech, and music.
Streamer - a device for recording information on a magnetic tape from a computer (on mini-cassettes with a large capacity from 0.5 GB to 2 GB), i.e. This is a tape recorder with accessibility.
Devices that simultaneously perform the functions of both input and output of information.
Sound box- a set of devices for sound reproduction, for sound recording in programs. Includes sound card, speakers, microphone.
Modem- a device for the exchange of information between computers via the telephone network.
Fax modem- a device that combines the capabilities of a modem and the means for exchanging images with other faxes through ordinary telephones.
NGMD, NZHMD, NML- joint devices for input and output of information on magnetic media (floppy disk, HDD, ribbon).
Backbone - modular principle of building a computer
Communication and exchange of information between individual computer devices produced with the help of information highways, commonly referred to as bus. Structurally, it is integrated with the board. The mainline can be imagined as a bundle of wires to which all computer devices are connected. By sending electrical signals along the line, any computer module can transmit information to other modules.
Data bus (8, 16, 32, 64 bits)
Address bus (16, 20, 24, 32, 36 bits)
Control bus
Keyboard
Keyboard is intended for manual input of information into a computer from a user. The standard keyboard contains 101 (104) keys.
The number of keys on keyboards may differ slightly, but the function of the same keys on different keyboards is the same.
