Economic reforms of Peter I - briefly. Financial reforms of Peter I - in brief

Introduction …………………………………………… .. …………………………… .3

Economic reforms ………………………………………………………… 5

The state of the financial and credit system of Russia at the end of XVII - early

ХVIII centuries …………………………………………………………………… ... 8

The role of finance in economic policy Peter I ……………. …………… .10

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .15

List of used literature ……………………………… .. ………….… 17

Introduction

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas

state life of the country. Many of these transformations are leaving

roots in the 17th century - socio-economic transformations of that time

served as prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was

the formation of the noble-bureaucratic apparatus.

Aggravating class contradictions have led to the need

strengthening and strengthening the autocratic apparatus in the center and at the local level,

centralization of management, building a coherent and flexible system

management apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities

authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military

forces to pursue a more aggressive foreign policy and suppress

more frequent popular movements. It was required to be fixed by legal acts

dominant position of the nobility and give it a central,

leading place in public life. All this together and

led to the implementation of reforms in various fields of activity

state. In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.

A specific historical assessment of the reforms depends on what is considered for Russia usefulwhat is harmful, what is main, and what is secondary.

As already mentioned, the prerequisites for Peter's reforms were

transformations of the end of the 17th century. In the second half of this century

changes, becoming more centralized, the system of state

management. Attempts have also been made to delineate more clearly the functions

and the scope of activity of various orders, the beginnings of a regular

armies - regiments of a foreign system. There were changes in culture:

a theater appeared, the first higher educational institution.

Peter turned Russia into a truly European country (at least, as

he understood it) - it was not for nothing that the expression "opened a window to Europe" became

so often used. The milestones on this path were conquest

access to the Baltic, construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg,

active intervention in European politics.

Another important feature of Peter's reforms was that they

affected all sectors of society, in contrast to previous attempts by Russian

rulers. Building a fleet, Northern war, creating a new capital -

all this became the business of the whole country.

At present, Russia, like two centuries ago, is in the stage

reforms, therefore the analysis of Peter's transformations is now especially necessary.

Economic reforms

In the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and, above all

industry has taken a giant leap forward. At the same time, development

economy in the first quarter of the 18th century followed the paths outlined by the previous

period.

Peter's policy towards economic life was characterized by a high degree of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from

further development of fertile lands, cultivation of technical

crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry,

advancing agriculture to the east and south, as well as more intensive

exploitation of peasants. Increased state needs for raw materials for

russian industry have led to the widespread use of such

crops like flax and hemp. A decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and

hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. Decree of 1712

ordered to create horse breeding farms in Kazan, Azov and

Sheep breeding was also encouraged in the Kiev provinces.

In the Peter's era, there is a sharp demarcation of the country into two zones

conducting a feudal economy - the lean North, where feudal lords translated

their peasants on a monetary rent, often letting them go to the city and other

agricultural areas for work, and the fertile South, where

the noble landowners sought to expand the corvee.

The state obligations of the peasants were also strengthened. By their forces

cities were built (40 thousand people worked on the construction of St.

peasants), factories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting

sets, old fees were raised and new ones were introduced. The main goal

peter's policy all the time was to receive as much money and

human resources for government needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718

the unit of taxation was the male "soul", regardless of

the age at which the capitation fee was charged in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from

state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kopecks in year).

This streamlined tax policy and dramatically raised state revenues.

(about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign they amounted to 12 million.

rub. in year).

The industry underwent a sharp reorientation from small

peasant and handicraft farms for manufactories. Under Peter it was

founded at least 200 new manufactories, he strongly encouraged their creation.

State policy was also aimed at protecting the young Russian

industry from competition from Western European by introducing

very high customs duties (Customs Charter 1724)

State treasury factories used the labor of state

peasants, registered peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They're in

mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards,

mines. At merchant manufactories that mainly produced goods

wide consumption, both possessional and quitrent peasants worked, and

also civilian labor. Landlord enterprises completely

provided by the forces of the serfs of the landlord-owner.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in

a wide variety of industries, often appearing in Russia

for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy:

metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen,

leather, etc. Entrepreneurship was encouraged,

The formation of the Russian state as an empire and its emergence as a serious player on the European international arena inevitably had to be accompanied by bloody wars and a trade struggle for markets. In such conditions, the country needed modernization, which began with the reforms of Peter the Great. These reforms included very large-scale transformations in many areas of state life: administrative, judicial, religious, public,

military. One of the most important transformations in the rise of Russia was the economic reforms of Peter 1. The giant leap that trade and, above all, industry made, provided the possibility of internal self-sufficiency in Russia, independent of the import of goods, as well as the creation of massive exports of Russian goods abroad. The economic reform of Peter 1 consisted of the following series of measures.

Industry

Redistribution of labor

The economic reform of Peter I was often carried out by forced labor. So, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the state obligations of the peasants were seriously increased. Serfs were forcibly transferred from their land plots to work in established factories, building canals and other works. This process was especially active in the northern non-chernozem regions of Russia. As a result of this use of forced labor by the state, the future capital, St. Petersburg, was built.

Foreign experience

Foreign qualified specialists were intensively involved in the economy, education and diplomatic structures of Russia, which contributed to the acquisition of advanced European experience in their own country.

Tax

To fill the state treasury economic reforms Peter 1 provided for an increase in duties and the creation of new types of taxes. There were new duties on baths, stamped paper, the famous Peter's tax on beards. Thus, the economic reforms of Peter 1 significantly contributed to the creation of the industrial base of the Russian state, the establishment of a high turnover and export trade, the development of sea and river routes in the country.

Tsar Peter Alekseevich was called a great reformer because of the changes taking place in all spheres human activity... He did not bypass the economy either.

Reforms of Peter I in the field of economics

The young Tsar returned from the Grand Embassy to Russia with the firm conviction that Russia needs modernization and a reorientation from east to west. In short, everything had to be redone everywhere. Reforms in the social and cultural spheres were difficult and were rejected by society in every possible way.

Everything changed with the beginning Northern War... It was she who showed the military, technical and economic backwardness of Russia against the background of the European powers. The defeat at Narva and the invasion of the Swedish army into Ukraine forced Peter to speed up the implementation of socio-economic reforms.

Figure: 1. Portrait of Peter I.

It is necessary to understand that the economic reforms of Peter the Great were not planned in the form in which they took place. The essence of all his transformations came down to achieving one goal - the victory in the Northern War, which he lived for 21 years. That is why metallurgy, textile and woolen business received a special impetus.

In the Urals, the accelerated construction of metallurgical plants begins, in which the industrialists Demidovs took the leading role. Almost all of them were engaged in the production of cannonballs for cannons and bullets for muskets. Several Ural factories were engaged in the extraction and smelting of silver, which had a strong influence on the development of the mint in Russia.

In the port cities, the construction of shipyards was actively going on, which could not but affect the development of trade. It consisted of several levels: from specific auctions in the regions to bulk purchases abroad. A whole network of customs duties was formed inside the country, the development of which led to the construction of river canals.

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The historical consequences on the development of such cities as St. Petersburg, Astrakhan, Riga, Narva, Vyborg and Revel were precisely the policy of Peter. Having gained access to the Baltic and the Caspian Sea, Russia began to export many specific goods without trade margins, supplying them directly to the leading European countries. This included furs, walrus tusk, whalebone and other unique resources.

Figure: 2. Construction of St. Petersburg.

Table "Reforms of Peter I in the field of economics"

*Reform*	*Year*	*The essence of the reform*	*Effects*
Kumping for building a fleet		Forcing the Church and private landowners to build a certain number of ships for the state	The Azov flotilla was created
Secularization of land and peasants		Transfer of church lands under the control of the Monastery Prikaz	Improved land use efficiency
Decree on registered peasants		Peasants were assigned to factories to work at the expense of the state	The release of military products has been accelerated
Decree on the introduction of monopolies		Monopolization of salt, tar, alcohol, lard, chalk, fish oil by the state	Raising state budget revenues
The introduction of the poll tax		Household taxation has been abolished. The entire population began to pay taxes, and not an individual family.	Growth of revenues to the state treasury
Decree on Possessional Peasants		Manufacturers were allowed to buy for the work of serfs	Increased productivity of manufactories
Establishment of workshops and guilds		Union of Craftsmen of Similar Professions	Production and distribution of goods is established
New customs tariff		Increase in duties on foreign goods	Introduction of a protectionist policy

1. Development of industry

Already in the XVII century. small-scale trade began to take shape in Russia, the first manufactories appeared. However, the country's economic development was constrained by its isolation from world markets due to the lack of sea trade routes.

A decisive breakthrough in economic development was made in the first quarter of the 18th century, under Peter I. If for the entire 17th century. about 30 manufactories were founded in the country, then in the first quarter of the 18th century. - about 200.

The economic transformations carried out by Peter the Great were not carried out according to a pre-developed plan. They were dictated by the needs of the army during the Northern War. The army and navy required a lot of iron, timber, sails, ropes, shoes, cloth, etc. With the outbreak of the Northern War, Russia lost its supplies of Swedish iron. The state was forced to hastily develop industries that worked for military needs. The Ural became the main metallurgical region of the country, pushing into the background the old Olonets and Tula-Kashirsky regions. In 1698, the Nevyansk Metallurgical Plant was built in the Urals. In 1702-1707, 11 more factories were founded. This made it possible to satisfy the country's demand for metal. The Ural iron turned out to be the best in the world for a long time.

Light industry enterprises also developed. Built: Khamovny (linen), Kanatny, Harness, Leather, Shlyapny, Cloth yards, button, glass, cotton, silicate and other factories. All of them were enterprises of the manufacturing type, the most advanced at that time. All these enterprises were built at public expense and belonged to the treasury.

At the end of the Great Northern War, Peter began to encourage private entrepreneurship. In 1719, the Berg-privilege was declared, according to which all Russian citizens received the right to develop mineral resources and build factories. The factories that had previously belonged to the treasury began to be widely transferred to private hands. As a rule, merchant companies became new owners, who were provided with loans and tax breaks. The production goals remained the same: in the first place, the enterprises had to fulfill the state order. Violation of this condition was punishable by the confiscation of the plant, even if it was based on the owner's own funds.

Work on a government order was attractive to entrepreneurs, as it provided guaranteed sales of products. But the same circumstance, reducing competition, made it possible not to worry about the technical and organizational improvement of production. Giving benefits to merchant companies also meant suppressing competitors.

Russian manufactory was fundamentally different from Western European not only in its close ties with the state, but also in the nature of the labor force used. If in the pre-Petrine period in factories they worked both on free hiring and under compulsion, then under Peter I the workers in factories became almost completely bonded. Since the army's needs for recruits and the tax reform required the population to be consolidated in the localities, the search for fugitives became much tougher. In this situation, civilian workers simply could not be enough. In this regard, in 1721 Peter I, by a special decree, allowed the owners to buy serfs for factories. Unlike serfs, such peasants were called possessory. They were considered the property of not the owner, but the plant and could not be sold separately from the enterprise. At state enterprises, in addition to the main workers, assigned peasants worked in auxiliary jobs, for whom factory work replaced state taxes.

Thus, the Russian manufactory of the Petrine era, being a bourgeois phenomenon in terms of the organization of production (division of labor, partial work on the market), remained feudal in terms of the method of exploiting labor power.

2. Trade development

In an effort to replenish the state treasury, Peter I sought to expand trade. For this purpose, large merchant companies were created, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, connecting Petersburg with the Volga basin. The construction of the Volga-Don Canal was also planned.

The production and sale of many goods were declared a state monopoly and were left at the mercy of large merchants. Foreign merchants often became monopolists. However, at the end of the Northern War, most of the monopolies were abolished. The state tightly controlled trade, ordering the merchants to which ports to carry goods, which ships to build.

Foreign trade developed in accordance with the theory of mercantilism. According to her, the basis of state wealth is the accumulation of money in the treasury. Therefore, exports had to exceed imports. The main means for ensuring this was protectionism, i.e. high customs duties on imports of domestically produced goods; and encouraging low export duties. In this respect, the policy of Peter I continued and developed the Russian traditions of the 17th century. The customs tariff of 1724 had an even more pronounced protectionist character than the New Trade Charter of 1667: duties on some types of iron products reached 75% of their value. Already in 1726, Russian exports exceeded imports by a widow. Petersburg became the main trade port, the turnover of which exceeded the turnover of Arkhangelsk by 12 times. Russian exports were mainly agricultural and forestry products: flax, hemp, timber, leather. To them were added iron and linen. Cloths, silks, paints, wine, sugar, luxury goods were imported.

3. Russian bourgeoisie

The Russian bourgeoisie, in comparison with the Western European, turned out to be more connected with the regime. Government subsidies, government orders, patronizing customs policies - all this made the bourgeoisie dependent on the government. Being, in essence, a feudal estate, the merchants sought to obtain benefits, privileges, monopolies, and the richest merchants tried to acquire the title of nobility. If in Europe the bourgeoisie fought against class barriers, in Russia - for their strengthening. All this, given the traditional weakness of the institutions of self-government in the Russian city, led to the fact that the Russian bourgeoisie never became an independent political force, the bearer of the idea of \u200b\u200brepresentative government.

4. Tax policy

The main source of funds, which during the reign of Peter the Great was required especially in connection with the long-term war, were taxes and taxes. Traditionally, there has been both direct and indirect taxation in Russia. The main type of direct taxation was courtyard tax. In an effort to reduce payments, peasants often settled in several families in one yard. In 1718, a population census was carried out, which made it possible to switch to a capitation tax collection. However, due to the concealment of "souls", after the census, an audit was carried out, completed in 1724. From 1725, all the various taxes were replaced by a single poll tax of 74 kopecks. per year from the landlord peasant, 1 rub. 14 kopecks from a state peasant or a townsman. The difference was explained by the fact that the serf had to pay duties to his master in addition to state payments. Since then, audits have been carried out periodically. Taxes were taken only from the male population, but regardless of age - from infants and old people. The peasant included in the revision documents ("revision tales") was called the revision soul. Even if he died, taxes on him were stopped only after the next revision.

With the introduction of the poll tax, the total amount of taxation has almost doubled. In addition to the capitation, various one-time payments were also levied (for the construction of the fleet, roads, etc.) and in-kind duties (construction, underwater, road, etc.).

The poll tax was extended to slaves who had not previously paid the state tax. With the introduction of the poll tax, slaves lost the right to go out in the event of the death of their master. The difference between slaves and peasants has finally disappeared. Serfdom as a social category ceased to exist.

Thus, Peter's reforms contributed to a significant acceleration of the country's economic development. But at the same time, they strengthened the serfdom and thereby laid the conditions for the subsequent lag behind the developed countries of the West.

What to look out for when answering:

The connection of the economic policy of Peter I with the Northern War.

Ensuring the interests of the state is the main goal of the economic policy of Peter I.

Active government intervention is the main tool for boosting Russia's economic development.

Lack of developed ideas about guarantees of private property. The contradictory position of the merchants under Peter I.

The serfdom nature of Russian manufactory.

The political weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie.

Continuity of the economic policy of Peter I in relation to the 17th century.

Reply left Guru

More than 200 manufactories were created under him.

In terms of metal production, Russia took the third place in Europe (after England and Sweden). The peculiarity of Russian industry was that it was based on serf labor. The government allowed breeders to buy peasants, which were called possessory. Harsh working conditions and high mortality rates led to frequent changes in workers. The number of artisans continued to grow. The largest craft centers were Moscow and St. Petersburg. The main types of production were household items: locks, knives, pewter dishes, canvases, jewelry made of gold, silver, enamel. Felting craft (felt boots and hats), candle and soap production developed. Unlike industry, changes in agriculture were not significant. Peter ordered to use a Lithuanian scythe and a rake when harvesting grain. They were purchased in thousands and sent to the provinces, which made it possible to increase the productivity of peasant labor. Agricultural land development continued in the Volga region and Siberia. Merino sheep were bought for the production of cloth in Holland and Spain. The first stud farms were created. For the needs of the court, silkworms were bred. Sowings of industrial crops - flax and hemp, which were required for the army's needs, increased significantly. Peter the Great brought potatoes, tomatoes and tobacco to Russia, and an all-Russian market developed. The main centers of trade were rural markets, where sellers and buyers from neighboring villages came two or three times a week. Wholesale fairs also appeared. Peter I improved communication routes: he built the Vyshnevolotsk canal and began the construction of the Ladoga bypass canal, which had a positive effect on the development of domestic trade. This was also facilitated by the growth in the number of cities and urban population, an increase in the volume of manufacturing production, the creation of a large army. Baltic Sea contributed to the increase in the volume of foreign trade. The main European trade partners of Russia were England and Holland. Through Astrakhan, Russia traded with Persia and Transcaucasia. As part of the policy of protectionism, Peter in 1724 adopted the Customs Tariff, which established a 75% duty on the import of foreign goods if they were produced in sufficient quantities in Russia. It was also forbidden to export raw materials needed by the domestic industry.

The sage avoids all extremes.

The economy of Russia in the 17th century lagged significantly behind European countries. Therefore, the economic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating conditions for the country's economic development in the present and in the future.

Separately, it should be noted that the main direction of development of the economy of that era was the development, first of all, of the military industry. This is important to understand, since the entire reign of Peter 1 took place during the period of wars, the main of which was the Northern War.

The economy of the era of Peter and must be viewed from the point of view of the following components:

State of the economy at the beginning of the era

The economy of Russia before Peter I came to power had a huge number of problems.

Suffice it to say that in a country with a huge number of natural resources, did not have required material for their own provision even for the needs of the army. For example, metal for cannons and artillery was purchased in Sweden. The industry was in a state of decline. There were only 25 factories throughout Russia.

For comparison, more than 100 manufactories operated in England during the same period. As for agriculture and trade, the old rules were in effect here and these industries practically did not develop.

Features of economic development

Peter's grand embassy to Europe opened up the problems of the Russian economy to the tsar.

These problems were exacerbated by the outbreak of the Northern War when Sweden cut off the supply of iron (metal). As a result, Peter I was forced to melt church bells into cannons, for which the church called him almost the Antichrist.

The economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter I was aimed primarily at the development of the army and navy.

It was around these two components that the development of industry and other objects took place. It is important to note that since 1715 individual entrepreneurship has been encouraged in Russia.

Moreover, some of the manufactories and factories were transferred to private hands.

The basic principles of economic policy of Peter 1 developed in two directions:

Protectionism. This is support domestic manufacturer and encouraging the export of goods abroad.
Mercantilism. The prevalence of export of goods over import. In economic terms, exports prevail over imports. This is done for concentration money inside the country.

Industry development

By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, there were only 25 manufactories in Russia.

This is extremely small. The country could not provide itself with even the most essential. That is why the beginning of the Northern War was so sad for Russia, since the lack of supplies of the same iron from Sweden made it impossible to conduct the war.

The main directions of the economic policy of Peter I fluttered along 3 main directions: the metallurgical industry, the mining industry, and shipbuilding. In total, by the end of the reign of Peter, there were already 200 factories operating in Russia.

The best indicator that the economic management system worked is the fact that before Peter came to power, Russia was one of the largest importers of iron, and after Peter 1 Russia came to the third place in the world in iron production and became an exporter.

Under Peter the Great, the first industrial centers began to form in the country.

Rather, there were such industrial centers, but their significance was insignificant. It was under Peter that the formation and rise of industry in the Urals and Donbass took place. back side industrial growth - the attraction of private capital and difficult conditions for workers.

During this period, registered and possessory peasants appeared.

Possessional peasants appeared by order of Peter 1 in 1721. They became the property of the manufactory and were obliged to work there all their lives. Possessional peasants replaced registered peasants, who were recruited from among urban peasants and assigned to a particular factory.

History reference

The problem of the peasants, expressed in the creation of a possessory peasantry, was associated with the lack of skilled labor in Russia.

The development of industry in the Petrine era was distinguished by the following features:

The rapid development of the metallurgical industry.
Active participation of the state in economic life.
The state acted as a customer for all industrial facilities.
Involvement of forced labor. From 1721, factories were allowed to buy peasants.
Lack of competition.
As a result, large entrepreneurs lacked the desire to develop their industry, which is why there was a long stagnation in Russia.

In the development of industry, Peter had 2 problems: the weak efficiency of public administration, as well as the lack of interests of large entrepreneurs for development.

It was all decided simply - the tsar began to transfer, including large enterprises, to private owners for management. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 17th century famous family Demidovs controlled 1/3 of all Russian iron.

The figure shows a map of the economic development of Russia under Peter 1, as well as the development of industry in the European part of the country.

Agriculture

Let's consider what changes took place in the agriculture of Russia during the reign of Peter.

The economy of Russia under Peter I in the field of agriculture developed along an extensive path. The extensive path, in contrast to the intensive, did not involve improving working conditions, but expanding opportunities. Therefore, under Peter, the active development of new arable lands began. The fastest growing lands were in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia. At the same time, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. Roughly 90% of the population lived in villages and were engaged in agriculture.

The orientation of the country's economy towards the army and navy was reflected in the agriculture of Russia in the 17th century.

In particular, it was because of this direction of the country's development that the development of sheep and horse breeding began.

Economic reforms of Peter 1

Sheep were needed to supply the fleet, and horses to form cavalry.

It was during the Peter the Great era that new tools of labor began to be used in agriculture: the scythe and the rake. These tools were purchased from abroad and imposed on the local economy.

From 1715 onwards Peter I issued a decree to expand the sowing of tobacco and hemp.

As a result, an agricultural system was created, in which Russia could feed itself on its own, and for the first time in history, it began to sell grain abroad.

Trade

The economic policy of Peter 1 in the field of trade generally corresponds to the general development of the country.

Trade also developed along the protectionist path of development.

Until the Petrine era, all major trade was conducted through the port in Astrakhan. But Peter the Great, who was terribly in love with St. Petersburg, by his own decree forbade trade through Astrakhan (the Decree was signed in 1713), and demanded a complete transfer of trade to St. Petersburg.

This did not bring much effect for Russia, but it was an important factor for strengthening the position of St. Petersburg as a city and capital of the Empire. Suffice it to say that as a result of these changes, Astrakhan reduced its trade turnover by about 15 times, and the city gradually began to lose its rich status.

Simultaneously with the development of the port in St. Petersburg, ports in Riga, Vyborg, Narva and Revel were actively developing. At the same time, St. Petersburg accounted for about 2/3 of foreign trade turnover.

Support for domestic production was achieved through the introduction of high customs duties. So, if the goods were produced in Russia, then their customs duty was 75%.

If the imported goods were not produced in Russia, then its duty varied in the range from 20% to 30%. At the same time, the payment of the duty was made exclusively in foreign currency at a favorable rate for Russia. This was necessary in order to obtain foreign capital and to be able to purchase the necessary equipment. Already in 1726, the volume of exports of products from Russia was 2 times higher than the volume of imports.

The main countries with which Russia traded in those days were England and Holland.

In many ways, the development of transport went on for the development of trade.

In particular, 2 large canals were built:

Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1709) This canal connected the Tvertsa River (a tributary of the Volga) with the Msta River. From there, through Lake Ilmen, a path opened to the Baltic Sea.
Ladoga Bypass Canal (1718). Walked around Lake Ladoga... This detour was necessary because the lake was restless and ships could not move on it.

Finance development

Peter 1 had one oddity - he was very fond of taxes and in every possible way encouraged people who came up with new taxes.

It was during this era that taxes were introduced on almost everything: on the stove, on salt, on government letterheads, and even on beards. In those days, they even joked that there were no taxes only on air, but such taxes would soon appear.

The increase in taxes and their expansion led to popular unrest. For example, the Astrakhan uprising and the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin are the main major discontent of the masses of that era, but there were also dozens of small uprisings.

In 1718, the tsar carried out his famous reform, introducing a poll tax in the country.

If earlier taxes were paid from the yard, now from every male soul.

Also one of the main undertakings was the financial reform of 1700-1704. The main focus of this reform was on the minting of new coins, equating the amount of silver in the ruble with silver, while the weight of the Russian ruble itself was equated to the Dutch guilder.

As a result of financial changes, the growth of income to the treasury was increased by about 3 times.

This was a great help for the development of the state, but it made it almost impossible to live in the country. Suffice it to say that during the Petrine era, the population of Russia decreased by 25%, taking into account all the new territories that this tsar conquered.

Consequences of economic development

The main results of the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, which can be considered the main ones:

7-fold increase in the number of manufactories.
Expansion of the volume of manufactured products within the country.
Russia has become the third largest producer of metal in the world.
In agriculture, new tools of labor began to be used, which later proved their effectiveness.
The founding of st.Petersburg and the conquest of the Baltics expanded trade and economic ties with European countries.
St. Petersburg became the main trade and financial center of Russia.
Due to the attention paid by the state to trade, the importance of the merchants increased.
It was during this period that they established themselves as a strong and influential class.

If we consider these points, then by itself a positive reaction to the economic reforms of Peter 1 suggests itself, but here it is important to understand at what cost all this was achieved. The tax burden on the population increased greatly, which automatically led to the impoverishment of most peasant farms.

In addition, the need to develop the economy at a rapid pace actually contributed to the strengthening of serfdom.

New and old in Petrine economy

Consider the table, which presents the main aspects of the economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter 1, indicating which aspects were before Peter and which appeared during his reign.

Factor Appeared or survived

Agriculture as the basis of the country's economy	Preserved
Specialization of economic regions	Appeared. Before Peter, specialization was insignificant.
Active industrial development of the Urals	Appeared
Development of local land tenure	Preserved
Formation of a single all-Russian market	Appeared
Manufacturing	Preserved, but expanded significantly
Protectionism policy	Appeared
Affiliation of peasants to factories	Appeared
Excess of export of goods over import	Appeared
Canal construction	Appeared
Growth in the number of entrepreneurs	Appeared

Regarding the growth in the number of entrepreneurs, it should be noted that Peter 1 actively contributed to this.

In particular, he allowed any person, regardless of his origin, to conduct research on finding minerals and to justify their own factories at the location.

Russia under Peter I

In Russia in the 18th century. along with the strengthening and formation of the estate system, profound changes are taking place in the economic and social developmentaffecting all parties national economy and the social image of the country. These changes were based on the disintegration of feudalism and the genesis of capitalist relations, which began in the 17th century. The culmination of this process was, of course, the era Peter I (1672-1725), the king-converter.

Peter I correctly understood and realized the complexity of the tasks that faced the country, and began purposefully to implement them.

Absolutism and state structure.Under Peter I, absolutism was finally established in Russia, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant the strengthening of the power of the tsar himself, he became an autocratic and unlimited monarch.

In Russia, a reform of the state apparatus was carried out - instead of the Boyar Duma, Senate, which included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I.

The Senate was a legislative body that controlled the country's finances and administration. At the head of the Senate was the Attorney General.

Public administration reform affected and the order system they were replaced collegia, the number of which reached 12. Each collegium was in charge of a certain branch of management: foreign relations were managed by the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the Admiralty fleet, the collection of revenues - the Chamber Collegium, noble land tenure - the Votchinnaya, etc.

The cities were in charge of the Chief Magistrate.

During this period, the struggle continued between the supreme and secular authorities and the church. In 1721 was established Spiritual College,or Synod, which testified to the complete subordination of the church to the state.

In Russia, the post of patriarch was abolished, the supervision of the church was entrusted to the chief prosecutor of the Synod.

The system of local government was reorganized, the country was divided in 1708 into eight provinces (Moscow, Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian), headed by the governors, who were in charge of the troops. Since the territories of the provinces were huge, they were subdivided into 50 provinces. In turn, the provinces were divided into counties.

These measures testified to the creation in Russia of a unified administrative and bureaucratic management system - an indispensable attribute of an absolutist state.

The reforms of Peter I affected the army and navy.

Since 1705, recruitment has been introduced in the country, and the norm for placing a soldier in lifelong service has been established - one recruit from 20 peasant households. Thus, the army was created with a single principle of manning, with uniform weapons and uniforms. New military regulations were introduced. Officers' schools were organized. The army was supplied with artillery pieces, many ships were built. So, by 1725 the Baltic Fleet had more than 30 battleships, 16 frigates and over 400 other ships.

Under Peter I, the Russian army and navy became one of the strongest in Europe.

An important result and legislative consolidation of all reform activities Petra appeared Table of Ranks(1722), which was a law on the order of public service.

The adoption of this law meant a break with the previous patriarchal tradition of government, embodied in parochialism. Having established the order of rank production in the military and civil service, not according to nobility, but according to personal abilities and merits, the Table of Ranks contributed to the consolidation of the nobility and the expansion of its composition at the expense of persons loyal to the king from different strata of the population.

Development of manufacturingA characteristic feature of Russia's economic development was the decisive role of the autocratic state in the economy, its active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life.

Institutions of state regulation of the national economy, bodies for the implementation of the trade and industrial policy of the autocracy, founded by Peter I, Berg-, Manufactur-, Commerz-Collegiums and the Chief Magistrate.

There are two stages in industrial policy: 1700-1717. - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury; from 1717 private individuals began to establish manufactories.

At the same time, the owners of manufactures were exempted from the sovereign service.

At the first stage, priority was given to the production of products for military needs.

Economy under peter 1

At the second stage, the industry began to produce products for the population.

By a decree of 1722, city artisans were united into workshops, but unlike Western Europe they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves, for the manufacture of products needed by the army and navy.

Manufacturing was a higher form of industrial production.

As a result of the transformations of Peter I in the first quarter of the XVIII century. in the development of the manufacturing industry there was a sharp leap. Compared to the end of the 17th century. the number of manufactories increased by about five times and in 1725 amounted to 205 enterprises.

Especially great successes were achieved in the metallurgical industry, which was caused by the need to arm the army and build a fleet. Along with factories in old districts (Tula, Kashira, Kaluga), factories arose in Karelia, and then in the Urals.

It was during this period that the wide development of the iron and copper ores of the Urals began, which soon became the main metallurgical base of the country. Pig iron smelting reached 815 thous.

poods per year, according to this indicator, Russia took the third place in the world, behind only England and Sweden. Large-scale copper production was organized. The second place was taken by textile manufactories that developed in the center of the country. There were also tanneries working here, providing products primarily to the army.

Under Peter I, new industries arose in Russia: shipbuilding, silk spinning, glass and faience, paper production.

The state played an important role in the development of large-scale industry.

It built factories, helped private entrepreneurs, and provided manufactories with labor.

The manufactories used both free-hired and forced labor of peasants who worked in the estates of their landowners, as well as peasants from the state and palace villages. Decree of 1721

merchants were allowed to purchase serfs for their factories, which later became known as possessional. Thus, in the first quarter of the XVIII century. there was a leap in the development of large-scale production and in the use of hired labor. This can be considered the second stage in the initial period of the genesis of capitalist relations in the industry of Russia (the first stage - XVII century).

Trade. During the reign of Peter I, internal and external trade received incentives to develop.

This was facilitated by the development of industrial and handicraft production, the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea, and the improvement of communications. During this period, canals were built that connected the Volga and Neva (Vyshnevolotsky and Ladoga). Between separate parts exchange intensified, the turnover of Russian fairs (Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, etc.) grew, which manifested the formation of an all-Russian market.

For the development of foreign trade, not only the construction of the St. Petersburg port was important, but also the support of Russian merchants and industrialists from the government of Peter I.

This was reflected in the policy of protectionism and mercantilism, in the adoption of the Patronage Tariff of 1724. In accordance with it (and the emperor himself took part in its development), the export of Russian goods abroad was encouraged and the import of foreign products was limited. Most overseas goods were subject to a very high duty, up to 75% of the value of the goods.

Income from trade contributed to the accumulation of capital in the sphere of trade, which also led to the growth of the capitalist structure. Common feature development of trade consisted in pursuing a policy of mercantilism, the essence of which was the accumulation of money through an active trade balance.

The state actively intervened in the development of trade:

monopolies were introduced on the procurement and sale of certain goods: salt, flax, yuft, hemp, tobacco, bread, bacon, wax, etc., which led to an increase in prices for these goods within the country and restriction of the activities of Russian merchants;

quite often the sale of a certain product, on which a state monopoly was introduced, was transferred to a specific tax farmer for payment large amount money;

direct taxes (customs, drinking fees) and the like were sharply increased;

the forced resettlement of merchants to St. Petersburg, which at that time was an uncomfortable border town, was practiced.

The practice of administrative regulation of cargo flows was applied, i.e.

it was determined in which port and what to trade. The gross interference of the state in the sphere of trade led to the destruction of the shaky foundation on which the well-being of merchants, primarily loan and usurious capital, was based.

Monetary reform.In conditions when there was a significant expansion of industrial production, the turnover of domestic and foreign trade increased, and it was necessary to reform the monetary system.

It took shape in the 17th century. and now, in the era of Peter's reforms, it has ceased to correspond to the interests of economic development.

For wholesale trade and foreign trade operations, the silver kopeck in circulation turned out to be too small a monetary unit. At the same time, for small market trading, it was unnecessarily valuable.

Therefore, Peter 1 carried out a reform of the coin business. It provided for the minting of gold, silver and copper coins. The monetary system was based on the decimal principle: ruble, dime, kopeck. The main units of the new monetary system were the copper penny and the silver ruble, which, to facilitate foreign trade settlements, was equated by weight to the thaler used as a monetary unit in a number of European countries.

Coin minting became a state monopoly.

Agriculture. A notable phenomenon in the history of agriculture in the 18th century. became the process of territorial division of labor, which began in the 17th century. Basically, the formation of regions specialized in the production of certain agricultural products was completed, their trade orientation became more clearly defined. In agriculture, the production of cereals and industrial crops prevailed, among which flax and hemp took the leading place.

Social politics.In the field of social policy, Peter's legislation followed, in principle, the general trend that was outlined in the 18th century.

The attachment of peasants to the land, fixed by the Code of 1649, at that time not only did not change, but also received further development... This is evidenced by the introduction new system registration of the population and taxation, carried out in order to increase the efficiency of control over the collection of taxes from the population.

The state, seeking to identify each individual taxpayer, introduced a new taxation principle - the poll tax. Taxes began to be collected - now not from the yard, but from revision soul 1. IN 1718-1724

a census of the entire taxable population was carried out, and all those included in the lists had to pay a certain capitation tax per year. The introduction of the poll tax led to several important consequences: social structures, strengthening the power of landowners over the peasants and, in addition, spreading the tax burden on new groups of the population.

Another major initiative in the field of state regulation of social relations was the attempt of Peter I to stabilize the ruling class economically and politically.

In this respect important role played the Decree on the order of inheritance of movable and immovable property of March 23, 1714, known as the decree of entitlement. Under the new law, all land holdings of a nobleman were to be inherited only to one eldest son or daughter, and in their absence - to one of the family members. In a long historical perspective, Peter's decree would have kept large land holdings indivisible, would have prevented their fragmentation.

However, the Russian nobility greeted him extremely hostilely. The decree on the primacy, despite repeated reminders and threats, was never implemented, and in subsequent reigns was canceled.

The history of this legislative provision shows well the limits and possibilities of state intervention in the rationalization of social relations, the regulation of the ruling class.

At the same time, it was of great importance, since from that moment on the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate, there were no differences between them - the estate, like the estate, became inherited.

This decree marked the merger of the two estates of feudal lords into a single class. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles.

If the Code of 1649 formalized serfdom for the bulk of the rural population, then the tax reform extended serfdom to strata of the population that were either free (walking people), or had the opportunity to gain freedom after the death of the master (slaves). Both those and others became serfs forever.

The results of the census conducted by Peter give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe population of Russia, it was 15.5 million.

people, of whom 5.4 million were men, from whom the tax was charged.

Increased tax oppression led to a massive exodus of peasants. In 1724, Peter issued a decree forbidding peasants to leave the landlords to earn money without written permission. This was the beginning of the passport system in Russia.

The main goal of the state activities of Peter (1696-1725) was to turn Russia into a powerful modern state. Peter set himself the main tasks: 1. the creation of large-scale production (manufactory), 2. the development of trade (especially the sea), 3. the creation of a powerful army and navy, 4. the development of science, enlightenment and education. To solve the first problem, capital and free hands were required.

There was neither one nor the other resource in the country. Walkers were the only free labor force in the country, but there were very few of them. Many scientists were brought from abroad to develop mining resources and to train Russians in mining. Peter's persistent efforts were crowned with success, iron and copper were even exported abroad. Under Peter, many linen, sailing, cloth factories arose, as well as factories for the production of consumer goods.

Since trade could only be overland, Peter took care of improving communication lines. Peter's great work was to create a regular russian army... For the recruitment of the army with soldiers, recruitment kits were introduced (1 - 1705).

Several special schools were established for the training of officers. It was forbidden to make officers of nobles who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments. At the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 200,000. One of the tasks was to create a navy. As a result, the navy consisted of 48 ships of the line, 800 galleys and other vessels.

Reforms to transform public administration were no less important.

The highest institution of the Petrine administration was the Senate, which replaced the Boyar Duma. Peter made a radical restructuring of the central government.

In 1717-18. 9 collegia were established: military, admiralty, foreign affairs, justice collegium, chamber collegium (department of state revenue), revision collegium, state collegium (department of state spending), commerce collegium, berg-, manufactory collegium. The board consisted of 11 members. At the end of 1708. Peter issued a decree on the division of Russia into 8 provinces. Provinces were divided into provinces, provinces - into districts.

Reared Russia

He spent church reform... He approved the spiritual regulations: the elimination of the autonomy of the church and its subordination to the state, the establishment of a spiritual college (synod) for management, the abolition of the patriarchate.

The nobility under Peter was far from being a privileged estate. Higher officials central and regional administration Peter appointed, completely disregarding their origin.

The service duties of the entire nobility under Peter not only did not ease, but, on the contrary, became more difficult than it was in the Moscow state. Noblemen under Peter were obliged to enter regular soldiers' regiments from the age of 15. They had to serve in the army until old age or until they were disabled. On the other hand, any soldier who rose to the rank of officer received hereditary nobility. Thus, access to the nobility through military service was open to all classes of the population.

The former Moscow service "ranks" depending on the origin of the service people were abolished by Peter. The "table of ranks" published by him (1722) divided the entire mass of civil servants, military and civilian, into 14 ranks, or "ranks" by which every officer and civilian official had to advance. In addition to official duties, Peter imposed on the nobility a completely new, educational duty. All male noble children were instructed to read and write, arithmetic and geometry. At the same time, Peter limited the rights of the nobles in the disposal of their estates.

By a decree on single inheritance, Peter forbade landowners to divide estates between all their sons and ordered to bequeath real estate to only one son. Peter did not interfere directly and directly in relations between peasants and landowners and did not regulate these relations. But the introduction of "poll" tax - contributed to the deterioration of the situation of the serf peasantry.

The tax was laid equally on peasants and slaves.

Peter wanted Russian artisans to organize themselves into workshops, modeled on Western European ones.

Simultaneously with the reform in the field of education, the publishing business developed rapidly. Great successes were achieved in geodesy, hydrography, cartography, in the study of mineral resources and mineral resources. In the era of Peter the Great, the way of life of Russian society changed. The tsar, by order, introduced barber shaving, European clothing, and the mandatory wearing of uniforms for military and civilian officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms.

Peter issued a decree on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were arranged not only for fun and amusement, but also for business meetings. Use in conversations was encouraged foreign words, mostly French.

The problem of the development of the USSR in the 20s: NEP

The Soviet government, led by the Communist Party, emerged victorious in the revolution. But having won, she was almost in a losing state. The workers fled the cities or traded in primitive manual labor. The peasants everywhere took up arms. It was restless in the army. Strikes began. By the spring of 1921. it became clear: the discontent of the lower classes, their armed pressure could lead to the overthrow of the power of the Soviets, if not to start a policy of concessions.

The extremely difficult situation in the country pushed the Bolsheviks to a more flexible economic policy. It was not only the war that led to an economic and political crisis, but also the policy of war communism.

The people were exhausted. For a number of years, people lived from hand to mouth. There was a shortage of clothes, shoes, medicine.

The transition to NEP was proclaimed by Lenin in March 21. at the X Congress of the Party. The first step of the NEP was the abolition of the surplus appropriation system (most of the production was forcibly taken from the peasants). Instead, a tax in kind was introduced, which was half the allotment and was announced in advance. It could not be increased for a year. All surpluses remaining after the tax was paid went to the peasants.

This created a material incentive to increase the production of agricultural products. Fundamental changes have taken place in the field of industrial production. The decree on the general nationalization of industry was canceled.

Now small and part of medium-sized enterprises were transferred to private hands. Some large businesses were allowed to be leased to private individuals. All these innovations demanded the abolition of forced labor and the introduction of a labor market, reforming the wage system.

In 1992. a new land code was adopted, peasants received the right to freely enter from the community and choose forms of land use.

the State Bank was restored, which controlled the network of newly formed cooperative banks, credit and insurance partnerships. 1992 a monetary reform was carried out, the result of which was the introduction of a solid monetary unit backed by gold - the gold duct, which was highly valued in the world foreign exchange market.

But a significant part of industry and all foreign trade remained in the hands of the state. However, government industrial enterprises received more independence under the new charter.

Unprofitableness of large state industry, unequal exchange between town and country resulted in a sales crisis. Mass peasant uprisings broke out in a number of places. This forced the government to make separate concessions - was softened in favor of rural producers price policy, expanded the right to lease land and the use of hired labor.

During the transition to industrialization in the country, the problem of grain procurement became more acute. The food supply of the cities was jeopardized. Surplus withdrawal and repression only exacerbated the crisis. In February 1929. ration cards appeared in cities.

Small industry adapted to NEP most quickly, retail and the village. The recovery of heavy industry proceeded at a slower pace.

But the introduction of self-financing (ensuring the profitability of production) and material incentives nevertheless bore fruit. Agriculture gradually began to increase its volume. By 28g. the country has reached the pre-war level in terms of basic economic indicators. This created the conditions for some improvement in the material conditions of the workers, peasants and employees.

And yet, in general, there was a sharp shortage of industrial goods, which led to an increase in prices, and this, in turn, slowed down the growth of living standards of all categories of the population. Unemployment was a serious problem. The housing problem was not only not resolved, but even more aggravated. Agrarian overpopulation has become a real disaster for the country. All these serious problems testified to the need to correct the NEP course.

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