Economic reforms of Peter the Great. Economic reforms of Peter I

TSTU

Department of History and Political Science

Abstract on the topic:

“ Administrative and economic reforms of Peter I "

Completed by: V.A. Polyakov

Group: ATPP-15

Accepted:

Tver, 1997

List of used literature.

1. Soloviev S.M. About history new Russia... - M.: Education, 1993.

2. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L.: Lenizdat, 1989.

3. Anisimov E.V., Kamenskiy A.B. Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th century: History. Historian.

Document. - M.: MIROS, 1994.

4. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

Introduction

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas of the country's state life. Many of these transformations go back to the 17th century - the socio-economic transformations of that time served as prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was the formation of the noble-bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

Aggravating class contradictions led to the need to strengthen and strengthen the autocratic apparatus in the center and in the localities, centralize management, build a harmonious and flexible system of the administrative apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military force to conduct a more aggressive foreign policy and the suppression of increased popular movements. It was required to consolidate by legal acts the dominant position of the nobility and to provide it with a central, leading place in state life. All this in aggregate led to the implementation of reforms in various spheres of the state's activity. For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the significance of the Peter's transformations, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved. A concrete historical assessment of the reforms depends on what is considered useful for Russia, what is harmful, what is main, and what is secondary.

The famous historian Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev, who probably most deeply studied the personality and deeds of Peter the Great, wrote: “The difference in views ... stemmed from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the duration of the impact of this case; the more significant a phenomenon, the more contradictory views and opinions it generates, and the longer they talk about it, the longer they feel its influence on themselves.

As already mentioned, the prerequisites for Peter's reforms were the transformations of the late 17th century. In the second half of this century, the system of government changes, becoming more centralized. Attempts were also made to more clearly delineate the functions and areas of activity of various orders, the beginnings of a regular army appeared - regiments of a foreign system. There were changes in culture: a theater appeared, the first higher educational institution.

But despite the fact that almost all the reforms of Peter the Great were preceded by some state undertakings of the 17th century, they were of an undoubtedly revolutionary character. After the death of the emperor in 1725, Russia was on the path of transformation into a completely different country: from the Moscow state, whose contacts with Europe were rather limited, it turned into the Russian Empire - one of the greatest powers in the world. Peter turned Russia into a truly European country (at least, as he understood it) - it was not for nothing that the expression “opened a window to Europe” became so often used. The milestones on this path were the conquest of access to the Baltic, the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg, active intervention in European politics.

Peter's activity created all the conditions for a wider acquaintance of Russia with the culture, way of life, technologies of European civilization, which served as the beginning of a rather painful process of breaking the norms and ideas of Muscovite Rus.

One more important feature Peter's reforms were that they affected all strata of society, in contrast to the previous attempts of Russian rulers. The building of the fleet, the Northern War, the creation of a new capital - all this became the business of the whole country.

At present, Russia, like two centuries ago, is in the stage of reforms, therefore, an analysis of Peter's reforms is now especially necessary.

Administrative transformations

From 1708, Peter began to rebuild the old bodies of power and administration and replace them with new ones. As a result, by the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. the following system of authorities and administration was formed.

All the fullness of the legislative, executive, and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after the completion Northern War received the title of emperor. In 1711 a new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions. It was fundamentally different from its predecessor, the Boyar Duma.

The members of the council were appointed by the emperor. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was appointed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. The Prosecutor General was supposed to perform the functions of the "eye of the state". He exercised this control through prosecutors appointed to all government agencies. In the first quarter of the 18th century. to the system of prosecutors, a system of fiscal was added, led by an oberfiskal. The fiscal duties were to report all abuses by institutions and officialsviolating the "government interest".

The order system that had developed under the Boyar Duma did not correspond to the new conditions and tasks. The orders that appeared at different times (Posolsky, Streletsky, Pomestny, Siberian, Kazan, Little Russia, etc.) differed greatly in their nature and functions. Orders and edicts of orders often contradicted each other, creating unimaginable confusion and for a long time delaying the solution of urgent issues.

To replace the outdated system of orders in 1717-1718. 12 collegia were created, each of which was in charge of a specific industry or sphere of government and was subordinate to the Senate. Three collegia were considered the main ones: Foreign, Military and Admiralty. The competence of the Komerz-, Manufaktur- and Berg-collegia included issues of trade and industry. Three collegiums were in charge of finances: the Chamber collegium - income, the State - collegium - expenses, and the Revision - collegium controlled the receipt of income, collection of taxes, taxes, duties, and the correctness of spending by institutions of the amounts allocated to them. The Justitz Collegium was in charge of civil proceedings, and the Patrimony, established a little later, was in charge of noble land tenure. A Chief Magistrate was also created, in charge of all the townspeople; the magistrates and town halls of all cities obeyed him. The collegiums received the right to issue decrees on those issues that were within their jurisdiction.

In addition to the collegia, several offices, offices, departments, orders were created, the functions of which were also clearly delineated. Some of them, for example, the King's Office, which was in charge of service and production to the ranks of nobles; The Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the Secret Chancellery, in charge of cases of state crimes, were subordinate to the Senate, others - the Mint Department, the Salt Office, the Mezhevaya Chancellery, etc. - were subordinate to one of the colleges.

In 1708 - 1709 restructuring of local authorities and administration began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population. So, the Smolensk and Arkhangelsk provinces in their size did not differ much from the modern regions, and the Moscow province covered the entire densely populated center, the territory of modern Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Tver, Kostroma, Moscow, Ryazan, Tula and Yaroslavl regions, on which almost half of the entire population of the country lived. The provinces included St. Petersburg, Kiev, Kazan, Azov and Siberian.

At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the king, who concentrated in his hands the executive and judicial power. The governor had a provincial chancellery. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor obeyed not only the emperor and the Senate, but also all the colleges, orders and decrees of which often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. At the head of the province was the governor with his office. The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties with the governor and the county office. For some time during the reign of Peter, the district administration was replaced by an elected zemstvo commissar from local nobles or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting the poll tax, overseeing the implementation of state duties, and arresting fugitive peasants. Subordinate to the provincial zemstvo commissar. In 1713, the local nobility was allowed to elect 8-12 landrats (advisers from the nobility of the county) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the poll tax, regimental districts were created. The military units quartered in them watched the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal demonstrations. The list of ranks on January 24, 1722, the table of ranks, introduced a new classification of the employee. All the newly established posts - all with foreign names, Latin and German, except for a very few - are lined up according to the report card in three parallel rows: military, state and court, with each division into 14 ranks, or classes. A similar staircase with 14 steps of ranks was introduced in the navy and court service. This constituent act of the reformed Russian bureaucracy put the bureaucratic hierarchy, merit and length of service, in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogy of the book. In one of the articles attached to the report card, it is emphasized that the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, people of a noble breed are not given any position until they show merits to the sovereign and the fatherland.

Economic reforms

During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap forward. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the 18th century. followed the paths outlined by the previous period. In the Moscow state of the XVI-XVII centuries. there were major industrial enterprises - Cannon yard, Printing yard, arms factories in Tula, shipyard in Dedinovo, etc. Peter's policy in relation to economic life was characterized by high degree the use of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased demand of the state for raw materials for the Russian industry led to the widespread distribution of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, and sheep breeding was also encouraged.

In the Peter's era, there was a sharp demarcation of the country into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to a monetary quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where the noble landowners sought to expand corvee ...

The state obligations of the peasants were also strengthened. They built cities (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), factories, bridges, roads; annual recruitment was carried out, old fees were raised and new ones were introduced. The main goal Peter's policy all the time was to obtain as much money and human resources as possible for state needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the 1718 census, the unit of taxation was the male "soul", regardless of the age at which the capitation tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 ruble 10 kopecks per year).

This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised the state revenues (by about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million rubles per year).

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use on it mainly of the labor of peasants - possessory, registered, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowners. In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants in order to assign them to an enterprise (possessory peasants).

State treasury factories used the labor of state peasants, registered peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which mainly produced consumer goods, employed both possessory and quitrent peasants, as well as free hired labor. The landowners' enterprises were fully supported by the forces of the landowner's serfs.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in a variety of industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, arms, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Was encouraged entrepreneurial activity, preferential conditions were created for people who created new manufactures or rented state-owned ones.

Manufactories appear in many industries - glass, gunpowder,

paper-making, canvas, linen, silk-weaving, woolen, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new regions and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry.

By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty Shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg gunpowder factories, metallurgical factories in the Urals, and Khamovny Dvor in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, capital accumulation thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to the world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and in turn, foreigners - gunsmiths engineers, metallurgists, gateway craftsmen were hired to russian service... Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technology Europe.

As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an ultra-short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and in no way dependent on imports.

CONCLUSION

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutism regime in Russia, the crown of which was the change in the title of the Russian monarch in 1721 - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called Russian Empire... Thus, it was formalized what Peter was going to all the years of his reign - the creation of a state with a harmonious system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to take this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how you relate to the methods and style of his transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

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Lao Tzu

The economy of Russia in the 17th century lagged significantly behind European countries. Therefore, the economic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating conditions for economic development countries in the present and future. Separately, it should be noted that the main direction of economic development of that era was the development, first of all, of the military industry. This is important to understand, since the entire reign of Peter 1 took place during the period of wars, the main of which was the Northern War.

The economy of the era of Peter and must be viewed from the point of view of the following components:

State of the economy at the beginning of the era

The economy of Russia before Peter I came to power had a huge number of problems. Suffice it to say that in a country with a huge number of natural resources, did not have required material for their own provision even for the needs of the army. For example, metal for cannons and artillery was purchased in Sweden. The industry was in a state of decline. There were only 25 factories throughout Russia. For comparison, more than 100 manufactories operated in England during the same period. As for agriculture and trade, the old rules were in effect here and these industries practically did not develop.

Features of economic development

Peter's great embassy to Europe opened up the problems of the Russian economy to the tsar. These problems were exacerbated by the outbreak of the Northern War when Sweden cut off the supply of iron (metal). As a result, Peter I was forced to melt church bells into cannons, for which the church called him almost the Antichrist.

The economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter I was aimed primarily at the development of the army and navy. It was around these two components that the development of industry and other objects took place. It is important to note that since 1715 individual entrepreneurship has been encouraged in Russia. Moreover, some of the manufactories and factories were transferred to private hands.

The basic principles of economic policy of Peter 1 developed in two directions:

Protectionism. This is support domestic manufacturer and encouraging the export of goods abroad.
Mercantilism. The prevalence of export of goods over import. In economic terms, exports prevail over imports. This is done to concentrate funds within the country.

Industry development

By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, there were only 25 manufactories in Russia. This is extremely small. The country could not provide itself with even the most necessary things. That is why the beginning of the Northern War was so sad for Russia, since the lack of supplies of the same iron from Sweden made it impossible to conduct the war.

The main directions of the economic policy of Peter I fluttered along 3 main directions: the metallurgical industry, the mining industry, and shipbuilding. By the end of Peter's reign, there were already 200 factories operating in Russia. The best indicator The fact that the system of economic management worked is the fact that before Peter came to power, Russia was one of the largest importers of iron, and after Peter 1 Russia came to the 3rd place in the world in iron production and became an exporter.

Under Peter the Great, the first industrial centers began to form in the country. Rather, there were such industrial centers, but their significance was insignificant. It was under Peter that the formation and rise of industry in the Urals and Donbass took place. back side industrial growth - the attraction of private capital and difficult conditions for workers. During this period, registered and possessory peasants appeared.

Possessional peasants appeared by order of Peter 1 in 1721. They became the property of the manufactory and were obliged to work there all their lives. Possessional peasants replaced registered peasants, who were recruited from among urban peasants and assigned to a particular factory.
History reference

The problem of the peasants, expressed in the creation of a possessory peasantry, was associated with the lack of qualified labor in Russia.

The development of industry in the Petrine era was distinguished by the following features:

The rapid development of the metallurgical industry.
Active participation of the state in economic life. The state acted as a customer for all industrial facilities.
Involvement of forced labor. From 1721, factories were allowed to buy peasants.
Lack of competition. As a result, large entrepreneurs lacked the desire to develop their industry, which is why there was a long stagnation in Russia.

In the development of industry, Peter had 2 problems: poor efficiency government controlled, as well as the lack of interests of large entrepreneurs for development. It was all decided simply - the king began to transmit, including large enterprises, in the management of private owners. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 17th century famous family Demidovs controlled 1/3 of all Russian iron.

The figure shows a map of the economic development of Russia under Peter 1, as well as the development of industry in the European part of the country.

Agriculture

Let's consider what changes took place in the agriculture of Russia during the reign of Peter. The economy of Russia under Peter I in the field of agriculture developed along an extensive path. The extensive path, in contrast to the intensive, did not involve improving working conditions, but expanding opportunities. Therefore, under Peter, the active development of new arable lands began. The fastest growing lands were in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia. At the same time, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. Roughly 90% of the population lived in villages and were engaged in agriculture.

The orientation of the country's economy towards the army and navy was reflected in the agriculture of Russia in the 17th century. In particular, it was because of this direction of the country's development that the development of sheep and horse breeding began. Sheep were needed to supply the fleet, and horses to form cavalry.

It was during the Peter the Great era that new tools of labor began to be used in agriculture: the scythe and the rake. These tools were purchased from abroad and imposed on the local economy. From 1715 onwards Peter I issued a decree to expand the sowing of tobacco and hemp.

As a result, an agricultural system was created, in which Russia could feed itself on its own, and for the first time in history, it began to sell grain abroad.

Trade

The economic policy of Peter 1 in the field of trade generally corresponds to the general development of the country. Trade also developed along the protectionist path of development.

Until the Petrine era, all major trade was conducted through the port in Astrakhan. But Peter the Great, who was terribly in love with St. Petersburg, by his own decree forbade trade through Astrakhan (the Decree was signed in 1713), and demanded a complete transfer of trade to St. Petersburg. This did not bring much effect for Russia, but it was an important factor for strengthening the position of St. Petersburg as a city and capital of the Empire. Suffice it to say that as a result of these changes, Astrakhan reduced its trade turnover by about 15 times, and the city gradually began to lose its rich status. Simultaneously with the development of the port in St. Petersburg, ports in Riga, Vyborg, Narva and Revel were actively developing. At the same time, St. Petersburg accounted for about 2/3 of foreign trade turnover.

Support for domestic production was achieved through the introduction of high customs duties. So, if the goods were produced in Russia, then their customs duty was 75%. If the imported goods were not produced in Russia, then its duty varied in the range from 20% to 30%. At the same time, the payment of the duty was made exclusively in foreign currency at a favorable rate for Russia. This was necessary in order to obtain foreign capital and to be able to purchase the necessary equipment. Already in 1726, the volume of exports of products from Russia was 2 times higher than the volume of imports.

The main countries with which Russia traded in those days were England and Holland.

In many ways, the development of transport went on for the development of trade. In particular, 2 large canals were built:

Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1709) This canal connected the Tvertsa River (a tributary of the Volga) with the Msta River. From there, through Lake Ilmen, a path opened to the Baltic Sea.
Ladoga Bypass Canal (1718). Walked around Lake Ladoga... This detour was necessary because the lake was restless and ships could not move on it.

Finance development

Peter 1 had one oddity - he was very fond of taxes and in every possible way encouraged people who came up with new taxes. It was during this era that taxes were introduced on almost everything: on the stove, on salt, on government letterheads, and even on beards. In those days, they even joked that there were no taxes only on air, but such taxes would soon appear. The increase in taxes and their expansion led to popular unrest. For example, the Astrakhan uprising and the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin are the main major discontent of the popular masses of that era, but there were also dozens of small uprisings.

In 1718, the tsar carried out his famous reform, introducing a poll tax in the country. If earlier taxes were paid from the yard, now from every male soul.

Also one of the main undertakings was the financial reform of 1700-1704. The main focus of this reform was on the minting of new coins, equating the amount of silver in the ruble with silver, while the weight of the Russian ruble itself was equated to the Dutch guilder.

As a result of financial changes, the growth of income to the treasury was increased by about 3 times. This was a great help for the development of the state, but it made it almost impossible to live in the country. Suffice it to say that during the Petrine era, the population of Russia decreased by 25%, taking into account all the new territories that this tsar conquered.

Consequences of economic development

The main results of the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, which can be considered the main ones:

7-fold increase in the number of manufactories.
Expansion of the volume of manufactured products within the country.
Russia is ranked third in the world in metal smelting.
In agriculture, new tools of labor began to be used, which later proved their effectiveness.
The founding of St. Petersburg and the conquest of the Baltics expanded trade and economic ties with European countries.
St. Petersburg became the main trade and financial center of Russia.
Due to the attention paid by the state to trade, the importance of the merchants increased. It was during this period that they established themselves as a strong and influential class.

If we consider these points, then by itself a positive reaction to the economic reforms of Peter 1 suggests itself, but here it is important to understand at what cost all this was achieved. The tax burden on the population increased greatly, which automatically led to the impoverishment of most peasant farms. In addition, the need to develop the economy at a rapid pace actually contributed to the strengthening of serfdom.

New and old in Petrine economy

Consider a table showing the main aspects of the economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter 1, indicating which aspects were before Peter and which appeared during his reign.

Table: features of the socio-economic life of Russia: what appeared and what was preserved under Peter 1.

Factor	Appeared or survived
Agriculture as the basis of the country's economy	Preserved
Specialization of economic regions	Appeared. Before Peter, specialization was insignificant.
Active industrial development of the Urals	Appeared
Development of local land tenure	Preserved
Formation of a single all-Russian market	Appeared
Manufacturing	Preserved, but expanded significantly
Protectionism policy	Appeared
Affiliation of peasants to factories	Appeared
Excess of export of goods over import	Appeared
Canal construction	Appeared
Growth in the number of entrepreneurs	Appeared

Regarding the growth in the number of entrepreneurs, it should be noted that Peter 1 actively contributed to this. In particular, he allowed any person, regardless of his origin, to conduct research on finding minerals and to justify their own factories at the location.

The formation of the Russian state as an empire and its emergence as a serious player on the European international arena inevitably had to be accompanied by bloody wars and a trade struggle for markets. In such conditions, the country needed modernization, which began with the reforms of Peter the Great. These reforms included very large-scale transformations in many areas of state life: administrative, judicial, religious, public,

military. One of the most important transformations in the rise of Russia was the economic reforms of Peter 1. The giant leap that trade and, above all, industry made, ensured the possibility of internal self-sufficiency in Russia, independent of the import of goods, as well as the creation of massive exports of Russian goods abroad. The economic reform of Peter 1 consisted of the following series of measures.

Industry

Redistribution of labor

The economic reform of Peter I was often carried out by forced labor. So, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the state obligations of the peasants were seriously increased. Serfs were forcibly transferred from their land plots to work in established factories, building canals and other works. This process was especially active in the northern non-chernozem regions of Russia. As a result of this use of forced labor by the state, the future capital, St. Petersburg, was built.

Foreign experience

Foreign qualified specialists were intensively involved in the economy, education and diplomatic structures of Russia, which contributed to the acquisition of advanced European experience in their own homeland.

Tax

To fill the state treasury, the economic reforms of Peter I provided for an increase in duties and the creation of new types of taxes. There were new duties on baths, stamped paper, the famous Peter's tax on beards. Thus, the economic reforms of Peter 1 significantly contributed to the creation of the industrial base of the Russian state, the establishment of a high turnover and export trade, the development of sea and river routes in the country.

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and craft farms to manufactures.
Under Peter, at least 200 new factories were founded, and he encouraged their creation in every possible way. The policy of the state was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western European ones by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724). The Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, was mainly used by the labor of peasants - possessional, attributed, quitrent. and others - made it a feudal enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowners.

In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants in order to assign them to an enterprise (possessory peasants).
State treasury factories used the labor of state peasants, registered peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which mainly produced consumer goods, employed both possessory and quitrent peasants, as well as free hired labor. The landowners' enterprises were fully supported by the forces of the landowner's serfs.
Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in a variety of industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, arms, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc.

Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, preferential conditions were created for people who created new manufactures or rented state-owned ones. In 1711, in a decree on the transfer of the linen manufactory to the Moscow merchants A. Turchaninov and S. Tsynbal'shchikov, Peter wrote: "And if they multiply this plant with their joy and make profit in it, and for that they ... will receive mercy."

Manufactories appeared in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper-making, canvas, linen, silk-weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. Nikita Demidov made a huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals, who enjoyed the special favor of the tsar. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new regions and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry. At the beginning of the XVIII century. in Russia smelted about 150 thousand poods of cast iron, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand poods (since 1722 Russia exported cast iron), and by the end of the XVIII century. more than 2 million poods.

Like most European figures, the second half of the 17th - at the beginning of the 18th century, Peter I followed in economic policy principles mercantilism... Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, through extensive benefits encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs, attributed serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.

In foreign trade, the mercantilist policy of Peter the Great led to strict protectionism (high duties were imposed on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). State regulation of the economy was widely used. Peter I contributed to the laying of canals, roads and other communications, prospecting for minerals. The development of the mineral resources of the Urals gave a powerful impetus to the Russian economy.

Church reform Peter I - briefly

As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian Church, formerly quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king ordered not elect a new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have him until the 1917 council. was appointed king "Locum tenens of the patriarchal throne" - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.

This "indeterminate" state of affairs remained until in 1721 the final reform of church government was carried out, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich... According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a "spiritual college" - Holy Synod... Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church has now become legislatively and completely dependent on the secular authorities.

In 1701, the land holdings of the church were transferred to the management of the secular Monastic order. After the synodal reform of 1721, they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter was now completely subordinate to the state, this return did not matter much. Peter I placed monasteries under strict state control.

For more details see articles Church reform of Peter I, Peter I and the Church.

Reforms of Peter I in the field of culture, science and education - in brief

Immediately upon returning from overseas travel (1698) Peter I became to cut beards for boyars and nobles and introduce Western clothing for them to give the upper class of Russia a European look.

Peter I strove to spread useful knowledge in Russia - mainly technical and practical, not humanitarian. His cultural reforms resulted in the founding of a number of schools for teaching foreign languages, mathematics, marine and engineering. Western scientific literature was translated into Russian.

The old complicated Church Slavonic writing was replaced (1708) with a simpler "civil alphabet". Under Peter I, the first publicly available Russian newspaper, Moskovskie vedomosti (from 1703), began to be published. At the end of his reign, Peter I made an attempt (1724) to establish the Academy of Sciences in Russia, which, however, was soon closed.

Peter I also introduced European household customs in Russia. Among the nobles spread " assemblies"(Secular techniques) of a purely secular nature. There were noisy Western-style public festivities. A freer woman's position was promoted than in Moscow Russia.

Reforms of Peter 1

Legal registration the fragile power of the monarch. The creation of political institutions on which he relied: the regular army, the navy, the bureaucratic apparatus of management, the police, the fiscal system.

prerequisites:(1682) abolition of parochialism; merger of local and patrimonial cities → 1714 decree on single inheritance, 1722 - table of ranks. 30s of the 17th century - reorganization of the armed forces: soldiers, dragoon regiments, which preceded the standing army. Industrial construction → one of the ways to combat backwardness. 43% of industrial enterprises are state-owned. Ural metallurgical region - 1725 800 thousand. poods of cast iron. 1750 - 2 million poods - 1st place in the production of pig iron.

1719 - the capitation code (it was a household) serfs - 73 kopecks; state - 1.20 kopecks Households, servants, servant guards, Cossacks began to pay taxes. The nobles had to learn to read and write (from 10-15 years old) in special schools.

Table of Ranks 1722 - 14 classes (ranks). 6 - chief prosecutors (from warrant officers to captains in the army, from the Kalezh register to a titular adviser); 4 - headquarters officers (from major to cripple). the first officer rank in the military and marine luzhba then nobles. In civil service from rank 8 (Kalezh assessor) then nobles.

1714 - a decree on single inheritance. estate \u003d patrimony.

Central government reforms:from 1708 fragments of old institutions; 1711 - Boyar Duma → Senate (supreme governing body, issued laws, supervised other bodies). At the head is the Attorney General; fiscal - reported. 1717-18 - orders (44) → collegia (13 - chamber collegium (trade), manufacturing, ber collegium (metallurgical), chamber collegium (finance), staff (expenditure), collegium of justice (civil office work), patrimonial collegium, chief master (city.), synod, foreign, military, admiralty, revision). From 1708-09. divided (:) m / u by counties and orders: provinces and provinces. 8 provinces headed by governors (executive and judicial power). Provinces: provinces (50): into counties.

1699. - the townspeople were transferred to the elected town halls and magistrates. administrative reforms - absolutized the monarchy.

Military reforms: a regular army is created → a new form of equipment. 1705 - coz. a new form of conscription into the army: compulsory recruits were carried out in the yards - 22 yards - a recruit. 1724 - the number of souls included in the salary. Recruitment - the system of completing the Russian army, introduced by Peter1 and consisted in the obligatory supply of a certain number of recruits by the estates (life term → from 1793-25 years → 1834-20 years → 1874-abolished). The rank and file are peasants, townspeople. The commanders are from the courtyards, officers from the nobility. By 1725. - 130 thousand garrisons -80 thousand. the old weapon was replaced by a more advanced one with a bayonet and a silicon percussion lock. The infantry had grenades, the artillery of the infantry regiments. 23-pounder cannons and 4 light mortars.

Creation of the Navy... 1702-1715 - 25 battleships, 19 frigates, 298 ships of other classes. by 1725. - The Baltic fleet consisted of 32 lin. ships, 16 frig. 8 augers, 85 galleys, more than 300 rowing vessels. Charter 1720

Church reform. (1701-1725). goal: to subordinate the church to the state, the elimination of the patriarchate → Synod. 4 stages: 1) 1701-1705-secularization of church wealth; 2) 1705-1720 - 2nd stage of secularization; 3) 1720-1721-closure of monastic orders, liquidation of the patriarchate, synod. 4) 1722-1725 - development, introduction of states for the church, institution. - the church is subordinate to the state. May 17, 1722 - an appendix about clergy (to inform the tsar about the disaffected, i.e. violation of the secret of confession.)

Reforms of Culture.1701 - Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, Moscow L. Magnitsky. 3 branches - elementary, digital, naval (navigational). Studied: arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy, astronomy. 1715 - navigate schools. were transferred to St. Petersburg (Maritime Academy). 1720. - digital school in 42 cities, 46 cities of the clergy school. Engineering school - technology and artillery, medicine, shipbuilding, navigators, handicrafts, the Russian alphabet was simplified (brought closer to the Latin alphabet), a civil font appeared - books were printed. Introduction of Arabic numerals. 1703 - Magnitsky's arithmetic and Smotritsky's grammar. 1703 - Bulletin. 1725 - Opening of the Academy of Sciences. 1755- Moscow State University

Changes in everyday life - assemblies, short clothes (in a modern way), prohibition of beards.

Meaning of transformations: 1) the strengthening of absolutism, 2) the development of industry, trade; 3) great successes in the field of science, 4) navy, army