Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Slavic languages

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West Slavic languages.

West Slavic languages

West Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- a group as part of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Distributed in Central and Eastern Europe (in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Germany [Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian languages \u200b\u200bis in the vicinity of Bautzen (Budishin), Cottbus and Dresden]. Z. carriers also live in territories of America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.) The total number of speakers is over 60 million people.

The West Slavic languages are:

§ Lechitic subgroup

§ Kashubian

§ Polabian †

§ Polish

§ Silesian (in Poland, officially the Silesian language is considered a dialect of Polish or transitional dialects between Polish and Czech. According to 2002 data, 60,000 people in Poland called the Silesian language their native language. The language does not have its own literary tradition, although it was distinguished as a special one by the Slavists of the 19th century)

§ Sloven †

§ Lusatian subgroup(Serbian Lusatian)

§ Upper Lusatian

§ Lower Lusatian

§ Czecho-Slovak subgroup

§ Slovak

§ Czech

§ knanite †

The most widely spoken West Slavic languages arePolish(35 million),Czech(9.5 million) andSlovak(4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

In Z. I. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lechit, Czech-Slovak, Serb-Lusatian, differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechitic subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language was preserved with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence.

Z. i. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of the consonant group kv", gv" before the vowels i, "e, "a (‹м) in accordance with cv, zv in the South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polsk. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech kvmt, hvmzda; Slovak kvet, hviezda; lower puddle kwmt, gwmzda; upper puddle kwmt, hwmzda (cf. Russian “color”, “star”, etc.).

Preservation of unsimplified consonant groups tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages of other Slavic groups: Polsk. pluti, mydio; Czech pletl, madlo; Slovak plietol, mydlo; lower puddle pleti, mydio; upper puddle pleti, mydio; (cf. Russian “weave”, “soap”).

The consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic *tj, *dj, *ktj, *kti, which in other Slavic languages correspond to the consonants and, ћ, љt, dj, ћd, zh: Polsk. њwieca, sadzazh; Czech svnce, sbzet; Slovak svieca, sádzaќ; lower puddle swmca, sajşazh; upper puddle swmca, sadşezh (cf. Russian “candle”, “plant”).

The presence of the consonant љ in those cases, which in the languages of other Slavic groups correspond to s or њ (with analogous formations ch): Polsk. wszak, musze (Dat. Prop. from mucha); Czech vљak, mouљe; Slovak vřak, muře; lower puddle vљako, muљe; upper puddle vřak, muře [cf. Russian "anyone", "fly"; Ukrainian "everyone", "musi" (= fly)].

Absence of epenthetic l after labials in the non-initial position of the word (from the combination of labial + j): Pol. ziemia, cupiony; Czech zemm, koupm; Slovak zem, kъpenе; lower puddle zemja, kupju; upper puddle zemja, kupju (cf. Russian "land", "purchase").

In the history of the development of Z. I. there were changes common to the whole group:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long with the loss of intervocalic j and the assimilation of vowels in inflections and in roots: Czech. dobre

In Z. I. a fixed stress was established either on the first (Czech, Slovak, Lusatian languages), or on the penultimate syllable (Polish, some Czech dialects). In the Kashubian dialect, the stress is different.

For most of Z. I. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced ъ and ь > e: Czech. sen

The main differences between individual Z. Ya. that arose during the historical period of their development: the different fate of nasal vowels, the sound m (yat), long and short vowels; the proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Lusatian has changed to h (glottal, fricative), the differences also relate to the category of hardness / softness of consonants. In the system of nominal declension of all Z. I. Common Slavic processes took place: a regrouping of declension types on the basis of grammatical gender, the loss of some former types (mainly stems to consonants), the mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, the re-decomposition of stems, the emergence of new endings. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The Czech language has preserved the most archaic declension system. All Z. i. (except Lusatian) have lost their dual form. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and the specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Lusatian) developed and received morphological expression. Short forms adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Lusatian) or have been preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of non-productive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti > sednouti), the loss (except for Lusatian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages and pluperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The Slovak language experienced the most significant changes in the conjugation of the present forms of the verb, where all verbs in the present tense have one system of endings.

Syntactic features are due in part to the influence of Latin and German. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, more commonly used modal verbs, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinite-personal and generalized-personal meaning such as Czech. Jak se jde? "How to get there?" etc.

The vocabulary reflected Latin and German influence, in Slovak - Czech and Hungarian. InfluenceRussian language, significant in the 18th-19th centuries, especially intensified after World War II.

In the early feudal period as a written language the Western Slavs used Latin. The most ancient literary language Slavs - Old Slavonic language emerged in the 9th century. The first Czech monuments proper belong to the end of the 13th century; Modern Z. I. use Latin script.

The most common West Slavic languages are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

The Lusatian languages have survived as small islands in Germany. There are about 150,000 Lusatians. They have their own schools, their own press, and the University of Berlin has a Slavic department.

Lechitic subgroup

Kashumbi language (alternative names: Pomeranian language, Pomeranian language; Kashubian kaszlbsczi jgzlk, ptmtrsczi jgzlk, kaszlbskf mtwa, kaszlbskt-sіowiсskf mtwa) is a West Slavic language of the Lechit subgroup, widespread west and south of Gdansk. Currently, about 50 thousand people speak the Kashubian language in everyday life, about 150 thousand people are familiar with it.

The closest language to Kashubian is Polish, with which Kashubian shares much of the core language. vocabulary. Kashubian also experienced a significant influence of Polish on its grammar and word formation. The main differences from Polish are borrowings from Old Prussian and German (about 5% of the vocabulary from the latter), as well as the omission of vowels in syllables without stress and other stress rules, which, however, are also heterogeneous in Kashubian itself. While in the south the stress always falls on the first syllable, in the north the stress can vary.

Pomlian (jкzyk polski, polszczyzna) is the language of Poles and is native to about 40 million people in many countries of the world, including about 38 million people in the Republic of Poland. About 5-10 million more people speak Polish as a second and foreign language.

Polish dialects include:

§ Wielkopolska dialect, occupies the territory of Wielkopolska, Krayna and Tucholskie Hogs. The basis of this dialect was the tribal dialect of the glades.

§ Malopolska dialect, occupies the territory of Malopolska, Podkarpackie, Swietokrzyski and Lubelskie voivodeships. It was based on the Vistula dialect.

§ The Masovian dialect occupies the eastern and central part of Poland. It was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Mazovshan tribe.

§ The Silesian dialect, widespread in the territory of Upper Silesia, is a continuation of the development of the dialect of the Slenzan tribe.

Polambian is an extinct West Slavic language. The native language of the Polabian Slavs, assimilated by the Germans by the beginning of the 19th century.

The Polabian language was closest to Polish and, together with it, Kashubian and the extinct Slovenian.

The name of the language comes from the Slavic name of the Elbe River (Polish Јaba, Czech Labe, etc.). Other names: woody-polabsky, Vendian. Accordingly, the Slavic tribe that spoke it was called the Polabian Slavs, the Drevyans (Drevans) or the Wends (the Wends are the German name for all the Slavs of Germany). The language was spread before the first half of XVIII centuries on the left bank of the Elbe in the Lünenburg principality (now the Lukhov-Dannenberg district of Lower Saxony), where the monuments of this language were recorded, and earlier also in the north of modern Germany (Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Schleswig, Rügen Island).

In the south, the area of the Polabian language bordered on the Lusatian languages, which were widespread in the southern part of modern eastern Germany.

In the 17th century, the Polabian language becomes socially unprestigious, the “Vends” hide or do not advertise their origin and switch to German, including being subjected to forcible Germanization. By 1725, there are data on a family of native speakers, in which the younger generation no longer knew Polabian. The last entry was made around 1750. In 1790, Johann Jugler, the compiler of the first composite Polabian dictionary, was looking for people who would understand at least a little Polabian, but he could no longer find anyone.

The Slovenian (Slovenian) language is a West Slavic idiom of the Lechit subgroup, which became extinct in the 20th century. It is considered by some authors as an independent language, by others as a dialect of Kashubian or (which do not single out Kashubian in turn) Polish. There is a use of the term "Pomeranian (Pomeranian) language", combining Kashubian and Slovene. It was spoken by the Slovenes, first ethnographically described by A.F. Hilferding in 1856 and lived northwest of the Kashubians, between Lake Lebsko and Lake Gardno.

In the 17th - 19th centuries, the Slovene language/dialect was used even in church sermons, but after the unification of Germany in 1871, it began to be completely replaced by the German language. By the beginning of the 20th century, no more than a few hundred speakers remained, and all of them also spoke German.

After 1945, the Slovinians, Protestants (from the 16th century) who already spoke mainly German, were considered by the Polish government as Germans and were mostly expelled to Germany or then left Poland of their own free will, settling in the FRG (many in area of Hamburg). There they finally assimilated. Some old people who remained in Poland remembered Slovene words back in the 1950s.

Lumzhitsky languages, Serbolumzhitsky languages: (obsolete name - Serbian) - the languages of the Lusatians, one of the national minorities in Germany.

They belong to the Slavic group of languages. The total number of speakers is about 60,000, of which about 40,000 live in Saxony and about 20,000 in Brandenburg. In the area where the Lusatian language is spoken, tables with the names of cities and streets are often bilingual.

There are two written languages, which in turn consist of several dialects: Upper Lusatian (in Upper Lusatia) and Lower Lusatian (in Lower Lusatia).

The number of speakers of the Lusatian languages in everyday life is much lower than the above figures. In contrast to the rather stable Upper Lusatian language, the Lower Lusatian language is on the verge of extinction.

Slovak language West Slavic ethnic

Czecho-Slovak subgroup

Chemsh language (self-name - ieљtina, ieske jazyk) - total number of speakers - 12 million. Latin (Czech alphabet)

The Czech language is divided into several dialects, the speakers of which generally understand each other. At present, under the influence of the literary language, the boundaries between dialects are being erased. Czech dialects are divided into 4 groups:

§ Czech dialects (with colloquial Czech as Koine)

§ Central Moravian group of dialects (Hanacian);

§ East Moravian group of dialects (Moravian-Slovak);

§ Silesian dialects.

The frontier lands, formerly inhabited by Sudeten Germans, cannot be attributed to one dialect due to the heterogeneity of the population.

As in many related languages that have developed independently for a long time, similar-sounding Czech and Russian words often have different and even opposite meanings (for example, ierstve - fresh; pozor - attention; mmsto - city; hrad - castle; ovoce - - fruits; rodina - family; and others, the so-called false friends of the translator).

Slovak language (Slovak. slovenіina, slovenske jazyk) - the total number of speakers is 6 million. The Slovak language is very close to the Czech language.

The standardization of the Slovak language began at the end of the 18th century. Then the book of Anton Bernolak "Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum" was published with the appendix "Orthographia" (1787). This literary language was based on Western Slovak dialects. The modern literary Slovak language, which is based on the Middle Slovak language features, arose in the middle of the 19th century thanks to the efforts of the Slovak patriots Ludovit Stuhr, Michal Miloslav Godzha, Josef Miloslav Gurban and others. The science of the Slovak language) and “Nbreija slovenskuo alebo potreba pnsatja v tomto nbrein” (Slovak dialect or the need to write in this dialect) and proceeded primarily from the speech of the intelligentsia of the Middle Slovak city of Liptovsky Mikulas and was characterized by a strong phonological principle of spelling, the absence of a soft “ л" ("ѕ") and a long vowel "й" with the exception of the word "dcйra" (daughter) and other language features that are in the modern version of the Slovak language. In 1851, at a meeting of Slovak intellectuals, a reformed version of the Stuhr codification was adopted, the author of which was the linguist Milan Gattala (we are talking about the so-called "Godzhian-Gattala reform"). This variant is the basis of today's literary Slovak language. Important points in the history of further standardization of the Slovak language is the edition of the spelling in 1931 and 1953. and the development of terminology in the interwar and above all postwar period.

The Hungarian authorities during the existence of Austria-Hungary persecuted the literary Slovak language, while promoting the less common East Slovak dialect.

Jewish-Slavic dialects (Knaanit, Qna`anith) is the conventional name for several dialects and registers of Slavic languages spoken by Jews who lived in the Middle Ages in Slavic countries. All known Jewish-Slavic dialects were supplanted by Yiddish or the surrounding Slavic languages by the end of the Middle Ages.

The most famous is the Jewish-Czech variant of the Old Czech language, which was spoken by Bohemian and Moravian Jews before the mass influx of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Germany and then the resettlement of both of them to the east and northeast within the boundaries of the Commonwealth. However, nothing is known about its differences from the language of the surrounding population. Most likely, as in the case of other medieval Jewish languages of Europe, the differences were minimal and limited to the inclusion of Hebrew and Aramaic words and the use of the Hebrew alphabet.

The name Knaanite (English Knaanic) is associated with the designation of the Slavic countries by the term Qna`an (ancient Hebrew lrtp, from ancient times designating Palestine - Canaan), found in Jewish texts (for example, Benjamin from Tudela in the 12th century calls Kievan Rus"Land of Canaan"). The reason for this identification is unknown.

Polabian	Polish	Kashubian	Upper Lusatian	lower lusatian	Ukrainian	Belorussian
					man, man




prenja zaima, jisin




					fire, fire	fire, fire

						wind, windmill

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Origin

The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of " Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first separated from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who stood at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

Separation time

Gray and Atkinson

Atkinson and Gray performed a statistical analysis of cognate words in 103 living and dead Indo-European languages (out of about 150 known) using a lexico-statistical database (created from Swadesh lists by Isidore Dayen) and additional information.

And the Slavic linguistic unity, according to the results of their research, broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. The Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

The methods and results of Gray and Atkinson have been heavily criticized from various quarters.

Chang, Cathcart, Hall and Garrett

Kasyan, Dybo

In September 2015, A. S. Kasyan and A. V. Dybo, as part of an interdisciplinary study on Slavic ethnogenesis, published a lexico-statistical classification of Slavic languages, built on high-quality 110-word Swadesh lists, collected according to the Global Lexicostatistical Database project standard » and processed by modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree is in agreement with the traditional Slavic point of view on the structure of the Slavic group. The tree suggests the first division of the Proto-Slavic language into three branches: eastern, western and southern. The moment of collapse is dated to ca. 100 AD e., this is consistent with the opinion of archaeologists that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Slavic population occupied a rather vast territory and was no longer monolithic. Further, in the V-VI centuries. n. e., three Slavic branches are almost synchronously divided into more fractional taxa, which corresponds to the rapid spread of the Slavs in Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e. (Slavicization of Europe).

The Slovene language was excluded from the analysis, since Ljubljana Koine and Literary Slovene show a mixture of South Slavic and West Slavic lexical features (presumably this may indicate the original West Slavic attribution of the Slovene language, which has been influenced by neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects for a long time), and qualitative Swadeshevic lists for Slovene dialects were not collected at that time. Due to the lack or unreliability of lexical data, the study did not cover the so-called. Old Novgorod dialect, Polab language and some other Slavic idioms.

The history of development

In the early period of the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. There were 3 subgroups in the West Slavic group: Lechitic, Lusatian Serb and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes took place during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries, there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the ultra-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. In some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages (excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. In the Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, nasal vowels are preserved, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovene language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n', in Slovak - t - t', d - d', n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect due to assimilation t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l', as a rule, only one pair is presented n - n', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n' (< *nj), l' (< *lj) have not undergone hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).

Stress in Slavic languages is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress has been replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). In the Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress has formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish literary language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages received their first literary processing in the 60s. ninth century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it adopted many local linguistic features. Later he received further development In Bulgaria . The richest original and translated literature in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Serbia was created in this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic). There were two Slavic alphabet: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The most ancient date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosh inscription of 996 and others. Starting from c. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Similarities and differences of Slavic languages

Due to historical reasons, the Slavic languages managed to maintain significant similarities with respect to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.

	Eastern group			Western group			Southern group
	Russian	Ukrainian	Belorussian	Polish	Slovak	Czech	Serbo-Croatian	Bulgarian	Macedonian	Slovenian
Number of carriers	250	45	6,4	40	5,2	9,5	21	8,5	2	2,2
Nearest	Belorussian	Ukrainian	Kashubian	Czech	Slovak	Serbo-Croatian	Macedonian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
Writing	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin	latin	latin	Cyrillic / Latin	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin
Differences from others Slavic languages	reduction of unstressed vowels (akanye); Preservation of soft consonants [g '], [k '], [d '], [p ']	alternation o-i, e-i in a closed syllable	phonetic principle in spelling; ultimate reduction of vowels (akanye)	two rows of hissing consonants; stress fixed on penultimate syllable	ascending diphthongs	the stress is fixed on the first syllable; separation of long and short vowels;		loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	the presence of a dual number; high heterogeneity (more than 40 dialects)
Accent type	free dynamic	free dynamic	free dynamic	fixed on penultimate	fixed- noe on the lane	fixed- noe on the lane	free musical	free dynamic	fixed- third layer ha from the end of the word)	free musical
Morphology: vocative form (case)	No	there is	there is	there is	No	there is	there is	there is	there is	No

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary were performed by foreign languages (in Russia - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. The German language dominated in the cities. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th - centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. in Serbia until the 19th century. Church Slavonic dominated. In the XVIII century. began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by more than 440 million people in Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (which is spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serb Lusatian) languages - Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, common in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: Serbo-Croatian (spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovenian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages - Sloven, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabian, which became extinct in the 18th century, and Old Church Slavonic - the language of the first Slavic translations. Holy Scripture, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and was used in worship in the Slavic Orthodox Church, but was never the everyday spoken language ( cm. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

Modern Slavic languages have many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister – sister,three - three,nose - nose,night and etc. In other cases, the common origin of the words is less clear. Russian word see related to Latin videre, Russian word five related to German funf, Latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be either hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasalized (nasal) vowels have been preserved - ą and ERROR, disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages differ greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Sorbian, the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish - to the penultimate one; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable can be stressed except for the last one; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, the stress can fall on any syllable of a word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which change in six or seven cases, in numbers and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, local or prepositional and vocative) testifies to the archaism of the Slavic languages and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature Slavic languages is the category of the verb form: every verb refers either to the perfect or to the imperfect form and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or a lasting or repetitive action.

The habitat of the Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5th–8th centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th c. the common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to the 8th or 9th c. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between the territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th c. there were already predecessors of modern Slavic languages.

Languages. Distributed in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in the USSR (Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania), GDR [Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian languages - in the vicinity of the cities. Bautzen (Budyshyn), Cottbus and Dresden]. Carriers Z. I. also live in America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.). The total number of speakers is over 60 million people.

In the 6th-7th centuries. the ancestors of the Western Slavs occupied vast areas between the Oder and the Elbe (Labe). The movement of the Slavs from the Carpathians and the Vistula basin took place west and southwest to the Oder, beyond the Sudetes, to the northern tributaries of the Danube. In the west, the Slavic tribes lived interspersed with the Germanic ones (some of them were Germanized during the 8th-14th centuries, the language of the Polabian tribes was kept until the middle of the 18th century), in the south they reached the Danube.

In Z. I. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lechit, Czech-Slovak, Serbo-Lusatian, the differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechitic subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language with the Kashubian dialect was preserved, which retained a certain genetic independence.

Z. i. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

Selishchev A. M., Slavic linguistics, vol. 1, West Slavic languages, M., 1941;
Bernstein S. B., Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. [Introduction. Phonetics], M., 1961;
his own, Essay on Comparative Grammar of Slavonic Languages. Alternations. Name bases, M., 1974;
Nachtigal R., Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenian, M., 1963;
Entry to the historical-historical culture of the words of the Jansk language, Kiev, 1966;
Slavic languages. (Essays on the grammar of the West Slavic and South Slavic languages), ed. Edited by A. G. Shirokova and V. P. Gudkov. Moscow, 1977.
Historical typology of Slavic languages. Phonetics, word formation, vocabulary and phraseology, Kiev, 1986;
Lehr-Spławinski T., Kuraszkiewicz W., Slawski Fr., Przegląd i charakterystyka języków słowiańskich, Warszawa, 1954;
Horalek K., Úvod do studia slovanských jazyků, Praha, 1955;
Petr J., Zaklady slavistiky, Praha, 1984.

West Slavic languages

a group of Slavic languages, including Czech, Slovak, Polish, Lusatian (in two versions - Upper and Lower Lusatian), as well as the extinct Polabian languages. Distributed in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in the USSR (Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania), GDR [Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian languages - in the vicinity of the cities. Bautzen (Budyshyn), Cottbus and Dresden]. Carriers Z. I. also live in America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.). The total number of speakers is over 60 million people.

In Z. I. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lechit, Czech-Slovak, Serbo-Lusatian, the differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechitic subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language was preserved with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence.

Z. i. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of the consonant group kv', gv' before the vowels i, 'e, 'a (←ě) in accordance with cv, zv in the South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polsk. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech květ, hvězda; Slovak kvet, hviezda; lower puddle kwět, gwězda; upper puddle kwět, hwězda (cf. Russian “color”, “star”, etc.).

Preservation of unsimplified consonant groups tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages of other Slavic groups: Polsk. plótł, mydło; Czech pletl, mýdlo; Slovak plietol, mydlo; lower puddle pletł, mydło; upper puddle pletł, mydło; (cf. Russian “weave”, “soap”).

The consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic *tj, *dj, *ktj, *kti, which in other Slavic languages correspond to the consonants č, ž, št, dj, žd, ć: Pol. świeca, sadzać; Czech swice, sazet; Slovak svieca, sádzať; lower puddle swěca, sajźać; upper puddle swěca, sadźeć (compare Russian “candle”, “plant”).

The presence of the consonant š in those cases, which in the languages of other Slavic groups correspond to s or ś (with analogous formations ch): Polsk. wszak, musze (Dat. Prop. from mucha); Czech však, mousse; Slovak však, muse; lower puddle všako, muse; upper puddle však, muse [cf. Russian "anyone", "fly"; Ukrainian "everyone", "musi" (= fly)].

Absence of epenthetic l after labials in the non-initial position of the word (from the combination of labial + j): Pol. ziemia, cupiony; Czech země, koupě; Slovak zem, kúpený; lower puddle zemja, kupju; upper puddle zemja, kupju (cf. Russian "land", "purchase").

In the history of the development of Z. I. there were changes common to the whole group:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long with the loss of intervocalic j and the assimilation of vowels in inflections and in roots: Czech. dobrý ← dobry̌i, dobrá ← dobraja, dobré ← dobroje, mého ← mojego, tvému ← tvojemu, tv. p. units Ch. ženou ← ženú ← ženojǫ, děláme ← dělajeme, pás ← pojas; Slovak pekný (male gender), pekná (female gender), pekné (cf. gender); Polish prosty (male gender), prosta (female gender), proste (cf. gender); upper puddle nowy, nowa, nowe.

For most of Z. I. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced ъ and ь > e: Czech. sen ← snъ, den ← day; Polish sen, dzien. Deviations are presented in Slovak, cf. pes ← pьsъ, deň ← dннь, but orol ← orlъ, ovos ← ovьsъ, and in Upper Lusatian, cf. dźeń, but kozoł ← kozülъ.

The main differences between individual Z. Ya. that arose during the historical period of their development: the different fate of nasal vowels, the sound ě (yat), long and short vowels; the proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Lusatian has changed to h (glottal, fricative), the differences also relate to the category of hardness / softness of consonants. In the system of nominal declension of all Z. I. Common Slavic processes took place: a regrouping of declension types on the basis of grammatical gender, the loss of some former types (mainly stems to consonants), the mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, the re-decomposition of stems, the emergence of new endings. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The Czech language has preserved the most archaic declension system. All Z. i. (except Lusatian) have lost their dual form. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and the specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Lusatian) developed and received morphological expression. Short forms of adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Lusatian) or have been preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of non-productive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti → sednouti), the loss (except for Lusatian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages and pluperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The Slovak language experienced the most significant changes in the conjugation of the present forms of the verb, where all verbs in the present tense have one system of endings.

Syntactic features are due in part to the influence of Latin and German. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, modal verbs are used more often, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinitely personal and generalized personal meaning such as Czech. Jak se jde? ‘How to get there?’ etc.

The vocabulary reflected the Latin and German influence, in the Slovak language - Czech and Hungarian. The influence of the Russian language, which was significant in the 18th and 19th centuries, intensified especially after World War II.

In the early feudal period, Latin was used as the written language of the Western Slavs. The most ancient literary language of the Slavs - the Old Slavonic language arose in the 9th century. The first Czech monuments proper belong to the end of the 13th century, Polish ones - to the beginning of the 14th century, Slovak ones - to the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, Lusatian - to the 16th century. Modern Z. I. use Latin script.

Selishchev A. M., Slavic linguistics, v. 1, West Slavic languages, M., 1941; Bernstein S. B., Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. [Introduction. Phonetics], M., 1961; his, Essay on the Comparative Grammar of the Slavic Languages. Alternations. Name bases, M., 1974; Nachtigal R., Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenian, M., 1963; Entry to the historical-historical culture of the words of the Jansk language, Kiev, 1966; Slavic languages. (Essays on the grammar of the West Slavic and South Slavic languages), ed. Edited by A. G. Shirokova and V. P. Gudkov. Moscow, 1977. Historical typology of Slavic languages. Phonetics, word formation, vocabulary and phraseology, Kiev, 1986; Lehr-Spławiński T., Kuraszkiewicz W., Sławski Fr., Przegląd i charakterystyka języków słowiańskich, Warszawa, 1954; Horálek K., Úvod do studia slovanských jazyků, Praha, 1955; Petr J., Zaklady slavistiky, Praha, 1984.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Slavic languages

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