Features of the geographical location and territory of Great Britain. General characteristics of Great Britain

The official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. The area is 244.8 thousand km2, the population is 59.8 million people. (July 2002). The official language is English. The capital is London (7.2 million people). The public holiday - The Queen's Birthday (1926) - is celebrated on the 2nd Saturday of June. The monetary unit is the pound sterling (equal to 100 pence).

Britain controls 15 overseas territories with a population of approx. 190 thousand people, incl. Gibraltar in Europe, Anguilla, Bermuda, part of the Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, Falkland Islands in South and Central America, St. Helena Island in Africa, Pitcairn Island in the Pacific Ocean, territories in Antarctica.

The British monarch is the nominal head of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Nations), which includes most of the former colonies and dominions of Great Britain, a total of 54 states with a population of 1.7 billion people.

Member of international organizations: the UN (since 1945), the IMF and the World Bank (since 1947), NATO (since 1949), the OECD (since 1961), the EU and the OSS (since 1973), the Big Seven (since 1975), the EBRD ( since 1990), WTO (since 1995).

UK landmarks

Geography of Great Britain

Located between 49 ° 57 'and 60 ° 49' north latitude; 1 ° 46 ′ east longitude and 8 ° 00 ′ west longitude.

Great Britain is an island state; consists of the island of Great Britain and the northeastern part of the island of Ireland (they are separated by the narrow North Strait), as well as smaller islands (the most significant of them are Anglesey, White, Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland). The UK includes the inland autonomous Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, located in the English Channel off the coast of France. The British Isles (as Great Britain and Ireland are usually called) are washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. They are separated from mainland Europe only by the narrow straits of the Pas-de-Calais (in Great Britain - the Strait of Dover) and the English Channel (English Channel). Britain and France are connected by a 48 km long tunnel, of which 37 km runs under the English Channel. The coastline - 12,429 km - is heavily indented, replete with bays and bays - convenient anchorages for ships. The largest bays are Bristol, Cardigan, Solway Firth, Firth of Clyde, Moray Firth, Firth of Forth, Wash. Great Britain shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; its length is 360 km.

Most of the UK is rugged terrain. Mountainous relief prevails in the north and west. In the northern part of the island, mountains rise from 840 to 1300 m above sea level (the highest peak is Ben Nevis - 1340 m). The Scottish Highlands are separated from the South Scottish Highlands by the Mid-Scottish Plains less than 100 km wide. Mountain ranges cover almost the entire western part of the island, especially Wales and Cornwall. The central part of northern England is occupied by the Pennines, which separate the Lancashire Lowlands in the west from the Yorkshire Lowlands in the east. The southern half of Great Britain is a plain divided by hills and uplands.

Great Britain possesses significant reserves of minerals. Among them are oil, natural gas, coal, limestone, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, copper, silica. The reserves of offshore oil fields are estimated at 1,430 million tons; most are located in the North Sea, east and northeast of Scotland and east of the Shetland and Orkney Islands; the largest offshore fields are Fortis and Brent, on the mainland - Witchpharm in Dorset. Natural gas reserves reach 1,710 billion m3, the main fields are located in the North Sea off the east coast of England. Major coal deposits (substantially depleted) - Yorkshire - Derby - Nottinghamshire Basin in the East Midland, Northumberland - Durham Basin in the North East of England.

The soil cover in Great Britain is quite diverse. Brown forest, podzolic soils prevail. Calcareous, alluvial, acidic soils and peat bogs are widespread.

The climate of Great Britain is temperate, humid, oceanic. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK generally enjoys mild winters. But cloudy weather, frequent rains and fogs are explained by the same winds. The average temperature in January is 3-7 ° C, in July 11-17 ° C, the amount of precipitation falling annually is 550-800 mm in the southeast, 3000 mm in the mountainous western and northern regions. Most precipitation falls from October to January, less - in February-March.

Great Britain has a large number of rivers and lakes. The longest river - the Severn (328 km) - originates in the mountains of Wales and flows into the Bay of Bristol (west coast). The Lancashire Lowland is crossed by the Mersey, which flows into the Liverpool Bay. The main river on the east coast - the Thames (336 km) - flows through the most densely populated areas of southeast England. The Lowlands of Scotland are also rich in rivers. The longest of them is the Clyde (157 km), which originates in the South Scottish Highlands and flows into the Firth of Clyde (west coast), and the Fort, which flows into the Firth of Forth (east coast). There are many lakes in the north of the country. The largest is Lough Nih in Northern Ireland - 396 km2. The deepest is Loch Morir in the Scottish Highlands (310 m).

The flora of Great Britain is diverse 9% of the territory is covered with forests. Deciduous forests predominate - oak, beech, birch. There are many coniferous forests in Scotland - spruce and larch. Moorlands are widespread. In the south of the country, there are evergreen Mediterranean plant species. Plants grow all year round.

In Great Britain there are approx. 30 thousand species of animals. Among them are foxes, hares, red squirrels, otters, black rats, minks, reptiles and amphibians. Of the 200 bird species, the most common are sparrows, finches, starlings, crows, kingfishers, robins, and tits. In rivers, lakes and coastal sea ​​waters numerous species of fish are found - cod, haddock, whiting, herring, salmon, trout.

UK population

Between 1981 and 2001, the UK population grew by only 6%, largely driven by immigrants from developing countries and their children born in the UK. At the same time, emigration continued. According to official forecasts, the country's population will reach 65 million by 2025. The average population density is one of the highest in the world - 242 people. per 1 km2.

Fertility 1.3 ‰, mortality 10.3 ‰, infant mortality 5.5. per 1000 births (2002). Average life expectancy - 78.0 years, incl. men 75.2, women 80.8 years. In 2000, there were 838 thousand more women in the country than men.

One of the most important problems of the country is the aging of the population. In 2002, persons aged 65 and over accounted for 15.8% of the population. The 2001 population census showed that for the first time the number of persons over 60 years of age exceeded the number of children under 15 years of age.

Back at the end. 19th century Great Britain has reached a high degree of urbanization. In 1999 the urban population was 89%.

In cities with the number of inhabitants of St. 100 thousand people almost half of the country's population lives. Largest cities in terms of population: London, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Bristol, Coventry, Cardiff, Belfast, Nottingham. Great Britain is a multinational country. The overwhelming majority of the population is indigenous: British (81.5%), Scots (9.6%), Irish (2.4%), Welsh (1.9%). 1960-80s characterized by a large influx of immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Caribbean, and the 1990s. - from African states (Kenya, Uganda, Malawi). Immigrants from these countries in 2001 accounted for 7.1% of the population.

Along with English approx. 26% of the population of Wales speak Welsh, 80 thousand people. in Scotland, Gaelic. The population of the Channel Islands - Guernsey and Jersey - uses French.

Religiously, Great Britain is predominantly a Protestant country. The Anglican Church, which enjoys state status in England, has approx. 34 million followers. A similar position in Scotland is occupied by the Presbyterian Church - 800 thousand people. There are also other Protestant groups: Methodists - 760 thousand, Baptists. The country is home to approx. 6 million Catholics. There are also numerous groups of Hindus, Buddhists, and followers of Judaism. The Muslim community is growing rapidly; in 2002 there were 1.5 million adherents of Islam.

History of Great Britain

Great Britain is a country with rich history... In the 1st millennium BC. the territory of modern Great Britain was inhabited by the Celts. All R. 1 c. AD The British Isles experienced the invasion of the Romans, and after their departure in the 5-6 centuries. - were conquered by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 5-11th centuries. the first rudiments of statehood belong. The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, in 1066 led to the fall of the Anglo-Saxon dynasties and the beginning of the rule of the Norman dynasty (11-12 centuries). During this period, the process of feudalization, political unification and centralization of state power was completed.

The first noticeable reforms to strengthen royal power were carried out by Henry II of Anjou, the first of the Plantagenet dynasty (12-14 centuries). In 1215, King John Landless signed the Magna Carta - a document that first laid out the basic principles of governing England and limited the king's power in favor of chivalry, free peasants and cities. The Plantagenet reign was also marked by the first convocation of parliament, the annexation of Wales. The Hundred Years War of 1337-1453 with France led to the loss of territories conquered in this country in the 12th century.

Further expansion of parliamentary rights occurred under Henry IV, the first of the Lancaster dynasty. The development of commodity-money relations and the struggle of the peasants (the uprising of W. Tyler in 1381 and others) led in the 15th century. to the almost complete elimination of the personal dependence of the peasants. During the War of the Scarlet and White Rose - the war between Lancaster and York (1455-87), the old feudal nobility was practically destroyed. A new middle and small nobility, associated with the development of capitalism, the gentry, began to gradually come to power. The Yorkies won the war, but they managed to stay on the throne for only approx. 20 years. They were replaced by the kings of the Tudor dynasty (15-17 centuries). Henry VII (1457-1509) laid the foundations of absolutism - the unlimited power of the monarch. During the reign of the next monarch of this dynasty, Henry VIII (1491-1547), the reformation of the church was carried out: the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself the head of the Anglican (Protestant) Church. During the reign of his son Edward VI (1537-53), Protestantism was declared the official religion in England. In 1536 the Union of England and Wales Act was signed. In the 16th century. the process of initial capital accumulation developed, the basis of which was the landlessness of the peasantry (fencing).

The last of the Tudor family was Elizabeth I (1533-1603). Having no heirs of her own, in 1603 she transferred the throne to King James I of Scotland, the son of Mary Stuart, who became the first king of England and Scotland. During the reign of the Stuart dynasty (17-18 centuries), a war broke out between parliament and the monarch (1642-51). It ended with the execution in 1649 of King Charles I. In 1653 -58 the country was ruled by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. The British bourgeois revolution ensured the establishment of capitalism. The monarchy was restored in 1660. In the end. 17th century political parties took shape - the Tories and the Whigs (in the middle of the 19th century they were transformed into the conservative and liberal parties, respectively). In 1707, Scotland was annexed to the English crown - the Act of Union of England and Scotland was signed.

In the 18th century. The Stuarts were replaced by the Hanoverian dynasty. The long war with France for trade and colonial hegemony ended with a British victory. Huge possessions were captured in India and North America. As a result of the War of Independence in North America (1775-83), 13 North American colonies separated from the metropolis and formed an independent state - the United States. In 1801, the Union of England and Ireland Act was signed. Great Britain is the organizer of a coalition against revolutionary and then Napoleonic France. In 1805, the British fleet defeated the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, which ensured the long-term dominance of Great Britain at sea. In this battle, the commander of the British fleet, Admiral G. Nelson, one of the outstanding naval commanders of that time, was mortally wounded. In 1815, the Anglo-Dutch troops under the command of A. Wellington, together with the Prussian troops, defeated the army of Napoleon I at Waterloo.

In the end. 18-1st floor 19th century there was an industrial revolution. In the 1830s. the factory production system was established. Great Britain is becoming the most powerful industrial country in the world, its "workshop". In the 1830-50s. unfolded the first mass movement of the proletariat - Chartism. In 1868 the British Trade Union Congress was formed. At 19 - early. 20th century Great Britain was the largest colonial power in the world. She carried out the colonization of Australia and New Zealand, conquered vast territories in Asia and Africa, completed the seizure of India, Egypt, waged wars against China, Afghanistan, suppressed the national liberation movement in India (1857-59), uprisings in Ireland (1848, 1867 and etc.). Strengthening the liberation movement in the resettlement colonies forced Great Britain to create dominions (the first was Canada, 1867). The colonial conquests are closely associated with the name of Queen Victoria (1819-1901), the last of the monarchs of the Hanoverian dynasty, who held the throne for 64 years. Since 1901, the Windsor dynasty has been in power (until 1917 it was called the Saxe-Coburg dynasty).

Already by the beginning. 20th century Great Britain, the first to accomplish the industrial revolution, lost its monopoly. In 1900, it was in second place in terms of industrial production after the United States, and in the following decades, in terms of GDP it shared the second and third places with Germany. The dominant position of the pound sterling in the international monetary system and the country's position as a global carrier were undermined.

Great Britain played an active role in the creation of the Entente - an alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia (1904-07) and in the preparation of the 1st World War, as a result of which it received a significant part of the former German possessions in Africa and most of the territories taken from Turkey (Ottoman empire). During the war of liberation of the Irish people (1919-21), the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 was signed to grant Ireland (with the exception of Northern Ireland, which remained part of Great Britain) the status of dominion.

In the 1930s. Great Britain pursued a policy of "appeasement" of Nazi Germany. The Munich Agreement signed on behalf of Great Britain by Prime Minister N. Chamberlain with A. Hitler and B. Mussolini (September 29-30, 1938) contributed to the outbreak of World War II, which Great Britain entered on September 3, 1939. In May-June 1940, Great Britain British, French and Belgian troops blockaded by the German army in the area of ​​the French city of Dunkirk were evacuated. On May 10, 1940 the government was headed by W. Churchill. After the German attack on the USSR, in the face of the immediate threat of the invasion of fascist troops in Great Britain and the continuous bombing of British cities from the air, it entered into a military alliance with the USSR. Together with the USSR and the USA, Great Britain became one of the main participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. In 1942-43, the British 8th Army, under the command of Field Marshal Montgomery, defeated the Italo-German forces at El Alamein in North Africa. In July-August 1943, Anglo-American troops landed on the island of Sicily. In June-July 1944, British forces, together with American troops, landed in Normandy, which marked the opening of a second front. W. Churchill took part in conferences of three heads of powers - victors in World War II: Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945); at the end of the Potsdam Conference, he was replaced by the victorious head of the Labor Party, C. Attlee. These conferences determined the basic principles of the post-war world order.

Government and political system of Great Britain

Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. Unlike most countries in the world, in the UK there is no Constitution, which would be a single document, it consists of various parliamentary acts - statutes, judgments and constitutional customs. The constitution can be changed by an act of parliament or by general agreement to change the constitutional custom.

The head of state, Queen Elizabeth II (born April 21, 1926), ascended the throne in February 1952. In the last century, there has been a tendency to transfer power directly to the government, but the queen continues to take part in a number of important functions of state power. She retains the right to convene and dissolve parliament, appoint a prime minister: the queen invites the leader of a political party that makes up the majority in the House of Commons to form a government. The Queen approves laws passed by Parliament. By law, she is the supreme commander in chief and, on the proposal of the government, appoints the highest military leaders. Appoints judges as the head of the judiciary, and bishops as head of the Church of England. In the field of international relations, the Queen, as the head of state, has the right to declare war and conclude peace, to sign international treaties and agreements.

Great Britain consists of 4 historical and geographical regions (historical provinces) - England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Ulster) - part of Ireland - 6 northeastern counties (according to the Treaty of 1921 it was included in Great Britain as an autonomy). Administratively, Great Britain is divided into counties, counties and cities. The UK includes independent administrative units - the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, as well as 15 dependent territories. Local authorities are in charge of housing, education, social security, police and fire services. They are funded from funds raised from municipal taxes, local taxes and grants from the central government.

The highest legislative body is parliament. It consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Parliament is engaged in legislative activity. Bills (bills) pass 3 readings. Typically, bills must be passed by both chambers. They must obtain royal assent before they can take effect. In practice, this is a pure formality. In the absence of a written Constitution as a single document and in accordance with the provision of "parliamentary sovereignty", the parliament can abolish acts of constitutional significance. Parliamentary committees play an important role in the preparation of draft laws. The leading role in the activities of parliament belongs to the House of Commons. It is elected for a term of no more than 5 years and has 659 members - 1 representative from each of the 659 constituencies. Parliament is elected by a plurality majority system by direct and secret ballot on the basis of universal suffrage.

All citizens of Great Britain, as well as other countries of the Commonwealth and the Republic of Ireland, who have reached the age of 18 and permanently residing in Great Britain, have the right to vote. Since 1945, the Conservative Party has won the general elections 8 times, and the Labor Party 8 times. As a result of the general parliamentary elections in June 2001, the Labor Party won the majority in the House of Commons, as in the previous elections in 1997 - 412 seats (40.7% of the votes received). Conservatives - 166 seats (31.7%), Liberal Democrats - 52 (18.3%), Scottish National Party - 5 (1.8%), Plyde Kimru - 4 (0.75%), Ulster Unionist parties - 6 (0.8%), Democratic Unionist Party - 5 (0.7%), Shin Fein - 4 (0.7%), others - 4 (0.8%).

The upper house - the House of Lords - consists of hereditary and life peers (who received the title of merit to the country), archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England, Lords of the High Court of Appeal. Acts of Parliament 1911 and 1949 significantly limited the rights of the House of Lords. Its main function is to consider and amend the projects submitted by the House of Commons. Since 1949, the House of Lords retained only the right of a suspensive veto - a short-term postponement of bills adopted by the House of Commons. Billys of a financial nature relating to taxation and government spending are adopted by the House of Lords as they appear in the House of Commons. In 1999, the House of Lords Act was passed, according to which the number of hereditary peers was reduced from more than 750 to 92. It is planned to completely abolish the institution of hereditary peers. In 2001, a White Paper was published stipulating that the majority of life peers would be appointed by an independent cross-party commission and on the recommendation of political parties in proportion to the number of factions in the House of Commons. 120 members of the House of Lords will be elected.

The head of the executive branch is the monarch. The head of government is the prime minister. The government is formed by the leader of the party that won the majority or the largest number of seats in parliament (since 1997 - Labor Party Tony Blair). The government consists of cabinet members (approx. 20), non-cabinet ministers, and junior ministers (usually parliamentary deputy ministers). Most ministers are members of the House of Commons. At the disposal of the Prime Minister is the apparatus of civil servants.

The party system includes the following parties: The Conservative Party - organizationally formed in 1867, has approx. 300 thousand members, leader - Ian Duncan Smith. After World War II, she was in power in 1951-64, 1970-74, 1979-97. The Labor Party was formed in 1890, unites collective (trade unions and cooperative societies) and individual members, has 260 thousand people, the leader is Tony Blair. After World War II, he was in power in 1945-51, 1964-70, 1974-79. It has been the ruling party since 1997. The Liberal Democratic Party was formed in 1988 through the merger of the Liberal and Social Democratic parties, has approx. 82 thousand members, leader - Charles Kennedy. National parties are also represented in parliament: Pllyde Camry (founded in Wales in 1925, leader I. Wick Jones); Scottish National Party (founded 1937, leader John Swinney); The Ulster Unionist Party (founded in the early 20th century, led by David Trimble); Democratic Unionist Party (founded 1971, leader Ian Paisley); Social Democratic and Labor Party of Northern Ireland (founded in 1970, leader Mark Durken), Sinn Fein - the political wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA, formed at the end of the 1st World War, leader Jerry Adams), the party refused to take its seats in the House of Commons.

The interaction of government and business is carried out primarily through the unions of entrepreneurs. In 2001, there were 192 business organizations in the country. The most influential of these is the Confederation of British Industry (CBI). Expresses the interests of approx. 200 thousand firms - from the largest TNCs to small companies. They employ 7.5 million people. The KBP includes most of the business unions and business associations. The most important task of the KBP is to contribute to the creation of an economic climate favorable for the activities of British business, and to increase its competitiveness. KBP committees and experts develop recommendations for the government, participate in the preparation of draft budget laws, in the formation of foreign economic policy. Other major business organizations include the Association of British Chambers of Commerce. She provides services to more than 135 thousand companies, helps in staff training, in promoting the goods of British firms to the foreign market, in accessing information necessary for business. Institute of directors, numbering approx. 53 thousand members, advises directors of companies on such issues as corporate governance, insolvency and bankruptcy, training. The institution of directors represents the interests of its members before the authorities in the UK and the EU. The Federation of Small Businesses expresses the interests of 160,000 small businesses and independent owners and provides them with information on taxation, employment, security, and insurance.

A feature of the British labor movement has always been a high proportion of organized wage earners. Trade unions have acquired a fairly strong position both in relations with employers and in the social and political life of the country as a whole. In 1979, there were 362 trade unions in the country, which comprised 54-55% of all employees. With the help of tough anti-union laws, the Conservatives have succeeded in significantly limiting the rights and scope of trade union activities. As a result, the number of trade unions decreased - 206 in 2001, the number of trade union members decreased - from 13.1 million in 1979 to 7.3 million in 2001, or 27% of the number of employees. The largest trade union association - the British Congress of Trade Unions (BKT) - was founded in 1868. It includes 74 trade unions, 6.7 million members. At the annual congresses of the BKT, the most important problems of the country's socio-economic development are discussed. The BKT traditionally supports and finances the Labor Party. After coming to power, the Laborites announced their intention to somewhat soften the legislation regulating the activities of trade unions. A feature of the British trade union movement is the existence of a widely ramified network of shop stewards, elected directly at their place of work. The main function is the daily protection of workers and employees in relations with the administration, the settlement of labor conflicts.

In fiscal 2002/03, military spending was £ 24.2 billion. Art., in the 2003/04 financial year - 25.4 billion. In 2002, they were equal to 2.32% of GDP. In 2001, the strength of the Armed Forces was: a fleet of 42.9 thousand, a land army of 114.0 thousand, an air force of 54.0 thousand, regular reserves of 234.7 thousand, 47.3 thousand volunteers. 111 were employed in the Armed Forces, 7 thousand civilians. Great Britain is a nuclear power. In 2002, there were 4 submarines in service, equipped with 48 Trident-P ballistic missiles. The UK maintains a nuclear arsenal of approximately 185 warheads. Its role is great in building up the potential of NATO's rapid reaction forces. Britain is in favor of strengthening the European pillar of this organization. British military contingents are stationed in Cyprus, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic Congo, Bosnia, Kosovo.

In domestic politics, the key to understanding many of the features of the modern socio-political structure of British society is given by such features of its development as evolution, "traditionalism" and the comparative stability of political institutions. Over the centuries, British political culture has been distinguished by moderation and the organic weaving of new elements into existing structures, the combination and fusion of traditional and modern values, and the gradual mastery of the ruling elite's skills and abilities to “harmonize interests” within democratic institutions. The stability of British society has always rested on a consensus about its fundamental goals and how to achieve them. A characteristic feature of a developed civil society in this country is the law-abidingness of citizens. The importance of a tolerant political culture is especially important in the absence of a written Constitution.

Since 1924, the Conservative and Labor parties have been in power alternately. From the beginning. 1970s the "third" parties began to receive significant support, primarily the Liberal Democratic (until 1988 - the Liberal) and Scottish Nationalists.

In 1979, the neoconservatives came to power, led by M. Thatcher. Among the value orientations of neoconservatism, a special place belonged to individualism, or anti-collectivism. Authoritarian tendencies have intensified in public administration; the role of the executive branch in the institutions for representing interests has increased. At the same time, the most important direction of the Tory policy was the transformation of the system of public social services, or the "welfare state": there was a partial denationalization of the health care system; Conservatives have implemented a number of measures to promote the principle of free choice in school education and to encourage various types of private insurance.

The Laborites, who won the elections in 1997 and 2001, are implementing a reform program designed to substantially renew the country's political system. First of all, they started to implement the constitutional reform. One of the most important directions of this reform is the devolution (decentralization) of power. For many centuries, Great Britain was a unitary state, all major issues were resolved in London. However, in last years the situation has changed. In 1998 the Northern Ireland Assembly was elected, and in 1999 the National Assembly for Wales and the Scottish Parliament. A number of important functions of a socio-economic nature are transferred to them. At the same time, regional autonomy was developed in England itself. Only foreign policy, security issues and tax collection remained in the competence of the central authorities. Decentralization of the country’s governance is taking place in conditions when the regional authorities are more and more actively involved in the political system of the EU.

Other areas of reform were the rejection of the hereditary principle of the formation of the House of Lords and the unambiguously majority character of the country's electoral system. The Bill of Rights has been passed through parliament, making legal acts adopted by the world community a part of British law, the Freedom of Information Act. Constitutional reform is carried out within the framework of the "third way" concept as a concept internal development Great Britain. If the first path is neoliberalism based on the principles of individualism and its British version, Thatcherism, and the second is the traditional socialism and social democracy oriented towards nationalization, then the third path is movement towards a just social order based on universal values. The government seeks to develop various forms of participation of the population and its individual groups in solving social, economic and political issues of the development of society.

At the center of the country's internal political life are also issues of modernizing health care systems, education, and public transport. British dissatisfaction with the state of these sectors of the economy led to a significant defeat of the Laborites in the local elections in May 2003. The problems associated with Britain's accession to the euro zone are widely discussed. The Labor leadership is in favor of the country's accession to the EMU in the event of a positive outcome of the referendum on this issue. Dissatisfaction in the country was caused by the government's decision on Britain's participation in the war in Iraq. Peaceful settlement in Ulster occupies a special place in the internal political life of the country. Despite London's attempts to resolve intercommunal divisions in Northern Ireland, bloody clashes between extremist representatives of the Catholic and Protestant populations have not been avoided. Northern Ireland's political autonomy, established by the 1998 peace accord, ended in October 2002 mainly due to the IRA's reluctance to disarm.

In foreign policy at the beginning. 21 c. Great Britain is undoubtedly one of the five leading developed countries along with the United States, France, Germany and Japan. Moreover, over the latter two, it, as one of the victorious countries in World War II, has some advantages. Great Britain is a nuclear power, a permanent member of the UN Security Council. From the beginning. 1970s she, together with France and Germany, plays a leading role in the EU, although her political influence in this organization is less, and at the same time maintains, albeit in a curtailed form, a "special relationship" with the United States. Great Britain still claims to be a mediator in relations between the Old and New Worlds. Great Britain possesses the most extensive "economic empire" abroad after the United States, and is at the head of the Commonwealth.

At the same time, over the past decades, the positions of Great Britain in the world economy and politics, in the system of international relations, have weakened. In the 1950s and 70s. the British colonial empire finally collapsed. Great Britain had to abandon the old doctrine, according to which it is able to successfully combine 3 roles: the leader of Western Europe, the head of the Commonwealth and the privileged partner of the United States. The accession of Great Britain to the EU in 1973 marked a turning point in the process of shifting the center of gravity of the whole complex of positions of this country abroad to Western Europe. Great Britain began to act as an integral part of the Western European center. At the same time, she continues to hold a special position on many fundamental issues of the EU's development. The originality of Great Britain's positions reflects the specifics of the national political culture, legal thinking, traditions of foreign policy strategy, which for centuries have kept a certain distance between the "island state" and continental Europe. In addition, the stake on European integration is combined with the continuing special relations between Great Britain and the United States, which are largely determined by the common language, similarity of traditions and culture.

The Labor government that came to power in May 1997 underscores the central role of nation-states in modern Europe and dismisses federalist ideals of integration. In all areas of EU policy, it prioritizes the principle of subsidiarity and supports the principle of a clear delineation of the three pillars of the EU. Recognizing the need for greater flexibility within the EU, Labor advocates preserving the principle of unanimity and approving joint actions within the framework of cooperation. The government emphasizes NATO's key role in ensuring the defense of Western Europe. Great Britain has contributed a large contingent of troops to the European Rapid Reaction Force.

In the 2nd floor. 1990s - early. 2000s Anglo-American ties have significantly strengthened. Common approaches and overlapping interests prevailed in international and security affairs. This manifested itself in the course of the Kosovo conflict and especially during the war in Iraq in March-April 2003, when London most consistently supported Washington's position. After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 in New York, the main activity of the government in the field of foreign and security policy was switched to the fight against terrorism and the support of this struggle by the countries of the Commonwealth.

In a relationship with The Russian Federation Tony Blair's government adhered to the line of constructive interaction. Using its special relationship with the United States and its EU membership, Britain sought to play the role of some kind of liaison between the West and Russia. Relations between the two countries have been clouded by the UK's stance on the UN's role in managing the Iraqi crisis.

Great Britain has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation; installed from the USSR on February 2, 1924.

UK economy

Great Britain is one of the largest economically developed countries in the world. In 2000, the GDP was 859.1 billion pounds. (in prices and PPP 1995), 5th place in the world after the USA, Japan, Germany and France. Share of Great Britain in world GDP 3.0% (2002). In the same year, its per capita GDP reached £ 14,000. The country's share in international trade in recent years has been 4.5 - 5%. According to this indicator, it takes 4-5th place. The UK is in second place after the United States in terms of accumulated foreign direct investment, in third place - after the United States and Japan - in terms of the number of companies in the list of the 500 largest TNCs in the world and market capitalization of shares. In terms of the volume of financial transactions, London is second only to New York. The capital of Great Britain ranks 1st in the world in terms of the number of foreign banks operating here. London is home to the third largest stock exchange in the world in terms of volume of transactions (after Tokyo and New York). Unlike the stock markets of other European countries, which are mostly nationally oriented, St. 500 TNCs - more than half of the world's foreign stock trading. London is the largest foreign exchange market, approx. 1/3 of foreign exchange transactions in the world. London's closest competitors - New York, Tokyo and Singapore - collectively have the same share.

The largest volume of insurance and international reinsurance operations passes through London. The lion's share of the world exchange market for metals, oil and other strategic goods is concentrated in the capital of Great Britain. For a long time, the British currency - the pound sterling - dominated the world monetary system; using the leading role of the pound in international settlements, Great Britain covered the deficit in the balance of payments with the national currency. Then, for a number of decades, the pound shared with the dollar the position of one of the two key currencies in the world. Having lost the position of a country that operated as a key reserve currency, Great Britain has long claimed a special place in international monetary and credit relations. This is partly reflected in London's reluctance in the end. 1990s enter the eurozone and abandon the pound in favor of the euro.

Until the end. 1980s the UK economy developed more slowly than its main competitors. In the 1990s. the situation has improved. In 2002, the country's economy continued to rise, which began in 1993. In the 1990s - early. 2000s employment grew; by 2002, unemployment had dropped to 5.2% of the economically active population (the lowest rate since 1980). Despite the recovery in the economy and the decline in unemployment, inflation remained low. In 2002, the consumer price index rose by only 2.1% - inflation was at its lowest level since 1976. At the turn of the century, due to the general deterioration of the world economic situation, the intensity of the recovery decreased: in 2002, GDP growth was only 1.6%.

Notable changes are taking place in the sectoral structure of the British economy. The importance of the service sector is growing. In 2001, its share in GDP was 71.4%, in employment - 75.5%. The share of the manufacturing industry is decreasing: in 2001 it accounted for 17.5% of GDP and 14.5% of the total number of employed. In the mining industry, the importance of the coal industry has significantly decreased and the oil and gas industry has increased. Construction was developing at a rate lower than the average for the economy as a whole: in 2001, its contribution to GDP was 5.4%. In the 1990s. the role of transport and communications has noticeably increased: in 2001 their share reached 8% of GDP. The share of agriculture and fisheries in GDP fell sharply - from 2.9% in 1973 to 0.9% in 2001.

In the structure of the manufacturing industry, the largest specific weight belongs to the paper and printing industry (13.9%), food and tobacco (13.8%), mechanical engineering (35.5%), in which the electrical engineering industry and optical instrument making (12.9%) stand out. ) and the production of vehicles, as well as the chemical industry (10.7%) and metalworking (10.4%). The industry is undergoing major shifts. The role of new high-tech industries of chemical (primarily low-tonnage chemistry), electrical and electronic, especially office equipment and computers, as well as communication facilities, the aerospace industry (production of civil and military aircraft, helicopters and equipment for space exploration), equipment for offshore oil production is growing. ... British pharmaceuticals are world famous. In terms of the level of development of biotechnology, Great Britain is second only to the United States. At the same time, the importance of traditional manufacturing industries, which determined the industrial appearance of the country in the beginning. 20th century: textile, primarily cotton, steel industry (in 2001, the country produced only 12.5 million tons of steel), civil shipbuilding. The fate of the coal industry is indicative. In 1913, approx. 1.1 million people, and coal production reached 287 million tons. In 2001, the corresponding figures were only 11 thousand people. and 32 million tons. In the 1970s. large oil and gas fields have been discovered in the North Sea. In 2001, the production of oil and liquefied gas was 2.4 million barrels per day (about 320 thousand tons). According to this indicator, Great Britain ranked 10th in the world. The UK's transformation into a major oil and gas producer has fundamentally changed the energy mix, accounting for 72% of energy consumption. The use of natural gas is growing rapidly - 37% of electricity production. On the nuclear power plants 22% of electricity is produced. However, 33% of electricity is still generated by coal-fired plants.

Agriculture in Great Britain is highly mechanized and efficient, it covers 63% of the country's food needs. OK. 40% of 386 thousand farms are mainly engaged in animal husbandry - breeding cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens. Livestock production suffered great damage in 2001 due to diseases of livestock - first with spongiform encephalopathy (“mad cow disease”), and then with foot and mouth disease. Wheat, barley, and oats are especially widespread among grain crops. In addition, rapeseed, flaxseed and potatoes are grown. There are many orchards in the country. Agriculture enjoys great support from the state and receives subsidies from the EU budget.

The UK is covered by a dense network of roads and railways and is well served by sea transport through many ports. The dominant role in domestic traffic is taken by road transport - 85% of passenger traffic and 81% of cargo traffic. In 2001, there were 23.9 million vehicles in personal use. The length of asphalted highways is 406.4 thousand km. The railway network is shrinking, its length is 16.9 thousand km, of which 4.9 thousand km have been electrified. The government is implementing various organizational measures to modernize this type of transport. The importance of river transport is decreasing. The length of the waterways is 3.2 thousand km. Air transport is developing rapidly. Since the 1980s. air transportation of passengers and cargo has more than tripled. British Airways is a leading international airline. The country has approx. 450 civil airports - the largest of which is Heathrow. From ser. 1970s the tonnage of the sea fleet has sharply decreased. At stake. 2001 the British merchant marine numbered 594 vessels, of which 140 tankers and 454 bulk carriers, 37 passenger ships. Sea transport accounts for approx. 95% of the country's foreign trade traffic. In Great Britain approx. 70 ports of commercial importance. The largest of them are: Grimsby and Immingham, Tees and Hartlepool, London, Fort, Southampton, Milford Haven, Salo Voy, Liverpool, Dover, Felixstowe. The pipeline transport network is expanding rapidly; it is connected to gas pipelines from fields in the North Sea; total length of pipelines - 3.9 thousand km.

Communication is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy. The country is almost completely telephoned; 97% of families have apartment telephones, another 4% prefer mobile phones. Total at stake. 2001 there were 44.9 million mobile phones in the country. 34.3 million users are connected to the Internet. 38% of firms have their own WEB-site, 48% carry out e-commerce. An intensive computerization process is underway Everyday life population, education, business. 11.7 million homes are connected to the Internet, 90% are medium-sized and approx. 1/4 of primary schools, half of all companies.

In recent years, trade has been developing faster than the economy as a whole. In 2001, the share of wholesale and retail in GDP was 12.2%. There are 107 wholesale enterprises in the country, employing 1.18 million people. The number of retail trade enterprises exceeds 192 thousand. They employ 2.87 million people. (11% of all employed in the country). The fastest growing is the turnover of large trading companies with a wide network of stores and supermarkets. The importance of trade is increasing, in which orders are made by mail and over the Internet.

Financial, informational and business services are developing at the highest rates. The financial sector accounts for 5% of GDP and employs over 1 million people. The banking system of Great Britain is one of the most developed in the world. Financial institutions of the country provide a wide range of services - consulting, legal, accounting, management. Deregulation has intensified the trend towards diversification of financial services provided by banks and the universalization of their activities. Thus, commercial banks provide services that were previously provided by commercial banks, invade the insurance industry, and join companies specializing in the issuance of consumer loans. They actively compete with construction companies in the mortgage market and have subsidiaries engaged in leasing and factoring operations. In order to attract depositors' funds, banks diversify the services they provide, in fact they are turning into financial supermarkets. V Lately the importance of the activities of such non-bank financial institutions as construction companies, insurance and financial companies, and investment funds is growing. The activities of computer companies providing a variety of services are rapidly expanding. Among them in the first place is consulting in the field of information technology. Business services include market research, management services, advertising.

Great Britain has a developed tourism industry. It employs 2.1 million people. 8% of small companies work in this area. In 2001, Britain was visited by 22.8 million foreigners. Its share in world tourism is 3.4%. According to this indicator, it is in 7th place in the world. The largest number of visitors from the USA, France, Germany, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands.

Over the past decades, various options for regulating socio-economic policy have been tested in the UK. From the end. 1940s it consisted in managing aggregate demand and ensuring full employment, primarily by expanding the role of the state in the socio-economic area. From the end. In the 1970s, after the Conservative government came to power, the market was viewed as the most effective mechanism for organizing economic activity. Britain pioneered large-scale privatization in the West. Many traditional values ​​and institutions have undergone significant erosion. The model of the socio-economic mechanism and political structure of society has undergone significant changes. The state has begun to reform property relations, its "dispersion" (implementation of the theory of "democracy of owners"), to the transformation of the system of social services - the introduction of market principles and competition in the "welfare state", the creation of a "mixed" public-private system of health care, insurance, pension ensuring, disseminating the principle of freedom of choice in school education.

The socio-economic policy of the Laborites who came to power in 1997, on the one hand, is purely pragmatic and in a number of directions continues the course of its predecessors, on the other hand, it reflects the principles of New Laborism: the combination of social values ​​of the old Laborism with the development market economy... On the whole, after the sharp delimitation of the two main parties along almost polar lines - Thatcherism and State Socialism - the rapprochement of the parties took place more and more clearly, but not so much on the social-reformist basis that prevailed after World War II, but on the social-liberal one. For Labor, this is a softer, regulated liberalism combined with non-traditional market-oriented social reform.

According to Labor leaders, "old" Labor proclaimed its goal to ensure equality of income, "new" - equality of opportunity: more and more Britons should join the middle class. Meaning social reform is to transform the "welfare state" into a "social investment state": less public funds should go to social assistance and more to general and professional education, advanced training and retraining, especially for young people. In its former meaning, the welfare state is preserved only for those who are unable to provide for themselves. The creation of incentives to work takes an essential place in the activities of the Laborites. An indispensable condition for the effectiveness of this system is the development of medical services and other measures designed to ensure the physical and mental health of the nation. The Laborites for the first time determined the size of the minimum wage, introduced a tax credit for the lowest paid segment of the population, abolished some anti-union laws of the conservatives.

From the end. 1970s the farm management mechanism has undergone significant changes. First of all, it was significantly decentralized. In the end. 1990s Labor delegated a number of economic management functions to regional authorities. Market principles are being actively introduced into the activities of the public sector, the privatization of public works and services is being carried out, and the participation of the private sector in solving social problems is expanding.

By 2000, approx. 100 state-owned companies. As a result, its public sector shrank by 2/3. For 1979-2000, the proceeds from the sale of assets of state-owned enterprises amounted to approx. £ 80 billion Art. Having privatized most of the utilities, the government continues to control their activities. The course towards denationalization became a way of financing the budget deficit, which made it possible to resort to less borrowing. In addition, privatization was aimed at creating competing private firms in place of state monopolies.

The sale of state property - de-municipalization - has become widespread. In an effort to induce the main categories of the working class and the "new middle strata" into the much-publicized "democracy of owners", the government carried out a sale for the private use of municipal housing stock, and at preferential prices sanctioned from the center. Contracting has become an important area of ​​introducing market principles into the activities of the public sector. The government and local authorities were ordered to tender contracts for cleaning the territory and premises, construction and repair work, reconstruction of houses, and specialist services. Since 1992, a program called "Private Finance Initiative" has been implemented. The government invites private firms to participate on a competitive basis in projects previously carried out by the government itself. In 1997-2000 the cost of projects exceeded 22 billion pounds. Enterprises that remain state-owned (the largest of them are the Post Office, the Civil Aviation Administration) operate as commercial. The emphasis has been shifted from sectoral policy to technology policy, from old to new sectors; the criteria for granting financial assistance have been tightened. Finally, there has been a rejection of direct subsidies to businesses in favor of increasing its awareness of innovations in the field of engineering and technology.

Deregulation of the economy has become an important area of ​​economic policy. In the 1980s and 90s. many administrative and legal restrictions on business activities were removed; simplified regulation procedures. Control over wages, prices and dividends was abolished; the labor market has undergone significant deregulation. This policy covered the banking, credit and foreign exchange spheres. In 1979, exchange controls were eliminated, which held back the movement of capital between Great Britain and other countries. In 1980, the “corset”, a scheme for additional special deposits at the Bank of England, was abolished, which provided for the placement of excess bank liquidity in interest-free accounts to limit credit expansion. In October 1986, the London Stock Exchange was reorganized, called the "big bang" in economic literature: the minimum fixed commissions were abolished, banks and foreign institutions were admitted to the exchange, exchange members were allowed to combine the functions of a broker and a jobber (principal). As a result, the UK economy has become one of the most deregulated in the world. According to such an indicator as the "index of economic freedom", out of 102 countries, it is in 6th place, behind only Singapore, New Zealand, the USA, Switzerland and Malaysia. However, deregulation does not mean that the government has relinquished its control over the markets. The country has very strict laws governing many aspects of private entrepreneurship, primarily the behavior of economic entities in the market. They are aimed at preventing the excessive concentration of economic power in individual companies, maintaining and stimulating competition.

Based on the fact that economic growth is constrained high level inflation, the Conservatives have developed a medium-term financial strategy for 3-4 years, and Labor is also implementing it. The goal is to limit the rate of price growth. The strategy consists of two components - monetary and budgetary. In the 1980s. its main instrument was monetary regulation; financial policy was given a passive role to ensure its effectiveness. However, from the end. 1980s and especially during the current cycle, the government is actively resorting to fiscal measures.

In monetary policy, the emphasis was originally placed on targeting (i.e. setting targets) indicators of the money supply. However, by the beginning. 1990s the government became convinced that it was extremely difficult to control its growth. The exchange rate of the pound, which was pegged to the stable German mark, was chosen as a tool to fight inflation. This policy continued until September 1992, when the UK withdrew from the European Monetary System's exchange rate mechanism.

Since then, changes in short-term interest rates have become a key element of anti-inflationary policy. In 1993, the Bank of England was given the opportunity to independently set the time for the introduction of new rates, and in May 1997 the Laborites gave it even greater independence - the Bank has the right to make decisions on changing interest rates on its own. Since Great Britain is not a member of the euro area, the Bank of England is not included in the European system of central banks, continues to be an emission center, and carries out its own monetary policy.

In accordance with the Banking Law of 1987, no credit institution has the right to accept deposits without an appropriate license from the Bank of England. The Bank of England is not responsible for the consequences of bank failures and does not guarantee depositors full compensation for losses. At the same time, the Deposit Protection Fund was established, formed from the contributions of banks in proportion to the amount of their total deposits. At the expense of the Fund, in the event of bank failures, a part of these losses is compensated. In recent years, the government has seriously reformed and simplified the system of supervision over the activities of financial institutions and the regulation of the securities market. In 1997, the Financial Services Authority was created. He was delegated the powers of the central bank in the field of supervision over the activities of commercial banks. From now on, the Bank of England is responsible for ensuring the overall stability of the financial system.

The most important task of budgetary policy is to reduce the absolute and relative size of government spending with a parallel reduction in the deficit in the public sector of the economy, or the state's need for loans. Particular attention is paid to the more efficient use of public funds by both the central government - 3/4 of all expenditures, and local authorities - 1/4 of expenditures. Spending on health care, education and transport were named as priorities. Ministries and departments are encouraged to strictly adhere to the ceiling (ceiling) of expenditures set by the government for a three-year period.

Tax policy occupies a special place in the arsenal of means of state regulation of the economy. In order to stimulate economic growth, the rates of direct taxes are reduced and at the same time the tax base is expanding due to the reduction of privileges. The most important part of measures to encourage initiative and entrepreneurship was a significant reduction in the base rate of income tax - from 33% in 1979 to 25 in 1995, 24 in 1996 and 22% in 2002.Since April 1999, a special rate of 10% has been applied, at which the first 1 , 9 thousand pounds Art. income.

One of the main directions of the state's activity remains tax incentives for the population's savings as an important source of financing capital investments. Various preferential savings schemes have been developed and introduced, under which investments, primarily of small investors, are fully or partially exempt from taxation.

At the same time, the decline in direct income tax rates was accompanied by an increase in indirect taxation. The standard rate of value added tax was increased and in 2002 was 17.5%. The share of indirect tax revenue increased significantly, from 43% in the 1978/79 fiscal year to 54% in the 1997/98 fiscal year. The growth of indirect taxes was intended to some extent to compensate for the reduction in revenues from direct taxes, to facilitate the redistribution of resources in favor of investment.

Tax incentives for private investment take an important place in government policy. During their tenure, the Conservatives have cut the corporate tax rate from 50% to 33%. In July 1997, Labor reduced it to 30%. Particular attention is paid to tax incentives for small businesses - the tax rate for small companies (with an annual profit of up to £ 300,000) was reduced by conservatives from 50 to 23%. In 1997 the Laborites reduced it to 21%, in April 2002 the rate was reduced to 19%. Small companies (with an annual profit of up to £ 10,000) are exempt from income tax.

To increase the revenue base of the budget, the Laborites introduced a tax on windfall profits of utilities. The cut in the corporate tax rate is expected to be financed through the abolition of compensable tax credits. Such a measure should help to increase the rate of return and make the UK more attractive for long-term investments.

As a result of the financial policy of the state, the share of its expenditures in GDP decreased from 49.0% to 37.4% in the 1975/76 financial year and rose again to 39.0% in 2000/01. Since 1998/99, the budget has been running in surplus, although its size in 2001/02 has decreased significantly, primarily due to a decrease in corporate tax revenues. Net public debt in relation to GDP was 43.7% in 1996/97, and 30.4% in 2000/01 - the most low level among the G7 countries.

The British model of socio-economic development differs markedly from the European continental one. Its structure is largely reminiscent of the American one (similarity of the institutional environment, investment behavior of companies, forms of corporate governance, the nature of the labor market, etc.). In the economic literature, the Anglo-American model has been called the “shareholder capitalism” model, in contrast to the continental model of “stakeholder capitalism”.

The main goal of management activities in the British model is to maximize shareholder returns. In solving the most important issues of management activities of firms, representatives of labor (trade unions) and the state play a much smaller role than on the continent. Hence the focus on short-term development goals of firms (short-termism). This model is characterized by much more diffusion of joint-stock ownership than in other European countries. Here, its concentration in the hands of the largest owners is significantly lower. Corporate control is carried out to a large extent through the securities market. In the UK, the stock market is more developed, the capitalization of securities is much higher. Financial institutions and non-financial companies play a much smaller role in owning shares here than on the continent of Europe.

At the same time, the economic mechanism and socio-economic policy of Great Britain are increasingly transforming and changing in the direction of the requirements of EU membership. EU laws and directives in areas such as agricultural and regional policy, energy, finance and insurance, competition and consumer protection are of growing importance in the regulation of the economy. In June 1997, the UK signed the EU Social Charter. And although it was not included in the first group of eurozone countries, in recent years London has been actively implementing the measures necessary to introduce a single currency. We are talking about reducing the budget deficit and public debt, lowering interest rates and inflation.

In recent decades, the increase in the standard of living of the population was due to the growth in the nominal and real incomes of the population. Average weekly wage in April 2001 it was £ 356, and for full-time men it was £ 444. Art. The average hourly wage for men was £ 11.97 and for women £ 9.76. Art. In April 1999, the law established the minimum wage. Since October 2002 it has been £ 4.20. Art. for employed persons aged 22 and above and £ 3.60 Art. - for workers and employees aged 18-22. In the spring of 2002, the average working week for those fully employed at their main place of work was 38 hours (40 hours for men and 34 hours for women). The UK has adopted an EU directive on working hours. It came into force in 1998: the maximum working week is 48 hours, the minimum paid vacation is 4 weeks, etc. Old-age pensions are paid to women over 60 and men over 65. In April 2002 the basic pension of a single pensioner was £ 75.50. Art. per week, couples £ 120.70 Art. In the 1990s. - early. 2000s the growth in the nominal income of the population significantly exceeded the inflation rate. As a result, real incomes increased: in 1991-2001, their average annual growth was 3.1%.

With the growth of household expenditures (they account for about 2/3 of GDP), their structure changes. The fastest growing consumer spending is on durable goods, communications, leisure, clothing and footwear. The largest items of expenditure of the population are housing payments (17.7% in 2001), transport (14.1%), and recreation. St. 2/3 of British families own their own home. The country has 34.3 million Internet users. 86% of families have current accounts in banks, 25% - shares, 15 million families - savings accounts of construction companies. In recent years, savings have been at a low level: 2001 - 6.2% of disposable income.

With a general increase in the living standards of the population in the country, there is a significant polarization of income and wealth. Real incomes of 20% of the richest families are 4 times higher than the incomes of 20% of the poorest families. In 2000, 1/10 of the population owned 54% of the national wealth. National minorities have a significantly lower standard of living compared to the indigenous population. Among them is the highest percentage of the unemployed. Long-standing health problems such as long queues at hospitals and a shortage of nursing staff continue to persist and even worsen. Classrooms in many schools are still overcrowded, the level of teacher training is inadequate, and the difference in the technical equipment of public and private schools is almost not diminishing.

Great Britain is deeply integrated into the world economy, the importance of foreign economic relations is constantly growing. In 2001, 27% of the goods and services produced in the country were exported; export of goods amounted to 191.6 billion pounds. Art., services - 225, 2 billion pounds. Art. Exports per capita in the UK are higher than in the US and Japan. In 2001, imports of goods were equal to 225.2 billion pounds. Art., services - 65.7 billion pounds. Art. The UK typically has a deficit in merchandise trade and a surplus in trade in services. In 2001, investment income overseas exceeded foreign investment in the UK by £ 9.0 billion. Art. As a result, the current account deficit was £ 20.5 billion. Art. Much attention is paid in the country to attracting foreign capital; it is seen as a means of increasing labor productivity. In 2001, the inflow of foreign direct investment in the UK amounted to 43.8 billion pounds. Art. At the same time, the export of direct investment was equal to 23.7 billion pounds. Art., which is significantly lower than in the previous year, when it reached a record level of 168.6 billion pounds. Art., - a consequence of the high activity of British firms in the international market of mergers and acquisitions. Total at stake. 2001 UK assets abroad were equal to 3,176 billion pounds. Art., including direct investment - 645.2 billion Foreign assets in this country - 3216 billion pounds. Art., incl. direct investment £ 347.5 billion Art.

Changes in the structure of the economy were accompanied by significant shifts in the structure of foreign trade. Up to the end. 1950s in the international specialization of commodity exchange in Great Britain, an intersectoral direction prevailed. There were large differences in the structure of exports and imports: exports were dominated by manufacturing products, and imports were dominated by raw materials and foodstuffs. From the beginning. 1960s intra-industry exchange is developing rapidly. In 1971, finished products and semi-finished products in merchandise exports accounted for 84%. In connection with the increase in the export of North Sea oil, this share in the 1970s. 80s decreased, but by 2001 again reached 84%. In the same year, cars and vehicles accounted for 56% of exports. Exports of products from the aerospace, chemical and electronic industries are growing. At the same time, the share of textile exports is decreasing. The involvement in the international circulation of electronic computers is very high: approx. 70% of the products in the electronics industry. St. 70% of chemical industry products, more than half of instrumentation products. Among the branches of general mechanical engineering with a very high export orientation are tractor construction, production of textile and mining equipment. Great Britain is one of the first places in the world for the export of weapons. From the beginning. 1960s the importance of imports of food and raw materials is constantly decreasing. In 1971-2001, the share of foodstuffs decreased from 22 to 8%, and industrial raw materials - from 12 to 2%. At the same time share finished products jumped from 7 to 60% (with semi-finished products - up to 85%).

At the same time, there were changes in the geographical distribution of foreign trade. In the beginning. 20th century foreign trade of Great Britain was focused on its colonial possessions; back in 1950, 40% of this country's exports were sent to dependent countries, of which approx. 40% of UK imports. By the beginning. 21 c. the situation has changed dramatically. In 2001, 85% of exports and 81% of imports were already in developed countries. In recent decades, there has been a "Europeanization" of UK trade relations: in 2001, 53% of its exports of goods and services (85% of exports of goods and 52% of imports) came from its EU partners.

Science and culture of Great Britain

Great Britain's contribution to the treasury of world science, primarily to the development of natural and technical sciences. Among the outstanding scientists - physicists, chemists, biologists - I. Newton, R. Boyle, R. Hooke, J. Joule, M. Faraday, J. Maxwell, C. Darwin, Cavendish, E. Rutherford. The works of British philosophers, sociologists, historians, economists - R. Bacon, T. Mora, Fr. Bacon, T. Hobbes, I. Bentham, W. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. Mill, R. Owen, T. R. Malthus, A. Marshall, J. M. Keynes, B. Russell. St. 70 British scientists have been awarded Nobel Prizes. The UK accounts for approximately 4.5% of world spending on science, 8% of all scientific publications. In 2000, R&D expenditures amounted to 1.8% of GDP, of which 85% went to civilian purposes, 15% to military ones. Sources of financing: business - 49%, government - 29%, foreign funds - 16%. Science in the government is in charge of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and in it - the Minister of Science.

In Great Britain there is compulsory education for children aged 5 (in Northern Ireland - from 4) to 16 years. Approximately 94% of students attend free public schools, 6% study in private paid schools or at home. OK. 70% of those who graduated from school continue their education. About 1/3 of high school graduates go to universities and other higher education institutions. There are 90 universities and 64 other higher education institutions in the country. The oldest universities are Oxford (founded in 1167) and Cambridge (1209). The duration of study for a bachelor's degree is 3 years (in Scotland - 4).

British writers, painters, architects and actors have had a significant impact on the development of world literature and art. Suffice it to mention the names of such poets and prose writers as J. Chaucer, W. Shakespeare, J. Swift, D. Defoe, G. Fielding, R. Burns, D. Byron, P.B.Shelley, W. Thackeray, W. Scott , R. Kipling, B. Shaw, A. Trollope, L. Stevenson, J. Galsworthy, H. Wells, A. Conan Doyle, A. Christie. The works of artists W. Hogarth, D. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough, D. Constable, W. Turner, architects A. Jones, C. Wren, J. Wood, composers G. Purcell, E. Elgar, B. Britten have gained worldwide fame. , the musicians of the Beatles, the British stage was glorified by actors D. Garrick, S. Siddon, W. Macready, D. Gielgud, L. Olivier, W. Lee, P. Scofield.

Great Britain is an island state (the largest island is Great Britain, the country also includes the Channel Islands, the Isle of Wight and the northeastern part of the island of Ireland), located in the British Isles, in northwestern Europe.

This country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the North and Irish Seas, as well as the Straits of La Machne, Pa-le-Calais, North and St. George. To the north and south, the coastline is cut by bays that form the peninsulas of Cornwall and Wales. England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland are located on the territory of Great Britain (not to be confused with the state of Ireland - approx.) Many years ago, the British Isles were part of Europe, but after the flooding of the lowlands (now it is the bottom of the North Sea and the English Channel), they are forever cut off from mainland. Northern Ireland is located on the island of Ireland, and is the western extension of the Scottish Mountains, which are separated by a narrow Northern Channel.

Geography of Great Britain: features

The area of ​​Great Britain is about 240,842 sq. km. It is mainly land, and the rest is rivers and lakes. The area of ​​England is 129,634 sq. km., Wales - 20637 sq. km., Scotland - 77,179 sq. km. and Northern Ireland - 13,438 sq. km., that is, England is more than anyone else, and also has a larger population than other regions. These factors play an important role in the history of British rule in the British Isles.

Geographical features of Great Britain directly influenced and influenced the settlements, migration of people, their policies of conquest and alliances. Today they determine the operation of transport systems, agriculture, communications, the fishing industry, energy resources and forests. Mountain ranges and hills are located in the north and west of the country. Most of the lowlands lie to the south and east, in addition to the Scottish lowlands and central Northern Ireland. The north and west are made of hard rocks created by the movements of the earth's crust. Unfortunately, these areas are unsuitable for farming. Softer rocks are present in the south and east (which is the process of mountain weathering). Fertile lands are located on them. Most of the lowland land is used for agriculture. In mountainous areas, pastures prevail. The flat areas of England with a favorable climate for agriculture have always been used for settlement and agricultural development.

Later, mountainous areas began to be developed, where the main incentive was rich pasture lands and mineral resources. Almost all known minerals are found in Great Britain, with the exception of diamonds. Coal deposits are rich in the Penins, in the Mid-Scotland lowlands, in the foothills of South Wales (its industrial reserves amount to 4 billion tons). The East Midlands is home to the largest iron ore deposit (60% of the country's total reserves). Rock and potash salts are found in Cheshire and Durham. Lead-zinc and hematite ores were found in the Kembedlen massif, and lead-zinc and tin ores were found on the Cornwall Peninsula. In the North Sea there are oil and gas fields (2.6 billion tons and 1400 billion cubic meters).

Water resources

Seas, bays, rivers and lakes have a huge impact on the country. On the coast there are bays, coves, deltas and peninsulas, for this reason most of the UK is located at a distance of 100 km from the sea. Coastal tides and river floods cause frequent flooding in many parts of the country. The government is building dams and water defenses (a barrier was built in London in 1984). The depth of the sea off the coast is 90 meters, as most of the British Isles lie on the continental shelf (the raised seabed that connects to the mainland).

The warm Gulf Stream heats the sea and air off the coast of Great Britain. Therefore, the climate on the islands is very mild. The current has an important influence on the fishing industry (good catch of fish and fishing on boats that are arranged for foreigners). A dense network of deep rivers (Thames, Severn, etc.), many of which are connected by canals, are important transport arteries connecting many cities in Great Britain. And Scotland and Ireland are known to the whole world as the land of beautiful lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Lomond, etc. in Scotland; Loch Ney in Northern Ireland).

Climate

Great Britain belongs to the region of the temperate continental climate of the marine type with warm winters and cool summers. Throughout the UK, temperatures very rarely rise to +30 and drop below -10. The average temperature is between +10 and +20. Due to the country's terrain, the highlands and hilly areas (Scotland, parts of Wales and England) are cooler in summer and colder in winter than the rest of the UK.

Great Britain is called Foggy Albion, although with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (which led to the replacement of fireplaces with other heating devices) the country has ceased to be foggy. Although rain and fog are not rare, they occur mainly in mountainous and hilly areas. More precipitation falls in the western part of the country than in the eastern. In fact, the weather in the country can be characterized by the instability of precipitation: leaving the house in the morning in sunny weather, you can return for an hour in the pouring rain.

Political system

The political system of Great Britain is as follows - it is a unitary state (parliamentary monarchy). There is no single constitution, there is legislation that is based on many centuries of constitutional customs, the most important statuses and decisions of the highest judicial bodies (precedents). Officially, the supreme power in the country belongs to the royal house of Windsor. Today the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom is Queen Elizabeth. But she reigns, not rules. Parliament is the supreme legislative body, which consists of the House of Commons (a representative national assembly, elected every five years) and the House of Lords (it includes hereditary peers, princes of the royal blood, the highest spiritual and judicial dignitaries). The executive power is in the hands of the prime minister. According to tradition, he is appointed by the ruling monarch from the party that has won the most seats in the House of Commons.

The administrative division of Great Britain is as follows: it consists of four administrative and political parts (historical provinces): England (39 counties, 6 metropolitan counties and London), Wales (9 counties, 3 cities, 10 city-counties), Scotland (32 regions) and Ireland (26 districts) ... Once Great Britain was a country over which the sun never set, because it owned colonies around the world. After World War II, she finally lost all territories, but nevertheless today has sovereignty over the following territories: Bermuda, Montserrat Island, Gibraltar, Anguilla, Saint Helena, Cayman Islands, British Antarctic Territory, Falkland Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, British Virgin Islands, Pitcairns Island, British Indian Ocean Territory, South Georgia and the Sandwich Islands. The state language is English. Although the country speaks 4 more languages: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish. The ethnic composition of the population is quite variegated. From the earliest periods of British history, there was a process of forming three different ethnic communities - the British, the Scots and the Welsh.

There is a hierarchy of cities in the country. London, as the capital of Great Britain, occupies a leading position as the main political, cultural, industrial, economic center of the country, as well as one of its largest maritime cities. In addition to London, it is worth highlighting such cities as Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast (the capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland); Glasgow, Newcastle, Leeds and Bradford, Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield and Liverpool are central conurbation cities and regional centers. Few places in the world have coastal cities as important as Great Britain, which has 44 port cities. London emerged as a seaport for trade with continental states; through Gul (Hull) trade with the countries Baltic Sea; Bristol and Liverpool are transport arteries that connected Great Britain with the United States. The seaside resort cities (Brighton, Margate, Blackpool and Scarborough) are very popular both among the British themselves and among tourists.

Industry

Great Britain has established itself as a highly developed industrial country, which acts as a supplier of industrial products in the world. The largest industrial monopolies are Imperial Chemical Industries, or IKI, Unilever, British Leyland and General Electric Company. The industrial belt of Great Britain begins from London, further to Lancashire, and also from West Yorkshire to Gloucestershire, you can also mention South Wales, central Scotland and northeast England. In this region there are industrial facilities of the country. The rest of the areas became lagging behind (i.e. Northern Ireland, almost all of Wales, most of Scotland, the northeast and part of the southwest of England).

The government is taking measures to prevent further concentration of people and industrial facilities in one area. Agriculture in Great Britain employs only about 3% of the country's working population, which produces more than half of the agricultural products consumed by its inhabitants. However, natural conditions are more favorable for the development of animal husbandry than agriculture. Therefore, the UK imports foods such as bacon, sugar, wheat, etc.

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1. Introduction

2. Population

4. Characteristics of ports and fleet of Great Britain

5. Problems and ways of development

6. Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Introduction

Geographic position... The country is located on the British Isles off the northwestern coast of continental Europe, traditionally called Great Britain, and by the name of the historical part - England. Officially, it is called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The country includes 4 historical regions: England (occupies the central and eastern part of the island of Great Britain); Wales (in the west of the same island); Northern Ireland (island of Ireland) and Scotland. The area of ​​the United Kingdom is 244,100 sq. M.

The natural features of Great Britain are in many ways similar to the neighboring countries of Western Europe. This is not surprising, since the British Isles, located on the shelf, separated from the mainland only in recent geological times. The insular position of Great Britain, the proximity of the warm North Atlantic Current, the strong rugged coastline, nevertheless, left a certain imprint on the nature of this country. This is reflected in the prevalence of moderate temperatures, increased moisture, an extraordinary abundance of surface waters, the spread of deciduous forests and heather wastelands.

Political device. Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. There is no constitution here, its legislation is based on centuries-old constitutional customs and precedents, that is, parliamentarians are looking at how a similar case was once resolved. Formally, the country is ruled by a monarch, but in fact the highest legislative body is parliament, which includes the queen, the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

Aquatic resources. Great Britain is rich in water resources. Practically throughout the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of deep rivers is developed. The largest ones are the Severn (354 km.) And the Thames (338 km.). The Thames is of the greatest importance for the UK economy. Its basin is home to 1/5 of the total population of the country. There is also a metropolitan conurbation - Greater London. The short but deep and fast rivers of northwestern Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power plants have been built here. The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, Severn, Humber, Mercy, Clyde and Fort - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. The largest seaports and industrial hubs are located there.

uk geographic trade port

Rice. 1 UK schematic map

2. Population

The ethnic composition of the UK population is quite variegated for European states. From the earliest periods of history on the British Isles, there was a process of formation of three different ethnic communities - the British, the Scots and the Welsh, or Welsh, occupying three historically distinct regions of the island - England, Scotland and Wales proper. The relationship between these three indigenous peoples of the island and the ethnic processes that took place among them have always occupied an important place in the political history of the country. It should be noted that the national question has not been finally resolved even today.

The dominant and most numerous nation of Great Britain is the British, whose population exceeds 45 million. They inhabit England proper, most of Wales, and a little the south of Scotland. Of the Celtic peoples of Great Britain, the Scots are the most numerous, with more than 5 million people. They inhabit mainly the northwestern regions of the island and the Shetland, Orkney and Hebrides. Due to the geographical and economic isolation among the Scots, a peculiar ethnic group living in the mountains of the northwestern part of the island still retains its identity. Their self-name is Gaels, the British more often call them Highlanders (Highlanders), in contrast to the inhabitants of the plains of the South of Scotland - the Lowlanders. The Gaels retained their ancient Celtic language. It is now spoken by about 1% of the country's population. But their number is constantly decreasing.

Northern Ireland was annexed to the British state in 1922 when the rest of Ireland became independent. The United Kingdom then included 6 counties from 9 of the Irish province of Ulster. The ethnic composition of the population of this area is heterogeneous: about 500 thousand Irish Catholics and about 1 million Anglo-Irish and Scottish Irish live here. Such a composition of the population developed here in the 17-18 centuries during the period of intensified colonization of Ireland. Unlike the rest of Ireland, where land was distributed to large English owners - landlords, in Ulster land was allocated to small and medium-sized tenants - British and Scots from the south of Scotland. There is still the Irish Republican Army (terrorist organization) in Ulster.

At the turn of the 20th century, a little more than 38 million people lived on the territory of modern Great Britain, and now, according to various sources, from 56.9 to 57.4 million people.

Since the 1920s, mortality has remained at about the same level, while the birth rate has been falling. With a stable mortality rate, the decline in fertility led to a decrease in natural population growth. If at the beginning of the 20th century it reached 500 thousand people / year, then by the end of the 70s it dropped to 1 thousand people / year. Now the natural population growth is negative.

Since natural population growth has been low since the 20th century, the rate of population growth has largely depended on external migration.

From the beginning of the 20th century and up to 1931, the intensive resettlement of the inhabitants of the British Isles to the "white" dominions of Great Britain - Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. But in 1931, the dominions were granted independence, and many Englishmen returned.

There are many Irish people in the country; Irish immigrants began arriving in the country in the 17th and 19th centuries. There are currently about 1 million Irish people in the country.

A fairly large group (about 500 thousand people) in Great Britain are Jews, who live mainly in London and other large cities.

After World War II, in connection with the large-scale reconstruction work, the influx of workers from European countries to England increased. Now in the UK there are about 1 million immigrants from Europe (not counting the Irish), and the total number of foreign citizens in the UK is over 3 million. In addition, 40-50 thousand temporary workers arrive in the country annually from European countries (most of all from Italy).

The working-age population of Great Britain is just over 40%, so the problem of rational use of the working-age population is acute in the country. Between individual regions, both spontaneous and organized redistribution of labor resources is constantly taking place.

In terms of social composition, the UK population is relatively homogeneous:

2% are the big bourgeoisie;

5% - smallholders - farmers and people of free professions;

93% are workers and employees.

The social composition of modern England is characterized by a fairly high% of the middle strata, the so-called "middle English".

Great Britain is one of the most densely populated and highly urbanized countries in the world. On average, there are 230 people per 1 km2. However, the population is distributed very unevenly across the country. The bulk of the UK population is concentrated in England. Here the average density increases to 356 people / km2. Within England itself, the country's main industrial belt along the London-Liverpool axis is most densely populated; half of the total population lives in this belt.

The most sparsely populated areas are in Scotland - 86 people / km2, and the population is concentrated mainly on the coasts, river valleys and lowlands.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been an intensive resettlement of rural residents to cities where more than 88% of the country's population lives. It is difficult to draw the line between urban and rural areas. Many villages have turned into “dormitories” for nearby towns.

There are about a thousand cities in Great Britain. Half of the country's urban residents are concentrated in seven conurbations. One of them, Central Clydeside (1.7 million people) - is located in Scotland, and the rest - in England. This:

Tyneside - 0.8 million

West Midlands - 2.4 million

Southeast Lancashire - 2.3 million;

West Yorkshire - 1.7 million

Merseyside - 1.3 million

Greater London - 7 million

In the "hierarchy" of British cities, London occupies the main position as the capital, the main political and cultural center of the country.

In addition to London, many more "capital" functions are performed by 10 more cities in Great Britain: Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast - as the capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, respectively; Glasgow, Newcastle, Leeds, Bradford, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Sheffield are central cities of conurbation and regional centers. In addition, over 150 cities in terms of the number of inhabitants and the role they play in the life of the surrounding territories are higher than the bulk of cities. These cities are called "city", all the rest are called "town".

In Great Britain, there are mainly two types of rural settlements. In the low-lying eastern part of England, the population lives mainly in the villages. In the west, where animal husbandry is mainly developed, farms and individual farms prevail.

3. Characteristics of foreign trade and transport of Great Britain

The deepening participation of Great Britain in the international division of labor has found its expression in the increase in the importance of foreign trade in the country's economy. This is due to the strengthening of international specialization and cooperation of production, which is reflected in the growth of the export quota and the share of imports in meeting the country's needs.

The main countries that cooperate in trade with the UK are the EU countries. They account for about 58 percent of all UK exports. The main EU export partners are Germany, which accounts for 12% of exports, France 12% and the Netherlands 8%. The United States accounts for 13% of total UK exports.

The share of Great Britain in international trade is 2.7%.

The UK economy is highly dependent on foreign trade. The UK is a major global exporter. According to the International Trade Center in the world market, the UK was a major supplier of aviation equipment (share in world exports -27%), turbojet engines (27%), navigation equipment (26%), as well as art objects (37%), alcoholic beverages ( 36%), books (17%), diamonds (14%).

Table 1

Export volume of Great Britain, billion US dollars for 2003-2013

	meaning

V table1 the volume of UK exports in monetary terms for 2003-2013 is presented. The table shows a significant increase in exports over the past decade, which indicates an increase in exported goods and an increasing involvement of the country in world trade.

The UK import quota is 30.02%. Significant volumes of such goods as aircraft engines (13%), airplanes (12%), cars (8 /%), television cameras (7%), information processing devices (7%) are imported into the country. In addition, Great Britain is an importer of wines (21% of total imports), organic heterocyclic compounds (32%), diamonds (12%), jewelry (11%), and art objects. Largest import partners - Germany (13.5%), USA (10.2%), France (8.1%), Netherlands (6.3%), Italy (4.7%)

table 2

Import volume of Great Britain, billion US dollars for 2003-2013

	meaning

V table2 the volume of UK imports in monetary terms for 2003-2013 is presented. From the presented table, it can be concluded that the country is sufficiently involved in the world economy and interdependence, which is associated with a fairly open economy of the country, and the import quota also shows that the UK is almost independent of imports from other countries, hence low economic risks.

Table 3

Trade balance, billion pounds

month year	meaning

Balance trade balance external trade is the difference between the value of all exports and imports. A trade surplus means an excess of exports over imports (a country sells more than it buys). Negative trade balance - excess of imports over exports (the country buys more than it sells).

V table3 the UK trade balance is presented. According to the table, we see that the country's trade balance has a negative balance.

The UK trade deficit (goods and services) surged to £ 2.418 billion in May 2014 from a revised £ 2.053 billion in April, data from the country's National Statistics Office showed.

Exports of goods and services from the UK grew by 0.5% compared to April 2014 - to 40.936 billion pounds. Imports increased by 1.3% to 43.354 billion pounds.

Exports of goods from the UK increased in March 2014 compared with the previous by 0.6% - to 24.124 billion pounds. Imports of goods rose 1.7% to 33.328 billion pounds. Thus, the negative trade balance in goods in May amounted to 9.204 billion pounds, which is 4.4% higher than in April.

The deficit of British foreign trade (goods and services) in January-May amounted to 9.969 billion pounds.

Transport. Great Britain is an island state, therefore all its external transportation and trade are connected with sea and air transport. About 9/10 of the total cargo turnover falls on sea transport, including 1/4 - on cabotage. All areas of Great Britain, except for the West Midlands, are in one way or another directly connected with seaports, which serve as the main transport hubs. The largest of them are London, Southampton, Liverpool, Hull and Harwich, with the London and Liverpool seaports handling about half of all cargo (by value).

Great Britain is connected to the continent by a tunnel under the English Channel, two railway ferries (Dover - Dunkirk and Harwich - Ostend), and numerous sea car and passenger ferries - with Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Holland and France. In domestic freight traffic, road transport plays the greatest role. The dominant role in domestic traffic is taken by road transport - 85% of passenger traffic and 81% of cargo traffic. The territory of Great Britain is covered with a dense network of highways. The length of asphalted highways is 406.4 thousand km.

In contrast to other developed countries in the UK, with a high road density, only 4% are modern highways, which attract 36% of traffic flows. The most intensive traffic is on the London - Birmingham - Manchester - Glasgow axle highway. In large cities due to traffic jams that worsen ecological situation, bans are introduced on the movement of transport on a number of central streets, attention is paid to the development of public transport. London and Glasgow have subways. Public transport is an acute problem in remote rural areas.

The railway network is shrinking, the total length of the lines is about 32 thousand km, 1/3 of the lines (in rural areas) are unprofitable, but retained for social reasons. To increase competitiveness, the electrification of railways was carried out (1/3 of the lines), express trains for passengers and goods were launched in the main directions. The government is implementing various organizational measures to modernize this type of transport.

The importance of river transport is decreasing. The length of the waterways is 3.2 thousand km. Inland waterways (rivers and canal networks) are now mainly used for recreational purposes only. Transportation of goods is carried out mainly within the deep-water estuaries of the Mersey, Thames, Severn, Humber.

Air transport is developing rapidly. Since the 1980s. air transportation of passengers and cargo has more than tripled. British Airways is a leading international airline. There are about 450 civil airports in the country, the largest of which is Heathrow. The pipeline transport network is expanding rapidly; it is connected to gas pipelines from fields in the North Sea; total length of pipelines - 3.9 thousand km. Up to 75% of oil arrives onshore via oil pipelines.

4 Characteristics of the ports and fleet of Great Britain

The UK economy is highly dependent on the health of the national merchant marine fleet. According to the Department of Transport and the UK Shipping Chamber, about 95% of the tonnage and 75% of the value of British foreign trade goods, as well as up to 25% of domestic trade goods, are transported by water.

To service marine merchant and passenger ships, as well as to handle cargo, the UK has built more than 70 international commercial seaports of commercial importance, as well as more than 200 small port points where local cargo is handled. More than 565 million tons of cargo are transshipped through British ports annually, of which about 220 million are imported and 180 million are imported. export, as well as carried up to 30 million passengers.

All areas of the UK, except for the West Midlands, are connected with seaports, which serve as major transport hubs. The largest of them are London, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, Bristol, Newcastle. (Figure 1 shows all ports in the UK).

The largest British port - London, which is the second in the world after New York, is located on the Thames, 45 km from its mouth. 40-50% of all UK imports and about 25% of exports go through London. Docks, docks, warehouses, stretching for tens of kilometers, mainly on the northern bank of the Thames, were built at different times by various companies. For unloading and loading operations in the port of London, in addition to floating cranes, about 9 thousand so-called lighters (lighters) are widely used - self-propelled barges with a carrying capacity of 20 to 100 tons.

London is inferior in terms of cargo turnover Liverpool, in the Mersei estuary, also one of the world's largest ports. Liverpool rivals London in terms of its export role. The port of Liverpool also handles 30% of the country's maritime passenger turnover (about 1 million passengers per year). In addition to the docks of Liverpool itself, stretching for 18 km along the right bank of the Mersey estuary, the port of Liverpool also includes the docks of nearby cities that are part of the conurbation of Greater Liverpool, in particular Birkenhead and Wallace on the left bank of the Mersey estuary.

Manchester- a major port in Great Britain. Connected with the mouth of the river. The Mersey, which flows into the Irish Sea, is a 58 km long shipping canal. The Port of Manchester includes 20 tidal dock basins, part of a canal, piers and quays. The length of the quay front is 17 km with depths of up to 12.2 m. The port has specialized berths for tankers, ore carriers and vessels carrying containers. About 70% of the total turnover of sea cargo is liquid cargo: oil, gasoline, liquid sulfur.

The total turnover of sea cargo passing through Manchester is 11.4 million tons. The port has powerful loading and unloading facilities, 3 dry docks and floating docks provide any repair of ships and ships up to and including destroyers and submarines. Through the channel and the mouth of the river. Mersey is connected to the port of Liverpool.

Glasgow- a major port of Great Britain and one of the main centers of shipbuilding on the Clyde River, 34 km from the mouth, on the west coast of Scotland. The port includes dock pools, piers and marinas. The length of the berthing front is 20.4 km with depths of up to 12.5 m. The total volume of sea cargo passing through the port of Glasgow exceeds 5.5 million tons. There are 6 dry docks and slipways in the port of Glasgow that provide any ship repair. Glasgow shipyards produce about 45% of all British shipbuilding. The port is connected by a canal to the North Sea Firth of Forth.

Bristol is a large port of Great Britain, located at the top of the bay of the same name at the mouth of the river. Avon. Includes roadstead King, 7 tidal dock basins that span the entire estuary, and roadstead berths for tankers. The rest of the ships, due to high tidal currents, are handled only at the docks. The length of the berthing front is up to 14 km with depths of up to 14 m. The total turnover of sea cargo of the port of Bristol is 3.9 million tons. The structure of sea cargo passing through the port is diverse, with a predominance of oil imports. The Port of Bristol provides all types of ship and ship repairs.

Newcastle- the port of Great Britain on the river. Tyne, which flows into the North Sea, 11 km from the mouth. The Port of Newcastle has 3 dock pools, a promenade and marinas. The depth in the roadstead is 6.4--12.6 m. The length of the mooring front is up to 6 km with depths of up to 11 m. The following sea cargo is imported to the port of Newcastle: oil and oil products, non-ferrous metals, iron ore, chemicals, cement, foodstuffs; exported - coke, coal, cast iron, machinery, lead and other metals. The total turnover of sea cargo passing through the port of Newcastle is 5 million tons. The berths are equipped with loading and unloading equipment, there are warehouses, cargo platforms, oil storage facilities, a shipyard, and a dry dock.

The country's insular position at the crossroads of important sea routes between Europe and other continents and the dependence of the country's economic development on external markets for raw materials and sales and the possibility of carrying out foreign trade transportation only by sea - all this contributes to the development of the country's merchant marine fleet and its transformation into the largest maritime power in the world.

For several centuries, Great Britain has owned the largest maritime fleet in the world.

in 1904, the British maritime fleet was equal to almost half of the world tonnage. From 1948 to 1964 the British merchant fleet was the second largest in the world.

The British Register includes 649 vessels with a displacement of over 100 so-called "long" tons. Their total carrying capacity is 15 million tons. Among them: 149 vessels with a total deadweight of 5.5 million tons for the transportation of oil, gas and chemicals; 453 vessels with deadweight of 9.3 million tons, hired as dry cargo and container ships; 47 passenger ships with a total deadweight of 100 thousand tons.

In the past, more passengers arrived in the UK by sea than by air. However, since the beginning of the 60s of the 20th century, the number of air passengers began to grow rapidly and now exceeds the number of those arriving in the country by sea several times. In total, the country has about 150 airports through which it is connected by permanent airlines with more than 100 countries of the world.

According to the British Statistical Office, 77% of ships owned by British companies are registered in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man or British Overseas Territories.

5. Problems and ways of development

Foreign trade has traditionally played a vital role in the UK economy. Despite the fact that the country's population is less than 1% of the world's population, the UK ranks fifth in the world in terms of foreign trade (about 6% of world trade).

A characteristic feature of British foreign trade in goods is a chronic trade deficit. At the same time, the balance of trade in services, according to the balance of payments data, traditionally has a positive balance.

As a general rule, there are no restrictions or export tariffs when exporting goods from the UK. In order to ensure state control over a certain category of goods, an export licensing system is applied. The following products currently fall under this system:

- dual-use goods, i.e. those that can be used for civil and military purposes (computers, certain types of communications, etc.);

- military equipment, weapons and related materials, ammunition and other military supplies; - goods that are used in the production of nuclear weapons; - initial elements of chemical munitions;

- live cattle, cocoa and other food products.

The export of certain goods subject to non-tariff regulation measures is carried out in agreement with the relevant government agencies. Thus, for the export of livestock, animals and plants, it is necessary to obtain consent from the Ministry of Environment, Food and Rural Development.

Most goods can be imported into the UK without restrictions, however certain goods (weapons, ammunition, explosive and other dangerous goods, food and agricultural goods, including livestock, pharmaceuticals and medicines) are subject to import only after obtaining an import license. To import such goods, you must also obtain permission from the relevant government agencies. For example, the import of medicines requires the consent of the Ministry of the Interior, for agricultural products - the Ministry of Environment, Food and Rural Development.

The basis for the import of such goods into the UK is a license issued by the Department of Trade and Industry. As a rule, the import of such goods is carried out on the basis of an open general import license or an individual import license.

In the area of ​​import tariff regulation, the main document is the UK Integrated Tariff, which includes the EU Common Customs Tariff and statistical nomenclature, as well as a system for harmonized description and coding of goods.

According to the EU Common Customs Tariff, the importation of commodities into the UK and other EU member states is duty-free or at a low tax rate. As the degree of product processing increases, the tariff rate rises. The weighted average rate of the most favored nation tariff on all goods in the UK is 5.3%, including agricultural goods - 14.5%, industrial goods - 4%.

The Ministry of Finance plays a significant role in determining the strategy for the development of the country's customs and tariff policy, and the implementation of control and regulatory functions of a customs and tariff nature is entrusted to the Royal Customs and Excise Service, which collects taxes and duties. She is also responsible for the implementation of decisions on prohibitions and restrictions on export and import, collection of statistics on foreign trade.

One of the main issues in the development of bilateral trade is the creation of favorable conditions for the admission of goods to the British market. Among the technical measures to regulate export-import operations, an important place is occupied by the sanitary and epidemiological requirements of the British government bodies for imported goods.

Among the technical barriers important role is also assigned to environmental requirements, standards and requirements for packaging and labeling of goods. At the same time, in certain cases, the requirements of the UK in terms of standardization are more stringent than those applied within the EU. This, in particular, concerns high-tech products of mechanical engineering, including aircraft, where the discrepancy between Russian aircraft engines and navigation equipment is quite noticeable to the requirements of British standards.

A similar situation is developing in the electrical industry - the requirements of the British standards for electrical protection, especially for electrical household goods, exceed the requirements of the EU.

The British government attaches great importance to the promotion of exports and support of the national producer, because the foreign economic sector plays a key role in the UK economy.

Based on the main task - to make the UK economy more competitive in the world market, the country's government is implementing measures to support domestic exporters, and primarily small and medium-sized companies trying to promote their products to the foreign market.

6. Conclusion

A distinctive feature of the UK economy is its high share in the gross national product of foreign trade, which is about 50% of GDP. In 2013, UK trade was US $ 1,090,336 million, with exports increasing to US $ 475,785 million and imports to US $ 646,551 million. The UK's largest trading partners are the United States, the EU and China.

The development of UK foreign trade is characterized by positive dynamics, both in terms of export deliveries and import purchases. The bulk of exports are machinery and equipment and chemical products, which account for about 50% of exports. In the commodity structure of imports, mechanical engineering products and semi-finished products predominate.

In recent months, the UK trade surplus has been negative. This suggests that imports in terms of value are ahead of exports.

Despite the fact that UK imports exceed exports, the country remains a leader in European trade and a major financial center.

In the country, the leading role belongs to sea transport (86% of cargo turnover), it provides international and domestic relations.

Since Great Britain is an island state, all of its external transportation and trade are associated with sea transport. About 90% of the total cargo turnover falls on sea transport, including 25% for cabotage.

At the moment, the development of the external economy is aimed at increasing the country's competitiveness in the world market, developing the strategy of the country's customs and tariff policy, and supporting domestic producers of small and medium-sized companies trying to promote their products to the external market.

List of used literature

1. Foreign economic relations of Great Britain V.K. Lomakin.

2. Sea transport of Great Britain G.А. Kononenko.

3. UK shipping VP Nadeinsky.

4. Characteristics of the UK transport network http://www.polevskoy-turcentr.ru/studentam/4/chitaem.html.

5.http: //www.ved.gov.ru/exportcountries/gb/gb_ru_relations/gb_ru_trade/.

6.http: //www.ereport.ru/articles/weconomy/ukingdom.htm.

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Cabinet appointed by the monarch as the highest authority in the Government. Westminster Palace. Buckingham Palace as the official London residence of British monarchs. Natural resources, relief, climatic conditions, inland waters of Great Britain.

presentation added on 10/23/2013


EGP characteristic. The modern administrative division of Great Britain. Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. Population of Great Britain. Industry. Agriculture. Transport. Tourism.

abstract added on 12/11/2002


General information, state structure, relief, minerals, climate, nature and population of Great Britain - a country located in the British Isles off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. Culture, traditions and modernity of the country.

abstract, added 09/27/2011


Geographical location, population and official language of Great Britain. Transformation in the English economy. Social state of society and culture. Education in the UK as the highest priority in public policy.

The country located on the British Isles off the northwestern coast of continental Europe is traditionally called Great Britain, and by the name of the historical part - England. Officially, it is called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The country includes 4 historical regions: England (occupies the central and eastern part of the island of Great Britain); Wales (in the west of the same island); Northern Ireland (the island of Ireland) and Scotland. The British Isles are the largest archipelago in Europe. It includes two large islands (Great Britain and Ireland) and more than 5 thousand small islands. The British archipelago is separated by the shallow North Sea from Sweden and Denmark and the narrow English Channel and Pas-de-Calais from France. The area of ​​the United Kingdom is 244,100 sq. km.

Great Britain consists of 4 administrative and political parts (historical provinces): England (39 counties, 6 metropolitan counties and Greater London), Wales (9 counties, 3 cities, and 10 city-counties), Scotland (32 regions) and Northern Ireland ( 26 districts).

Population

The UK is characterized by: a type of population reproduction, typical for Western Europe, with low fertility and mortality rates, a very low natural population growth (up to 2%). In some years, there was a negative increase (natural decline) of the population. In addition to the reduction in natural growth, a decrease in the immigration flow negatively affects the general dynamics of the population. All this gives rise to the problem of the aging of the British nation, leads to a narrowing of the domestic market and an increase in social spending. Life expectancy for men is 74 years, for women - about 80 years.

At the same time, the standard of living of the population in the UK is one of the highest. More than 60 % British families own separate houses; public education and health care are free, with over 25 million Britons taking vacations overseas each year.

The overwhelming majority of the population is British (over 80%), about 15% are Scots, Welsh and Irish combined, about 5% are immigrants, mainly from India, Pakistan, and the West Indies.

The population of Great Britain is religiously heterogeneous. The British are of the Anglican faith, the Irish are of the Catholic faith. Scots are of the Presbyterian faith, and immigrants are mostly Muslim. There are also significant groups of adherents of Hinduism, Judaism and other religions.

Economy

For the UK in to a greater extent than for others
large European states, characterized by a post-industrial structure of employment, which is associated with a special
the country's role in world exports of capital and services (the share of the tertiary sector in GDP is 67%). Low-
(less than 50%) are also indicators of the proportion of the able-bodied and employed population in the total population of the country.

Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country, a major supplier of finished industrial products to the world market and a major exporter of capital (mainly to developed countries). Extraction of oil and natural gas (mainly on the shelf of the North Sea), coal. The most developed are mechanical engineering (focused on the production of non-standard products, as well as various types and types of machines), including electrical and electronic, transport (including large aircraft, automobile and shipbuilding), machine-tool building, agricultural, industrial equipment production, lifting and transport engineering, etc., chemical and petrochemical (Great Britain occupies one of the leading places in the world for the production and export of synthetic fibers and dyes, plastics, detergents, fertilizers, etc.), pharmaceutical, oil refining industry, ferrous (high-quality steel) and non-ferrous (tin, aluminum) metallurgy. The oldest branch of the British industry, the textile industry, has lost its former importance. Large-scale food flavoring (traditional production of whiskey, beer; processing of imported agricultural raw materials) industry; production of footwear, knitwear; famous for English porcelain. Agriculture is dominated by dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and bacon pig breeding; meat and wool sheep breeding. Mainly they grow barley, wheat, sugar beets, oats, and potatoes. Vegetable growing and fruit growing (large greenhouse and greenhouse farm), floriculture (daffodils, tulips).

Basic indicators:

Population (2005): 60 million

Unemployment: 4.7%

Share of employees: 47.53%

GDP (2005): $ 1,736,337 million (per capita: $ 31,000)

Industry share: 27%

Agricultural share - 2%

Member of: EU, OECD, NATO, UN, OSCE, WHO, B-8.

1.Southeast

2 West Midlands

3.East Midlands

4.East England

5. Southwest

6.Northwest

7 Yorkshire with Humberside

8.Northeast

10 Scotland

11 Northern Ireland

V the hotel business and catering (restaurants, pubs, bars, cafes) employ about 1.8 million people. The sector's turnover exceeds £ 59 billion. (annual growth rate - 4.8%). There are more than 60 thousand hotels and small “bedbreakfast” hotels in the country.

British residents and foreign tourists are served by 52.6 thousand restaurants, cafes and fast food outlets with an annual turnover of about £ 20 billion. (annual growth rate - 5%). The most visited are the enterprises of the world famous transnational companies "McDonald's", "Pizza Hut", "Pizza Express", "Burger King", "Key EF C".

The number of UK traditional pubs is on the decline. In 2003, there were 48.8 thousand of them, or 10% less than in 1990. The annual turnover was £ 14.0 billion.

The UK tourism industry continues to be the most important service industry. The country has a well-developed network of museums and recreation parks, which are visited by over 37 million people annually. The UK population travels and travels domestically annually

Foreign tourism plays an important role in the economic life of Great Britain. In terms of tourism revenues, it is in 5th place, behind the USA, Italy, France and Spain.

Income from foreign tourism in 2003 amounted to 11.8 billion pounds. (an increase of 0.4%), outflow - 28.7 billion pounds sterling. (+ 6.5%). As a result, the negative balance in trade in this type of service in the UK increased from 15.3 billion pounds. in 2002. up to 16.9 billion pounds. in 2003. or 10.5%.

UK Foreign Travel Income and Expenditures

The country is located in the British Isles in northwestern Europe. Consider the EGL of Great Britain - first its geographic aspect. Great Britain is made up of four large provinces: England, Wales, and Scotland. The EGP of Great Britain is largely determined by its insular position. The British Isles are the largest archipelago in Europe. It includes two large islands (Ireland and Great Britain) and more than five thousand small ones. The southern part of the island of Great Britain is located at latitude fiftieth, and the northern part of the archipelago (Scottish Islands) is at sixtieth degrees north latitude. The distance from the northernmost point of the island of Great Britain to its southernmost point is 966 kilometers, and its greatest width is 508 kilometers. The geographical position of Great Britain is such that it is washed by the waters of the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, and the southern part of its coast is located only thirty-five kilometers from the northern coast of France. They are separated by the English Channel. is equal to 243,810 square kilometers.

Areas of England located on the plains are of great importance for agriculture. A little later, the mountainous terrain began to be mastered. An important incentive for this was at first the pastures, and then the mineral resources. Historically, in the course of geological evolution, various minerals began to form in the bowels of the British Isles. On the territory of the country there are almost all known minerals, only diamonds are missing.

In the central part and in the north of England are the Pienine Mountains, which are composed of coal rocks. In their northern part, karst deposits are widespread. The foothills of these mountains are rich in coal deposits. On the basis of these deposits, large mining and industrial centers of the Yorkshire, Lankshire and other coal basins were formed, the estimated reserves of which amount to more than four billion tons.

In most of England, flat plains and hilly cuesta ridges alternate. Cuestas are most often composed of limestone or writing chalk, and the plains are represented by looser rocks: sand, clay, marl. All of these sedimentary rocks have accumulated in ancient marine basins.

Small elevations in the Midland Plains are associated with deposits of iron ore and coal. Here is one of the largest deposits of iron ore - 60% of all its reserves are concentrated in the East Midlands.

Consider now the economic side of the UK EGL .

The country's agriculture is characterized by a very high intensity. It is well equipped and produces 60% of the food the UK needs with just 2% of its human resources. The leading ones are chemical and petrochemical, and oil, oil refining, mechanical engineering, ferrous metallurgy.

Per capita is $ 36,600 per year. The 13th place in the world in terms of living standards is occupied by Great Britain. The country's economy is one of the most developed in the world. The country has a developed mechanical engineering, which is focused mainly on the production of non-standard equipment, as well as different types and types of machines.

The country has well-developed electronic and electrical engineering, large-scale automobile manufacturing, aircraft manufacturing, shipbuilding, and machine tool manufacturing. The chemical and petrochemical industries, the production of lifting and transport equipment and industrial equipment, as well as the oil refining and pharmaceutical industries, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy are widely represented. Great Britain is one of the first places in the world for the export and production of dyes and plastics, detergents, chemical and mineral fertilizers.

Thus, we have presented in the article information that reflects the EGP of the UK.