Metaphor, its varieties and figurative and expressive means. Metaphor: examples and types

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

• 1. Category or context,
• 2. An object within a specific category,
• 3. The process by which this object performs the function, and
• 4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).

· Metaphor in art often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word. In Shakespeare, for example, what is often important is not the original everyday meaning of the utterance, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning - a new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, who had been brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, Major Kovalev's nose in Gogol's general uniform is not

only personification, hyperbole or comparison, but also a new meaning that did not exist before. Futurists did not strive for the plausibility of the metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning. For example, "a cloud in your pants." During the years of the domination of socialist realism, the metaphor was actually expelled from literature, as a device that leads away from reality. In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner "a metaphor in a square" or "Flink0097" (Konstantin Kedrov's term). hallmark metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture in general. This is due to the formation of a metaphor under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of a metaphor in determining the objects of technical achievements of mankind.

Since antiquity, there are descriptions of some traditional types of metaphor:

• A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. Model: stuffing statements.
• · An erased (genetic) metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• · The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction. Model: Doubt Worm.
• · An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.
• · A realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

When considering a metaphor as a resource of communication, we can say based on the research of a number of linguists that it is the source of many lexical phenomena. Let us repeat once again the common truth that a metaphor consists of words or free phrases that have a metaphorical meaning, or in other words, a metaphorical content. Metaphorization of the meaning of a linguistic unit can take place within the same functional category of words, or be accompanied by a syntactic shift.

A metaphor that does not go beyond a specific vocabulary is used mainly for nominative purposes. Nominativity serves as a technical method of forming the names of objects (the stem of a glass, the eye of a needle, etc.). This often gives rise to homonymy. By definition, O.S. Akhmanova homonymy is the subject of "lexical-semantic variation of vocabulary units".

To help in distinguishing between the polysemy of a word and homonymy, the study of the patterns of semantic relationships in a particular language comes. In modern English, the definition of the category of belonging of a language unit to homonyms is the definition of a lexical-semantic relationship between variants of language units. And first of all, these are connections of a metaphorical nature, and then of a metonymic nature, etc. All these connections characterize the ratio of the general sense and the more particular.

I would like to note that the issue of polysemy and homonymy is the main stumbling block. “The question of how to correctly determine the line on which a linguistic unit is not a lexico-semantic carrier of various semantic variants of one word, but becomes a case of homonymy” remains open to this day. However, as regards the metaphorization of the meaning of indicative words, we, following A. D. Arutyunova, we can argue that this metaphorical transfer is the source of the polysemy of the word. It is hardly possible to deny the very phenomenon of the polysemy of the word - its identity in the presence of two or more meanings expressed by the same sound segments. But there is a denial of the existence of the polysemy of words, while at the same time, the assertion that any semantic difference in the case of the coincidence of the sound form represents a case of homonymy and vice versa.

As we noted on the first pages of this chapter, we will try to consider the metaphor and all linguistic phenomena associated with it not only “in breadth”, i.e. its interaction with other figures of speech: comparisons, catachreses, etc., but also “in depth”, i.e. let us consider in sufficient depth the nature of the functions of metaphor, their origin and interaction. In general, the theoretical issues of metaphor have been studied, as they say, “along and across”, but we, trying not to repeat ourselves and be somewhat different from others, give a non-standard way of studying the functioning of metaphors, based on the position of the existence of a polyfunctional image of the language field and all the resulting facts and theories of language. Research L.A. Kiselyova, we will consider the support of the above theoretical material. L.A. Kiseleva is a linguist, a follower of the Leningrad phonological school. Dealing with theoretical and practical issues of the semantics of figurative language means, in particular those related to the metaphorical group (comparison, metaphor, epithet, personification), she made a great contribution to the development of this issue both in theory and in practice: on the material of domestic literature..

Thus, following L.A. Kiseleva, we can argue that figurative language means can be combined into a polyfunctional figurative language field, a kind of linguistic subsystem of the language. Under the figurative linguistic means of the language, one should understand both tropes and other stylistic devices: inversion, repetition, allusion, etc. Raising the question of the essence of the polyfunctional figurative field, we, following L.A. Kiseleva, we can consider it as a figurative language field, distinguished at the intersection of the nominative, expressive, emotional-evaluative and aesthetic fields.

L.A. Kiseleva notes the existence of polyfunctional units and claims that they can be included in several fields as a manifestation of their relationship in the interaction of field-forming functions. Like any functional field, a figurative language field is a system of language units. Being a system, it has certain systemic properties, which we, following L.A. Kiseleva and give:

The figurative language field is open system, and it, like any functional field, is characterized by a certain “growth”.

The polyfunctional figurative field is characterized by integrity, which is ensured by the integration of its components through a common seme for them - “image”, “representation”, “vision of 2 pictures”, as well as the interaction of its components (the difference in metaphors, for example, according to the degree of usage, according to the structure etc.).

The selected polyfunctional figurative field is linguistic, that is, it is a system of bilateral linguistic units, which are the unity of content and form.

In it, as in any other field, one can distinguish the core and the periphery.

The core of the figurative language of the field is created by units that are most specialized for expressing the field-forming seme “image”, which, as a rule, are polyfunctional. contain expressive information, give someone, something an assessment and aesthetically form the thought of the writer in addition to their conceptual content.

Peripheral units, as the specialized seme “image” is stifled, gravitate toward one or another linguistic field. For example, lexical metaphors formed with the help of transfer, containing a “erased image”, which have lost their expression and serve for understanding, gravitate towards the nominative field.

Based on the understanding of the polyfunctional image of the field, one can also try to determine the functions of metaphors, linking them with the promotion of one or another seme that functions in parallel with the seme “image”. This is, first of all, a nominative function. literature: - concretizing, - generalizing, - illustrative. Through this function, metaphor becomes a kind of tool for cognizing reality. You can also talk about the expressive function of metaphor, supported by the expressive qualities of the language itself, that is, the special expressive power of language units, in particular words and phrases with a metaphorical content.

The next function that we highlight is the aesthetic function of metaphors, performing which language units should most fully correspond to their purpose or individual ideal. And, finally, the fourth function is emotional-evaluative, which, together with the two previous ones, is distinguished by linguists as a separate class of pragmatic functions of figurative units of language, in this case, metaphors. Thus, when translating metaphors or words and free phrases with metaphorical content from one language to another, a linguist should be guided by the multidimensionality of figurative information, due to the multifunctionality of figurative language units, in particular metaphors. Thus, we approach the issue of aspects of considering the constituents of a figurative language field in terms of their transmission in the translation of fiction, however, based on the title of our work, we will limit ourselves to the consideration of constituents that carry a metaphorical image. .

In passing, we note that the selection of aesthetic information and, as a result, the aesthetic function of figurative means in a number of other functions is under development. No wonder L.A. Kiseleva considers her substantiation of the aesthetic field, its constituents, a hypothesis, but a hypothesis that is included in the resolution of the problem posed about the specifics of the aesthetic activity of works of art: "We need ... hypotheses about the nature of the aesthetic activity of art" .

So, as noted above, the difficulty of translating words and phrases with metaphorical content is due to their multifunctionality. No wonder they believe that metaphor is an extension of the informational capabilities of the language. .

Apparently, when considering the translation of these units, it is necessary to take into account their semantic information. In this regard, when analyzing the translation, we will focus on the semantic basis of metaphors, consider their violations, when the links of the metaphor “revitalization”, “support” - the words that update it - do not agree in the translation in their direct meaning.

A metaphorical figurative means is expressive, although the degree of expression is different. If this is a lexical metaphor, a metaphor-name, then it carries a weakened “dead” image. There is no “transfer” mark in dictionaries. Such a metaphor gravitates towards the nominative field. If it is a general stylistic metaphor, that is, it is usual, established, adopted in a particular language, it carries more expression. This is reflected in the dictionaries with the “transfer (figurative)” mark. stylistic metaphors form the core of the figurative field, since the seme “image”, “figurative impression” is most clearly represented in them. The dictionary does not reflect this expression. These are speech units, but the expression does not reach the highest degree.

When we can talk about the translation of individual stylistic metaphors by general stylistic, lexical and when we consider the translation of lexical metaphors by individual stylistic, general stylistic metaphors, we must compare the expressive power of the metaphorical image of the original and the translation, that is, the transfer of figurative information and the accompanying expressive information.

Speaking about the adequate transmission of expressive information (by linguistic expressive information, we, following L.A. Kiseleva, understand information about the expressive qualities of the language itself, that is, about the special expressive power language tools) we will use the marked and unmarked dictionary meanings with the label “transfer”, figurative. Unmarked dictionary meanings are “words of a stylistically neutral layer (about 90%) that do not have any labels”. . This layer includes “derivative-nominative meaning that arises by means of metaphorical transfer, but does not have the mark “transfer” or figurative. . The very inclusion of these values ​​in the neutral layer indicates the neutralization of expression, expressiveness in them.

There is a certain amount of novelty and freshness in these meanings, which does not allow words with this meaning to be included in the neutral layers of the vocabulary.

However, it seems to us that the expression of language units, represented in dictionaries by the label “transfer”, figurative, is lower than the expression of speech figurative pragmes, whose figurative impact is the highest. Basically, such language units are created to perform one or another expressive, emotional-evaluative, aesthetic function in “a certain speech utterance”, thus they are not included in the vocabulary of the language and therefore are not marked in dictionaries.

This, apparently, once again confirms the validity of the division of metaphors into three types and the use of the terms “lexical”, “general stylistic” and “individual stylistic”.

As mentioned earlier, figurative metaphorical language means are included in the core of the expressive language field. . Thus, “considered from the point of view of conveying expression, metaphors are expressive pragmemes.”

In this regard, it seems to us appropriate in terms of translation to consider how figurative information and the accompanying expressive information of figurative units of the original are presented in translation, whether the image and its expression coincide with the same stylistic categories in translation, whether the power of expression of the original image corresponds to the power of expression of the image in translation. In the reviewed literature on the translation of metaphors, it is emphasized that a living image (that is, an image with the highest expressive activity) is recreated in translation, an extinct image (an image with the lowest expression power, that is, reduced to zero in a lexical metaphor) is conveyed by meaning.

As the study shows, this aspect of the plan of the content of the image when transferred to another language appears in a slightly different light: there is no such direct dependence of the “extinct” - “non-extinct” image in English from its transmission - non-transmission into Russian. And if the expression of the image is enhanced, then we can talk about richer figurative information in translation, since more “lights” of metaphors have a more transparent interaction of direct meaning and meaning in context, leading to a more vivid “representation”, “seeing two pictures” . Accordingly, the saturation of the statement increases from the informative point of view, which leads to a change in the influence readable text on the creative thinking reading.

“The metaphorical image, carrying figurative expressive information, simultaneously transmits emotional and evaluative information." . When studying this pragmatic aspect of metaphor, it is necessary to analyze the syntagmatic environment in which the metaphor is realized, since “the transmission of pragmatic information in a metaphorical statement is closely related to the transmission of completeness semantic information in a metaphorical way".

We, following A.I. Fedorov, we believe that metaphorical semantics is made up of several closely related elements:

The original “literal” meaning of words, retouched, shifted as a result of the interaction of semantic-associative fields of unusually connected words.

An image that arises on the basis of the associative fields of these words.

New logical (semantic, conceptual, conceptual) content, a new nomination resulting from the comprehension of metaphors.

This complex semantic formation is a carrier of several types of information: figurative, semantic, expressive, aesthetic, emotional-evaluative, during the transfer of which the corresponding function of metaphors is carried out, or several functions are performed simultaneously.

Aesthetic information in this or that work is objectified by specific linguistic metaphorical images (of course, along with other linguistic means). The transfer of metaphorical images, which carry aesthetic information in addition to figurative information, in translation leads to the preservation of the same aesthetic effectiveness of a work of art for the Russian reader.

Thus, it seems possible for us to assume the three above-mentioned types of information - expressive, aesthetic, emotional - evaluative - conveyed by metaphorical images in translation adequately and will have a pragmatically relevant impact on the reader of the corresponding Russian text.

However, before accepting this assumption, we consider it necessary to give an example of the parameter of the adequacy of the translation of metaphors in terms of content.

And this is, first of all, the parameter of the adequacy of the transfer of semantic information in a metaphorical way, which is closely related to the transfer of the nominative function of the metaphor. This function is carried out through the completeness of the transfer of semantic information. The higher the degree of correlation with the main, “literal” meaning, the more fully the main, nominative function is carried out.

This, first of all, concerns lexical metaphors, which carry the highest degree of semantic information. Semantics (or, otherwise, rational, logical, etc.) information is understood as such a subsystem of linguistic information that has correlative links with objects, phenomena, etc. reality through a system of relevant concepts about them, judgments, which is reflected in the content of intellectual language means. .

The accuracy (as far as the language of translation allows) of the transfer of the semantic basis of the metaphors of the original leads to an adequate linguistic image of the metaphor in translation and its adequate semantic content, through which the nominative function of the metaphor is also carried out. In translation, this is confirmed by those cases where the impossibility of preserving the metaphorical image leads to the use of only the semantic content of the metaphor in order to perform at least a nominative function. The fact that the figurative meaning is polyfunctional and, in particular, has a nominative function can be confirmed once again by the statement of I.V. Arnold: “Meaning is called figurative or figurative when it not only names, but also describes or characterizes an object through its similarity or connection with other objects. "

In order to create a holistic figurative impression when it is expressed by means of language, a writer or playwright “finds words with semantics corresponding to the image and combines them so that the features indicated by their semantics are combined and, complementing each other, create the same figurative representation in the mind of the reader. , which has developed in the mind of the writer. Choosing words for this and colliding them in phrases, the artist of the word acts on intuition. ” .

In order to preserve in the translation a holistic figurative impression created by the writer in the original and expressed through words with semantics corresponding to the image, the translator, choosing words in the target language, does not act and cannot act on intuition. It starts from the semantics of words in the metaphorical combination of the original and goes through a comparison of the lexical meanings of words in the original language and the target language.

Metaphorical semantics of words, notes I.A. Krylov, has no clear boundaries if it arises on the basis of an associative connection of a person's impressions of objects. Therefore, with the normative semantics of words that create a metaphorical meaning, subjective personal associations can also arise in the mind of the reader, associated with his worldly experience, mental make-up, the nature of intellectual life, even mood. But the basis of the figurative impression remains the same, because it depends on the meaning that is assigned to the words that convey this or that image in the national language.

Therefore, when conveying the image of a metaphor, the translator is looking for words with such normative semantics, the meaning of which, assigned to them in the national language, would serve as a solid basis for the figurative impression. Thus, adequately rendered in translation by dictionary equivalents, a metaphor has an adequate nominative function in translation.

In connection with the above, it seems to us that the adequacy of the translation of words and phrases with a metaphorical meaning in terms of content implies the transfer of all types of information by equivalent means.

Metaphor

Metaphor

METAPHOR - kind of trail (see), the use of the word in a figurative sense; phrase describing this phenomenon by transferring to it the signs inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of converging phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The peculiarity of M. as a type of trope is that it is a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is displaced and completely replaced by the second (what was compared), for example. “A bee from a wax cell / Flies for tribute in the field” (Pushkin), where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, and the first terms are replaced by the second. M., like any trope, is based on the property of the word that in its meaning it relies not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. Eg. in the word "star" we, along with the essential and general meaning(celestial body) we also have a number of secondary and individual signs - the radiance of a star, its remoteness, etc. M. and arises through the use of “secondary” meanings of words, which allows us to establish new connections between them (a secondary sign of tribute is that its collect, cells - its tightness, etc.). For artistic thinking, these "secondary" signs, expressing moments of sensuous visualization, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties. Hence the cognitive meaning of metaphor. M., like the trope in general, is a general linguistic phenomenon, but it acquires special significance in fiction, since the writer, striving for the most concretized, individualized figurative display of reality, M. gives the opportunity to shade the most diverse properties, signs, details of the phenomenon, its convergence with others, and so on. The very quality of M. and its place in the literary style, of course, is determined by concrete historical class conditions. And those concepts with which the writer operates, and their secondary meanings and their connections with other concepts, reflecting to one degree or another the connections of phenomena in reality - all this is determined by the historically conditioned nature of the class consciousness of the writer, i.e., in the final account of the real life process that he is aware of. Hence the class nature of M., its various historical content: different styles correspond to various metaphorical systems, principles of metaphorization; at the same time, the attitude towards M. is different within the same style, depending on the direction and characteristics of literary skill, as well as within the work of one writer (Gorky's metaphors in the story "Old Woman Izergil" and in "The Life of Klim Samgin"), within one work (the image of an officer and the image of Nilovna in Gorky's Mother), even within the deployment of one image (the wealth of M., characterizing Nilovna, in the last part of the book and their absence in the first). So. arr. M. acts as one of the means of creating a given artistic image, and only in a specific analysis can the place, meaning and quality of metaphor in a given work, creativity, style be established, since we also have in metaphor one of the moments of class reflection of reality. Trope, Lexicon.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Metaphor

(Greek metaphora - transfer), view trail; the transfer of a sign from one object to another on the basis of their associative connection, subjectively perceived similarity. Metaphor is used in works of art when describing objects to emphasize their subtle properties, to present them from an unusual angle of view. There are three main types of metaphors: personification - the transfer of a sign of a living person to an inanimate object - “Like a white dress sang in the beam ... "(" The girl sang in the church choir ... "by A. A. Blok); reification - the transfer of the sign of an inanimate object to a living person - " Goals we work on human Oak trees... ”(“ Worker Poet ”by V. V. Mayakovsky); distraction - the transfer of a sign of a particular phenomenon (person or object) to an abstract, abstract phenomenon - “Then humbles himself in my soul anxiety... "(" When the yellowing field is agitated ... "by M. Yu. Lermontov). There are historically stable types of metaphors that existed in different national literatures of a certain period. Such are the kennings (Icelandic kenning - definition) in the poetry of the early Middle Ages: "horse of the sea" - the Old Norse metaphor of the ship, "the path of the whales" - the Anglo-Saxon metaphor of the ocean. Any metaphor of these main types can spread to the entire text of the work and materialize its meaning in the form of plot actions, i.e. become allegory. Metaphors are more common in verse poetic speech; in works in which the share of fiction exceeds the share of factuality. Metaphor is one of the main features of the folklore genre. riddles.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

Metaphor

METAPHOR(Greek Μεταφορά - transfer) - a type of trail, which is based on association by similarity or by analogy. So, old age can be called in the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated according to their common sign of approaching the end: life, day, year. Like other tropes (metonymy, synecdoche), metaphor is not only a phenomenon of poetic style, but also a general linguistic one. Many words in the language are formed metaphorically or are used metaphorically, and the figurative meaning of the word sooner or later displaces the meaning, the word is understood only in its figurative meaning, which is thus no longer recognized as figurative, since its original direct meaning has already faded or even been completely lost. This kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in separate, independent words ( skates, window, affection, captivating, menacing, advise), but even more often in phrases ( wings mills, mountain ridge, pink dreams, hang by a thread). On the contrary, a metaphor, as a phenomenon of style, should be spoken of in cases where a word or a combination of words is recognized or felt both direct and figurative meaning. Such poetic metaphors can be: firstly, the result of a new word usage, when a word used in ordinary speech in one meaning or another is given a new, figurative meaning for it (for example, “And it will sink into the dark mouth year after year"; “.. mill set in magnet"- Tyutchev); secondly, the result updates, revitalization tarnished metaphors of language (e.g., "You're drinking magical poison of desire»; "Serpents of the heart remorse"- Pushkin). The ratio of two meanings in a poetic metaphor can be further different degrees. Either a direct or a figurative meaning can be brought to the fore, and the other, as it were, accompanies it, or both meanings can be in a certain balance with each other (Tyutchev’s example of the latter: confuse azure sky"). In most cases, we find a poetic metaphor at the stage of obscuring the direct meaning by the figurative one, while the direct meaning gives only emotional coloring metaphor, which is its poetic effectiveness (for example, “In the blood burning fire desires "- Pushkin). But one cannot deny or even consider as an exception those cases when the direct meaning of the metaphor not only does not lose its figurative tangibility, but is brought to the fore, the image retains visibility, becomes a poetic reality, metaphor realized. (For example, "Life is a mouse running" - Pushkin; "Her soul twitched with transparent blue ice" - Blok). Poetic metaphor is rarely limited to a single word or phrase. Usually we meet a number of images, the totality of which gives the metaphor an emotional or visual tangibility. Such a combination of several images into one metaphorical system can be different types, which depends on the relationship between direct and figurative meaning and on the degree of visualization and emotionality of the metaphor. The normal look is extended metaphor represents the case when the connection between the images is supported by both direct and figurative meaning (for example, “We drink from the cup of being with our eyes closed” - Lermontov; “Grieving, and crying, and laughing, the streams of my poems ring”, etc.). the whole poem - Blok). It is this kind of metaphor that is easily developed in allegory(cm.). If the connection between the images included in the extended metaphor is supported by only one meaning, only direct or only figurative, then we get various forms catachresis(see) For example, in Bryusov: “I was covered in black moisture Her loose hair”, where the connection between the internally contradictory images “entangled” and “moisture” is supported by the figurative meaning of the image black moisture = hair; at Blok: “Quietly I I weave into dark curls Secret poems precious diamond”, where the contradiction is of a different order: the image of a diamond, as a metaphor for poetry, independently unfolds, is realized, forming a catachresis in relation to the main figurative meaning: verses weave into curls. Finally, we must also indicate a special kind of development of a metaphor with catachresis, namely, when the main metaphor evokes another, derivative, metaphorically timed to direct the meaning of the first. So, in Pushkin: “Live in the silence of the night are burning there are snakes of heart remorse in me," where are burning is a metaphorical predicate remorse, taken only in the literal sense: they can burn wounds, and consequently, bites, bites of a snake, but cannot burning remorse. There may be several such derivative metaphors, or one derivative metaphor may, in turn, give rise to another new derivative, and so on, so that a kind of metaphorical chain is formed. Particularly striking examples of such an unfolding of metaphors are found in Blok's poetry. (See a detailed analysis of his metaphorical style in the article by V. M. Zhirmunsky, Poetry of Alexander Blok, P. 1922). It would be difficult to accurately establish for different types of poetic metaphors the degree of their emotionality, visibility, and in general their poetic realization, since the matter depends on subjective perception and resonation with them. But the study of the individual poetics of the author (or literary group) in relation to his general worldview allows us to speak with sufficient objectivity about the aesthetic significance of metaphors in a particular poetic style. For metaphor, see poetics and style, which are indicated with these words and with the article on paths>>. The book of A. Biesse is specially devoted to metaphor. Die Philosophie des Metaphorischen, Hamburg und Leipzig 1893 and the incomplete work of Fr. Brinkmann, Die Metaphern I. Bd. Bonn 1878.

M. Petrovsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Synonyms:

See what "Metaphor" is in other dictionaries:

- (transfer, Greek) the most extensive form of the trope, rhetoric. figure, which is the assimilation of one concept or representation to another, transfer to it significant features or the characteristics of the latter, its use in ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

- (Greek metaphora transfer, meta, and phero I carry). Allegorical expression; trope, which consists in the fact that the name of one concept is transferred to another based on the similarity between them. Vocabulary foreign words included in the Russian language. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (from the Greek metaphora - transfer, image) substitution of an ordinary expression for a figurative one (for example, a ship of the desert); metaphorically - in a figurative sense, figuratively. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010. METAPHOR ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Metaphor- METAPHOR (Greek: Μεταφορα transference) is a kind of trope based on association by similarity or by analogy. So, old age can be called the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated according to their common sign of approach ... Dictionary of literary terms

METAPHOR- METAPHOR, metaphor (Greek metaphorá), type of path, transferring the properties of one object (phenomenon or aspect of being) to another, according to the principle of their similarity in any respect or in contrast. Unlike comparison, where both terms are present ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary

metaphor- METAPHOR (from the Greek. metaphora transfer) the central trope of the language, a complex figuratively semantic structure, representing a special way of cognition, carried out through the generation of images resulting from interaction ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

Metaphor- Metaphor ♦ Métaphore A stylistic figure. Implicit comparison, the use of one word for another based on some analogy or similarity between the things being compared. The number of metaphors is truly endless, but we will only give ... ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

Types of metaphors

Many approaches to the study of metaphor entail the birth of many classifications. Various researchers identify Various types metaphors, based on their own approaches and criteria. Since antiquity, there are descriptions of some traditional types of metaphor:

1. A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart.

2. An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt.

3. The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction.

4. An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole.

5. A realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical.

According to the traditional classification proposed by N.D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into:

1) nominative, consisting in replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;

2) figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of the language;

3) cognitive metaphors that arise as a result of a shift in the compatibility of predicate words (meaning transfer) and create polysemy;

4) generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing in lexical meaning words of the boundary between logical orders and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative. In a broad sense, the term "image" means a reflection in the mind of the external world. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author's thinking, his unique vision and vivid image of the picture of the world. The creation of a vivid image is based on the use of the similarity between two objects far from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. In order for the comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be sufficiently dissimilar to each other, and sometimes the similarity may be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether. The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, a phrase, a sentence, a superphrasal unity, it can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a kind of substance (the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other (happy is up , sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

Orientational metaphors are associated with spatial orientation, with oppositions such as "top - bottom", "inside - outside", "central - peripheral". Orientational metaphors give the concept a spatial reference.

To ontological metaphors they include: metaphors of essence and substance and metaphors associated with receptacles

Philip Wheelwright distinguishes two types of metaphors, depending on the semantic movement - distribution or connection: epiphora and diaphora. For epiphora, the main function is expressive (appeal to the imagination), for diaphora - suggestive (appeal to intuition).

George A. Miller highlights in his classification of metaphors:

1) nominal metaphors;

2) predicate metaphors;

Rosenthal D.E. and Telenkova M.A. recognize the existence of three types of metaphors:

1) a simple metaphor, built on the convergence of objects or phenomena according to one of their common features.

2) a detailed metaphor, built on various similarity associations.

3) a lexical metaphor (dead, petrified, erased), in which the original metaphorical transfer is no longer perceived.

As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual nature: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first to oppose poetic metaphor to linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language. Now no one disputes the existence of two types of metaphors - artistic and linguistic.

Sh. Bally, followed by Sklyarevskaya GN, highlights the existence of two types of metaphors - artistic and linguistic. The content of the term "artistic metaphor" is wider, it seems to include all the characteristics reflected in other terms: individual creative character, occasional (as uniqueness), belonging to a certain type of tropes, etc. Arising as a result purposeful and conscious aesthetic searches, artistic metaphor is studied in poetics as one of its main aesthetic categories. The linguistic metaphor is spontaneous, inherent in the very nature of the language and is studied in linguistics as a complex problem related to lexicology, semasiology, nomination theory, psycholinguistics, and linguistic stylistics.

The dual nature of metaphor - to be a means of language and a poetic figure - was noted by Cicero: "Just as clothes, first invented to protect against the cold, later began to be used also to decorate the body, both as a sign of distinction and metaphorical expressions introduced from for the lack of words, they have become used in many for the sake of pleasure.From the point of view of research, we are faced with the question of what is primary - linguistic metaphor or artistic? time loses the author.

What is the main difference between linguistic and artistic metaphor?

N.D. Arutyunova notes the following character traits artistic metaphor:

1) the fusion of image and meaning in it;

2) contrast with the trivial taxonomy of objects;

4) actualization of "random connections";

5) irreducibility to literal paraphrase;

6) synthetic, diffuse meaning;

7) allowance for different interpretations;

8) lack or optional motivation;

9) an appeal to the imagination, not to knowledge;

10) choice of the shortest path to the essence of the object.

As for the linguistic metaphor, it is a ready-made element of vocabulary: such a metaphor does not need to be created every time, it is often reproduced in speech without the speaker realizing the figurative meaning of the primary words.

The problem of the correlation of linguistic and artistic metaphors is rooted in the problematic of the correlations between the common folk and poetic language: recognizing the functional specificity of each of these phenomena, researchers either interpret them in opposition to each other, or in mutual unity.

Interpreting artistic metaphor as speech and opposing it to linguistic metaphor, V. N. Telia postulates the main differences between these types of metaphors as follows: in linguistic metaphor, associative links are objectified, they correspond to subject-logical links that reflect the language experience of speakers, while connotations that create a metaphor , fixed by the usus behind the seismic potencies given word; the connotations of a speech metaphor, on the contrary, reflect not a collective, but an individual vision of the world, therefore they are "subjective and random in relation to general knowledge."

There are significant differences between linguistic metaphor and artistic metaphor in terms of their lexical status. If a linguistic metaphor is an independent lexical unit that enters into semantic connections relatively freely and is realized in a variety of lexical environments, then an artistic metaphor does not have such lexical independence - it is always associated with "its own" context. Features of the contextual conditionality of artistic metaphor were described by V. N. Telia: artistic metaphor "comes" from a specific context; is born and exists in the context, disintegrating along with it; connotative features that create a metaphor are focused only within the framework of a given lexical set.

The question of the relationship between the metaphorical system in language and artistic speech, in accordance with the above, can be resolved in two ways: either there are no fundamental differences between linguistic and artistic metaphor, and these types of metaphors can be considered as a single object, or the differences between them should be recognized as sufficient to regard the linguistic and artistic metaphors as independent objects of research.

The above classifications of metaphors, in our opinion, do not contradict each other, since they use different classifying features.

metaphor, metaphor examples
Metaphor(from other Greek μεταφορά - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) - a word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor, in essence, is almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

1. An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
2. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

1. category or context,
2. An object within a specific category,
3. The process by which this object performs a function,
4. Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).

Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word. In Shakespeare, for example, what is often important is not the original everyday meaning of the statement, but its unexpected metaphorical meaning - a new meaning. This perplexed Leo Tolstoy, who had been brought up on the principles of Aristotelian realism. Simply put, metaphor not only reflects life, but also creates it. For example, the Nose of Major Kovalev in Gogol's general uniform is not only a personification, hyperbole or comparison, but also a new meaning that did not exist before. Futurists did not strive for the plausibility of the metaphor, but for its maximum removal from the original meaning. For example, "a cloud in your pants." Researchers note the relatively rare use of metaphor in Soviet fiction, although there is no need to talk about its “expulsion” (see, for example: “So we parted ways. The clatter is silent, and the field is empty” (A. Gaidar, “The Fate of a Drummer”) In the 1970s, a group of poets appeared who inscribed on their banner "metaphor in a square" or "meta-metaphor" (the term of Konstantin Kedrov). A distinctive feature of metaphor is its constant participation in the development of language, speech and culture in general. This is due to the formation of metaphor under the influence of modern sources of knowledge and information, the use of metaphor in determining the objects of technical achievements.

• 1 Views
• 2 Theories
• 3 See also
• 4 Notes
• 5 Literature
• 6 Links

Kinds

In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphor (sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (usual, erased metaphor)

• A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart. Model: stuffing statements.

• An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative nature of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• The metaphor-formula is close to the erased metaphor, but differs from it in even greater stereotype and sometimes the impossibility of converting into a non-figurative construction. Model: Doubt Worm.

• An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.

• A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

theories

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create capacious images based on vivid, unexpected associations. the basis of metaphors can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N. D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into

1. nominative, consisting in replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
2. figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
3. cognitive metaphors resulting from a shift in the combination of predicate words (meaning transfer) and creating polysemy;
4. generalizing metaphors (as the end result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of the word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

Let's take a closer look at metaphors that contribute to the creation of images, or figurative.

In a broad sense, the term "image" means a reflection in the mind of the external world. In a work of art, images are the embodiment of the author's thinking, his unique vision and vivid image of the picture of the world. The creation of a vivid image is based on the use of the similarity between two objects far from each other, almost on a kind of contrast. In order for the comparison of objects or phenomena to be unexpected, they must be sufficiently dissimilar to each other, and sometimes the similarity may be quite insignificant, imperceptible, giving food for thought, or may be absent altogether.

The boundaries and structure of the image can be practically anything: the image can be conveyed by a word, a phrase, a sentence, a superphrasal unity, it can occupy an entire chapter or cover the composition of an entire novel.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson distinguish two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space: ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a kind of substance (the mind is an entity , the mind is a fragile thing), and oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other (happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

George Lakoff in his work "The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor" talks about the ways of creating a metaphor and the composition of this tool artistic expressiveness. Metaphor, according to Lakoff's theory, is a prose or poetic expression, where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to this one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, the metaphor lies outside the language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work "The Conduit Metaphor", in which Reddy notes that the metaphor lies in the language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that "the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the hearer, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words." This idea is also reflected in the study of J. Lakoff and M. Johnson "Metaphors by which we live." Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to the sphere of language alone, that is, the sphere of words: the very processes of human thinking are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because there are metaphors in the human conceptual system.

Metaphor is often considered as one of the ways to accurately reflect reality in artistic terms. However, I. R. Galperin says that “this concept of accuracy is very relative. It is a metaphor that creates a concrete image of an abstract concept that makes it possible different interpretations real messages.

As soon as the metaphor was realized, isolated from a number of other linguistic phenomena and described, the question immediately arose about its dual nature: to be a means of language and a poetic figure. The first to oppose poetic metaphor to linguistic metaphor was S. Bally, who showed the universal metaphorical nature of language.

see also

• Figure (rhetoric)
• Analogy
• Comparison (rhetoric)
• Conceptual confusion
• Phraseologism (idiom)
• Analog
• Metonymy

Notes

1. TWO KINDS OF METAPHOR
2. Galperin I. R. Essays on the style of the English language. M.: 1958

Literature

• Ankersmit F. R. History and tropology: the rise and fall of metaphor. / per. from English. M. Kukartseva, E. Kolomoets, V. Kashaev - M.: Progress-Tradition, 2003. - 496 p.

• Klyuev E. V. Rhetoric (Invention. Disposition. Elocution): Tutorial for universities. - M.: PRIOR, 2001.
• Kedrov K. A. Metametaphor. - M., 1999.
• Lakoff D., Johnson M. Metaphors we live by. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004.
• Moskvin V.P. Russian metaphor: Essay on semiotic theory. - 3rd ed. - M., 2007.
• Haverkamp A. Metapher. Die Ästhetik in der Rhetorik. - München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2007.

Links

Wikiquote has quotations related to

• Nikonenko S. V. Analytical interpretation of metaphor (2003)
• Metaphor and its types

Figures of speech
figures	Адинатон Аллюзия Амплификация Анадиплосис Анаколуф Анафора Антитеза Антитетон Апокопа Апострофа Аттракция Бессоюзие Гипербатон Гомеотелевтон Градация (Климакс, Антиклимакс) Дистинкция Зевгма Изоколон Именительный темы Инверсия Коррекция Мезархия Многопадежность (Полиптотон) Многосоюзие Оксюморон Параллелизм Парономазия Парцелляция Перифраз Плеоназм Пролепсис Ретардация Риторический вопрос Риторическое восклицание Риторическое обращение Симплока Солецизм Тавтология Exact repetition Default Chiasmus Exergasia Ellipsis Emphasis Epiphora
trails	Allegory Antiphrasis Asteism Antonomasia Hyperbole Dysphemism Irony Punishment Catachresis Litota Meiosis Metonymy Personification Paphos Periphrase Sarcasm Synecdoche Comparison Euphemism Epithet

metaphor, wikipedia metaphor, wikipedia metaphor, degene metaphor, metaphor meaning, metaphor definition, metaphor applied, metaphor examples, wikipedia metaphor, metaphor what is

Metaphor Information About

A metaphor is an expression or a word in a figurative sense, the basis of which is a phenomenon or an object that has a similarity with it. If you say in simple words, then one word is replaced by another that has a similar feature with it.

Metaphor in literature is one of the oldest

What is a metaphor

Metaphor has 4 parts:

1. Context - a complete passage of text that combines the meaning of the individual words or sentences included in it.
2. An object.
3. The process by which the function is executed.
4. Application of this process or its intersection with any situations.

The concept of metaphor was discovered by Aristotle. Thanks to him, now a view has been formed on her as necessary accessory language, allowing to achieve cognitive and other goals.

Ancient philosophers believed that the metaphor was given to us by nature itself and was so established in everyday speech that many concepts do not need to be called literally, and its use replenishes the lack of words. But after them, it was assigned the function of an additional application to the mechanism of the language, and not to its main form. It was believed that for science it is even harmful, because it leads to a dead end in the search for truth. Against all odds, the metaphor continued to exist in literature because it was necessary for its development. AT more it was used in poetry.

Only in the 20th century was metaphor finally recognized as an integral part of speech, and scientific research using it began to be carried out in new dimensions. This was facilitated by such a property as the ability to combine materials of different nature. in literature, it became clear when they saw that the extended use of this artistic technique leads to the appearance of riddles, proverbs, allegories.

Building a metaphor

Metaphor is created from 4 components: two groups and properties of each of them. Features of one group of objects are offered to another group. If a person is called a lion, then it is assumed that he is endowed with similar characteristics. Thus, a new image is created, where the word "lion" in a figurative sense means "fearless and mighty."

Metaphors are specific to different languages. If the Russians "donkey" symbolizes stupidity and stubbornness, then the Spaniards - diligence. Metaphor in literature is a concept that may differ from different peoples which should be taken into account when translating from one language to another.

Metaphor Functions

The main function of metaphor is a vivid emotional assessment and figuratively expressive coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and capacious images are created from incomparable objects.

Another function is nominative, which consists in filling the language with phraseological and lexical constructions, for example: bottle neck, pansies.

In addition to the main ones, the metaphor performs many other functions. This concept is much broader and richer than it seems at first glance.

What are metaphors

Since ancient times, metaphors have been divided into the following types:

1. Sharp - connecting concepts that lie in different planes: "I'm walking around the city, shot with my eyes ...".
2. Erased - so commonplace that the figurative character is no longer noticed ("Already in the morning to me people were reaching out"). It has become so familiar that the figurative meaning is difficult to grasp. It is found when translating from one language to another.
3. Metaphor-formula - its transformation into a direct meaning is excluded (the worm of doubt, the wheel of fortune). She has become a stereotype.
4. Expanded - contains a large message in a logical sequence.
5. Implemented - used for its intended purpose (" Came to my senses, and there again a dead end).

It is difficult to imagine modern life without metaphorical images and comparisons. The most common metaphor in literature. This is necessary for a vivid disclosure of images and the essence of phenomena. In poetry, the extended metaphor is especially effective, presented in the following ways:

1. Indirect communication using or history using comparison.
2. A figure of speech using words in a figurative sense, based on analogy, similarity and comparison.

Consistently disclosed in the text fragment: “ A fine rain with dawn washes the dawn», « The moon gives New Year's dreams».

Some classics believed that a metaphor in literature is a separate phenomenon that acquires a new meaning due to its occurrence. In this case, it becomes the goal of the author, where the metaphorical image leads the reader to a new meaning, an unexpected meaning. Such metaphors from fiction can be found in the works of the classics. Take, for example, the Nose, which acquires a metaphorical meaning in Gogol's story. Rich in metaphorical images where they give characters and events a new meaning. Based on this, it can be said that their widespread definition is far from complete. Metaphor in literature is a broader concept and not only decorates speech, but often gives it a new meaning.

Conclusion

What is metaphor in literature? It has a more effective effect on consciousness due to its emotional coloring and imagery. This is especially evident in poetry. The impact of the metaphor is so strong that psychologists use it to solve problems related to the psyche of patients.

Metaphorical images are used when creating advertisements. They spark the imagination and help consumers make the right choice. The same is also carried out by society in the political sphere.

Metaphor is becoming more and more everyday life manifested in language, thought and action. Its study is expanding, covering new areas of knowledge. By the images created by metaphors, one can judge the effectiveness of a particular media.