The planets of the solar system in order. Planet Earth, Jupiter, Mars

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Introduction

1. General about the planet Earth

2. Earth as a planet of the solar system

3. The structure of the planet Earth and its geosphere

Conclusion

Used Books

Introducednot

The Earth is the cradle of humanity, but you can't live forever in the cradle.

K.E. Tsiolkovsky

The theme of the planet Earth, considered in this work, is very relevant in our time, since each of us is an inhabitant of this planet, and affects its transformation or, conversely, a change for the worse. Humanity and the environment are inextricably interconnected, and it depends on each of the parties: how and in which direction one or the other will change.

Our planet is that part of the Universe on which civilizations arise, develop and perish, and today the formation of a single modern society... Our future largely depends on how well humanity understands the structure of our planet. However, unfortunately, we do not have more knowledge about the Earth than about distant stars A.P. Sadokhin KSE Chapter 5 “The Earth as a Subject of Natural Science” p.128 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

The purpose of the work is to consider the planet Earth as a part of the solar system, to know the structure of our planet and its geosphere.

Currently, the Earth is the object of study of many sciences - from geology and tectonics to philosophy and culture. In the aggregate of these sciences, there are industrial sciences that study individual parts of the vertical and horizontal structure of the Earth (geology, climatology, soil science, etc.), as well as system sciences that synthesize the entire body of knowledge about the Earth to solve theoretical or applied problems (geography, physical geography, socio-economic geography, etc.). A.P. Sadokhin KSE Chapter 5 "Earth as a subject of natural science" p.128 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Tasks to be completed - what is the Earth, where and how it is located in the solar system, structure and geosphere.

Planet Earth is an endless phenomenon for amazement, observation and scientific-practical, applied and theoretical interest, both on the part of ordinary people and on the part of scientists and scientific workers.

1. General about the planet Earth

Land(from the common Slavic "earth" - floor, bottom), the third in order from the Sun planet of the solar system, astronomical sign or, +.

For a long time, while the mythological picture of the world reigned, the Earth was considered a flat disk standing on three elephants, whales or a turtle and covered with a semicircular firmament on top. Only in the VI century. BC. one of the founders of ancient science, Pythagoras, expressed the idea of the sphericity of the Earth. The fact that the Earth has a spherical shape was proved by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC. So, gradually the idea that the Earth is a ball hanging motionless in the center of the Cosmos without any support, and around it revolve in ideal circular orbits, the Moon, the Sun and the five planets known then, was gradually established. Fixed stars closed the one that took shape in antiquity. Sadokhin A. KSE chapter 7.1 pp. 156-157

In 300 BC. the geographer Eratosthenes quite accurately determined the size of the globe. He noticed that on the day of the summer solstice in the city of Siena, the Sun is at its zenith and illuminates the bottom of the deepest well. He then measured the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the same day in Alexandria. Knowing the distance between the cities, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the globe.

It would seem that the question of the shape of the Earth could be considered closed. But at the same time, the ancient doctrine of ideal bodies was refuted. Therefore, the question arose how close the shape of the Earth is to an ideal sphere. By the end of the 17th century. there were two points of view on this issue. To solve this problem, it was necessary to measure pieces of meridian arcs at different latitudes and see how the distances per degree relate. A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 7.1 p. 158

Since then, the shape of the Earth has been refined several more times. It was possible to determine it with great accuracy only in the XX century. with the help of instruments installed on artificial earth satellites. Today it is known for sure that the Earth is not quite a regular ball. It is slightly compressed at the poles and somewhat elongated towards the North Pole. This shape is called a geoid. . A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 7.1 p. 158

EarthI am- the third planet from the Sun. The fifth largest among all the planets in the solar system. It is also the largest in diameter, mass and density among the terrestrial planets. Sometimes referred to as Mir, the Blue Planet, sometimes Terra (from the Latin Terra). The only thing known to man at the moment, the body of the solar system, in particular, and the universe in general, inhabited by living organisms. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%E5%EC%EB%FF

The Earth has a complex shape, determined by the combined action of gravity, centrifugal forces caused by the axial rotation of the Earth, as well as a combination of internal and external relief-forming forces. Approximately, as the shape (figure) of the Earth, a leveled surface of the gravitational potential (i.e., a surface at all points perpendicular to the direction of the plumb line), coinciding with the surface of the water in the oceans (in the absence of waves, tides, currents and disturbances caused by changes in atmospheric pressure ). This surface is called a geoid. The volume limited by this surface is considered the volume of the Earth. The average radius of the Earth is called the radius of a sphere of the same volume as the volume of the geoid. To solve many scientific and practical problems of geodesy, cartography and others, the earth's ellipsoid is taken as the shape of the Earth. Knowledge of the parameters of the earth's ellipsoid, its position in the body of the Earth. And also the gravitational field of the Earth is of great importance in astrodynamics, which studies the laws of motion of artificial cosmic bodies. These parameters are studied by ground-based astronomical-geodetic and gravimetric measurements and satellite geodesy methods.

Due to the rotation of the Earth, the equatorial points have a speed of 465 m / s, and the points located at latitude have a speed of 465cos (m / s), if the Earth is considered a ball. The dependence of the linear speed of rotation, and, consequently, of the centrifugal force on latitude, leads to a difference in the values of the acceleration of gravity at different latitudes.

At first glance, the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system is unremarkable. It is not the largest, but not the smallest of the planets. She is no closer to the sun than others, but she also does not inhabit the periphery of the planetary system. Yet the Earth has one unique feature - it has life. However, when looking at the Earth from space, this is not noticeable. Clouds floating in the atmosphere are clearly visible. Yakusheva Alena chapter 1 page 2

Continents are discernible through the gaps in them. Most of the Earth is covered by oceans.

The emergence of life, living matter - the biosphere - on our planet was a consequence of its evolution. In turn, the biosphere had a significant impact on the entire further course of natural processes. So, if there were no life on Earth, the chemical composition of its atmosphere would be completely different.

Undoubtedly, a comprehensive study of the Earth is of tremendous importance for mankind, but knowledge about it also serves as a kind of Starting point when studying the rest of the terrestrial planets.

Our planet differs from others not only in that it is "alive", but also in that there are many secrets in it. Mysteries do exist. Science still cannot explain many phenomena in the objective reality of which the scientists themselves do not doubt. For example, a place like Death Valley in California: it's all about the so-called moving stones. They can be seen at the bottom of the dried-up Lake Racetrack Playa. Afonkin S.Yu. Mysteries of the planet Earth page 28 2010 Water in the lake appears only in the season of heavy rains, flowing down, it forms a strip and when it dries up, a clay mosaic forms, from which the inexplicable appearance and movement of stones begins. No one has ever seen moving stones, but no one doubts their existence. Meanwhile, the mass of some boulders reaches 300-500 kg, and it takes a lot of force to move them. At first, scientists wanted to explain this by the supernatural, but in the end they came to the conclusion that they move only during strong hurricane winds, and clay serves as a lubricant for them. There are many more unexplained and unsolved on our planet, so the Earth is one of the unique planets of the entire solar system.

2. EarthI am like a planet of the solar system

Planets are celestial bodies orbiting a star. They, unlike stars, do not emit light and heat, but shine with the reflected light of the star to which they belong. The shape of the planets is close to spherical. Currently, only the planets of the solar system are reliably known, but it is very likely that other stars also have planets.

Hilbert put forward a hypothesis about terrestrial magnetism: the Earth is a large spherical magnet, the poles of which are located near the geographic poles. He substantiated his hypothesis with the following experiment: if the magnetic needle is brought closer to the surface of a large sphere made of a natural magnet, then it is always set in a certain direction, like a compass needle on Earth. Naydysh V.M. 2004 ECE

Our Earth is one of the 8 major planets orbiting the Sun. It is in the Sun that the bulk of the substance of the Solar System is concentrated. The mass of the Sun is 750 times the mass of all planets and 330,000 times the mass of the Earth. Under the influence of the force of its attraction, the planets and all other bodies of the solar system move around the sun.

The distances between the Sun and the planets are many times larger than their sizes, and it is almost impossible to draw a diagram on which a single scale for the Sun, planets and the distances between them would be observed. The diameter of the Sun is 109 times that of the Earth, and the distance between them is about the same number of times the diameter of the Sun. In addition, the distance from the Sun to the last planet of the solar system (Neptune) is 30 times greater than the distance to the Earth. If we depict our planet in the form of a circle with a diameter of 1 mm, then the Sun will be at a distance of about 11 m from the Earth, and its diameter will be about 11 cm.The orbit of Neptune will be shown as a circle with a radius of 330 m.Therefore, usually they do not give a modern diagram of the solar system, but only drawing from the book of Copernicus "On the Circles of the Heavenly Circles" with other, very approximate proportions.

According to their physical characteristics, large planets are divided into two groups. One of them - the planets of the terrestrial group - are the Earth and similar to it Mercury, Venus and Mars. The second includes the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until 2006, Pluto was considered the farthest major planet from the Sun. Now it, along with other objects of a similar size - the long-known large asteroids and objects found on the outskirts of the solar system - are among the dwarf planets.

The division of planets into groups can be traced according to three characteristics (mass, pressure, rotation), but most clearly - in terms of density. The planets belonging to the same group differ insignificantly in terms of density, while the average density of the terrestrial planets is about 5 times the average density of the giant planets.

The Earth ranks fifth in size and mass among the major planets, but of the terrestrial planets, which includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, it is the largest. The most important difference between the Earth and other planets of the solar system is the existence of life on it, which reached its highest, intelligent form with the advent of man. Conditions for the development of life on the bodies of the solar system closest to the Earth are unfavorable; inhabited bodies outside the latter have not yet been found either. However, life is a natural stage in the development of matter, therefore the Earth cannot be considered the only inhabited cosmic body of the Universe, and terrestrial forms of life are its only possible forms.

According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago by gravitational condensation from a gas-dust substance scattered in the space around the sun, containing all chemical elements known in nature. The formation of the Earth was accompanied by the differentiation of matter, which was facilitated by the gradual heating of the earth's interior, mainly due to the heat released during the decay of radioactive elements (uranium, thorium, potassium, etc.). The result of this differentiation was the division of the Earth into concentrically located layers - geospheres, differing in chemical composition, state of aggregation and physical properties. The core of the Earth, surrounded by a mantle, was formed in the center. From the lightest and most fusible components of matter released from the mantle in the course of melting, the earth's crust located above the mantle arose. The collection of these inner geospheres, bounded by the solid earth's surface, is sometimes referred to as the "hard" earth (although this is not entirely accurate, since it has been established that the outer part of the core has the properties of a viscous fluid). The "solid" Earth contains almost the entire mass of the planet.

The physical characteristics of the Earth and its orbital motion have allowed life to survive over the past 3.5 billion years. According to various estimates, the Earth will maintain conditions for the existence of living organisms for another 0.5 - 2.3 billion years.

The earth interacts (attracted by gravitational forces) with other objects in space, including the sun and moon. The Earth revolves around the Sun and makes a complete revolution around it in about 365.26 solar days - a sidereal year. The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted by 23.44 ° relative to the perpendicular to its orbital plane, which causes seasonal changes on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year - 365.24 solar days. The day is now about 24 hours. The moon began its orbit around the Earth about 4.53 billion years ago. The gravitational effect of the Moon on the Earth is the cause of ocean tides. The Moon also stabilizes the tilt of the Earth's axis and gradually slows down the Earth's rotation. Some theories believe that asteroid impacts led to significant changes in environment and the surface of the Earth, causing, in particular, mass extinctions of various types of living beings. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%E5%EC%EB%FF

The earth, as mentioned earlier, has a shape close to spherical. The radius of the sphere is 6371 km. The earth revolves around the sun and revolves around its axis. One natural satellite revolves around the Earth - the Moon. The moon is located at a distance of 384.4 thousand km from the surface of our planet. The periods of its revolution around the Earth and around its axis coincide, so the Moon is turned to the Earth only by the side, and the other is not visible from the Earth. The Moon has no atmosphere, therefore the side facing the Sun has a high temperature, and the opposite, darkened one, is very low. The surface of the moon is not uniform. The plains and ridges on the moon are criss-crossed by cracks.

The Earth, like other planets in the solar system, has early phases of evolution: the accretion phase (birth), the melting of the outer sphere of the globe, and the primary crustal phase (lunar phase). A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 5 p. 131 The difference between our planet and others lies in the fact that almost all the planets did not find the lunar phase, and if there was one, then it either did not end or passed without result, because only on Earth did water bodies (oceans) appear, in which a combination of substances could occur for the future development of the planet.

3. The structure of the planet Earthand its geosphere

The Earth, like other terrestrial planets, has a layered internal structure. It consists of hard silicate shells (crust, extremely viscous mantle), and a metal core. The outer part of the core is liquid (much less viscous than the mantle), and the inner part is solid.

The bowels of the Earth are divided into layers according to chemical and physical (rheological) properties, but unlike other terrestrial planets, the internal structure of the Earth has a pronounced external and internal core ??. Outer layer The earth is a hard shell composed mainly of silicates. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in the velocities of longitudinal seismic waves - the Mohorovichich surface. The hard crust and the viscous upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere. Under the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a layer of relatively low viscosity, hardness and strength in the upper mantle http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%E5%EC%EB%FF - cite_note-95.

Significant changes in the crystal structure of the mantle occur at a depth of 410--660 km below the surface, which encompasses the transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle.

Internal warmth:

The internal heat of the planet is provided by a combination of residual heat left over from the accretion of matter, which occurred at the initial stage of the formation of the Earth (about 20%) and the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes: potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235 and thorium-232. All three isotopes have half-lives of over a billion years. In the center of the planet, the temperature may rise to 6000 ° C (10.830 ° F) (more than at the surface of the Sun), and the pressure can reach 360 GPa (3.6 million atm.). Part of the thermal energy of the core is transferred to the earth's crust through plumes. Plumes lead to hotspots and traps. Since most of the heat produced by the Earth is provided by radioactive decay, then at the beginning of the Earth's history, when the reserves of short-lived isotopes were not yet depleted, the energy release of our planet was much greater than it is now. chemical evolution of the Earth / ed. L. I. Prikhodko. - M .: Nauka, 1973 .-- S. 57-62. - 168 p. Average losses of thermal energy of the Earth are 87 mW · m? 2 or 4.42 H 10 13 W (global heat loss). (August 1993) "Heat flow from the Earth" s interior: Analysis of the global data set. Reviews of Geophysics 31 (3): 267-280. Earth solar planet magnetism

Geospheres - geographically concentric shells ( solid or discontinuous) that make up the planet Earth. Thus, we can distinguish a number of geospheres that make up the Earth:

- core,

- mantle,

- lithosphere,

- hydrosphere,

- atmosphere,

- magnetosphere. A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 5 p. 151 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Geospheres are conventionally divided into basic (main), as well as relatively autonomously developing secondary geospheres: anthroposphere (Rodoman BB 1979), sociosphere (Yefremov Yu.K 1961), noosphere (Vernadsky V.I.).

Lithosphere :

Lithosphere (from other Greek . lipt -- stone and utsb ? Sat -- ball, sphere) -- solid shell of the Earth. Consists of crust and top robes. In the structure of the lithosphere, mobile regions (folded belts) and relatively stable platforms are distinguished. Lithosphere blocks -- lithospheric plates -- move along relatively plastic asthenosphere. The study and description of these movements is devoted to the section of geology about plate tectonics. Under the lithosphere is located the asthenosphere that makes up the outer part of the mantle. The asthenosphere behaves like a superheated and extremely viscous fluid, where the seismic wave velocity decreases, indicating a change in the plasticity of the rocks. Lithosphere - an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 1981 To indicate external shells of the lithosphere was used, at the moment, outdated term sial , derived from the name of the main elements of rocks Si (lat. Silicium -- silicon) and Al (lat. Aluminum -- aluminum).

The lower boundary of the lithosphere is indistinct and is determined by a sharp decrease in the viscosity of rocks, changes in the propagation speed of seismic waves and an increase in electrical conductivity. The thickness of the lithosphere on the continents and under the ocean is different, and is, respectively, 25-200 km. and 5-100 km.

The main part of the lithosphere consists of igneous igneous rocks (95%), among which granites and granitoids prevail on the continents, and basalts in the oceans.

The deep strata of the lithosphere, which are studied by geophysical methods, have a rather complex, insufficiently studied structure, as well as the mantle and core of the Earth.

Modern soils are a three-phase system (uneven-grained solid particles, water and gases dissolved in the air), which consists of a mixture of mineral particles and organic substances. Soils play a huge role in the circulation of water, substances and carbon dioxide. http: // ecos.org.ua/?p=120

Earth's crust:

The earth's crust is the upper part of the solid earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities - the Mohorovichich boundary. There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. The crustal thickness ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-70 km on the continents. Three geological layers are distinguished in the structure of the continental crust: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed mainly of basic rocks, plus a sedimentary cover. The earth's crust is divided into lithospheric plates of various sizes, moving relative to each other. The kinematics of these movements is described by plate tectonics. The crust underneath the oceans and continents varies considerably.

The crust under the continents is usually 35-45 km thick, in mountainous areas the crust can be up to 70 km thick. With depth in the composition of the earth's crust, the content of magnesium and iron oxides increases, the content of silica decreases, and this trend in to a greater extent takes place during the transition to the upper mantle (substrate). The Earth's crust - an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 1981. The upper continental crust is a discontinuous layer of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Layers can be crumpled, displaced along the gap. There is no sedimentary shell on the shields. Below, there is a granite layer consisting of gneisses and granites (the velocity of longitudinal waves in this layer is up to 6.4 km / sec). Even lower is the basalt layer (6.4-7.6 km / sec), composed of metamorphic rocks, basalts and gabbro. Between these 2 layers there is a conditional boundary called the Conrad surface. The velocity of longitudinal seismic waves when passing through this surface increases abruptly from 6 to 6.5 km /. Konrad's surface - an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1981.

The crust under the oceans is 5-10 km thick. It is subdivided into several layers. First, the upper layer is located, consisting of bottom sediments, less thick. Below lies the second layer, composed mainly of serpentinite, basalt and, probably, of interbeds. The velocity of longitudinal seismic waves in this layer reaches 4-6 km / s, and its thickness is 1-2.5. The lower, "oceanic" layer is composed of gabbro. This layer has an average thickness of about 5 km and a seismic wave propagation speed of 6.4-7 km / s. The Earth's crust is an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1981.

General structure of the planet Earth. (1979) "Structural geology of the Earth" s interior. Proceedings National Academy of Science 76 (9): 4192-4200.

Depth, km		Density, g / cm 3
	Lithosphere (in some places varies from 5-200 km)
	Kora (in some places varies from 5-70 km)
	The topmost part of the mantle

	Asthenosphere
	Outer core
	Inner core

Asthenosphere- (from other Greek? yienYut "powerless" and utsb? sb "ball") the upper plastic layer of the planet's upper mantle (example: the Earth's asthenosphere), also called the Gutenberg layer. The asthenosphere is distinguished by a decrease in the velocities of seismic waves. Above the asthenosphere lies the lithosphere - the solid shell of the planet. On Earth, the roof of the asthenosphere lies at depths of 80-100 km (under the continents) and 50-70 km (sometimes less) (under the oceans). The lower boundary of the terrestrial asthenosphere is at a depth of 250-300 km, unsharp. It is distinguished according to geophysical data as a layer of reduced shear seismic wave velocity and increased electrical conductivity. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astenosphere

The water shell of the Earth is represented on our planet by the World Ocean, fresh waters of rivers and lakes, glacial and underground waters. The total reserves of water on Earth are 1.5 billion km 3. Of this amount of water, 97% is salt sea water, 2% is frozen glacier water and 1% is fresh water... A.P. Sadokhin chapter 5 p. 140 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Hydrosphere - this is a continuous shell of the Earth, since the seas and oceans pass into The groundwater on land, and between land and sea there is a constant water cycle, the annual volume of which is 100 thousand km 3. About 10% of the evaporated water is carried to land, falls on it, and then either is carried away by rivers into the ocean, or goes underground, or is preserved in glaciers. The water cycle in nature is not a completely closed cycle. Today it has been proven that our planet is constantly losing part of water and air, which go into world space. Therefore, over time, the problem of water conservation on our planet arises. A.P. Sadokhin chapter 5 p. 141 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Mantle - This is the silicate shell of the Earth, located between the earth's crust and the core of the Earth.

The mantle makes up 67% of the Earth's mass and about 83% of its volume (excluding the atmosphere). It stretches from the border with the earth's crust (at a depth of 5-70 kilometers) to the border with the core at a depth of about 2900 km. It is separated from the earth's crust by the surface of Mohorovichich, where the speed of seismic waves during the transition from the crust to the mantle rapidly increases from 6.7-7.6 to 7.9-8.2 km / s. The mantle occupies a huge range of depths, and with increasing pressure in the substance, phase transitions occur, during which minerals acquire an increasingly dense structure. The Earth's mantle is subdivided into an upper mantle and a lower mantle. The upper layer, in turn, is subdivided into the substrate, the Gutenberg layer and the Golitsyn layer (middle mantle). Mantle of the Earth - article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1981.

According to modern scientific concepts, the composition of the earth's mantle is considered similar to the composition of stony meteorites, in particular chondrites. Data on the chemical composition of the mantle were obtained on the basis of analyzes of the deepest igneous rocks that entered the upper horizons as a result of powerful tectonic uplifts with the removal of mantle material. The material of the upper part of the mantle was collected from the bottom of different parts of the ocean. The density and chemical composition of the mantle differ sharply from the corresponding characteristics of the core. The mantle is formed by various silicates (silicon-based compounds), primarily the mineral olivine. The composition of the mantle mainly includes chemical elements that were in a solid state or in solid chemical compounds during the formation of the Earth: silicon, iron, oxygen, magnesium, etc. These elements form silicates with silicon dioxide. In the upper mantle (substrate), most likely, there is more forsterite MgSiO 4; deeper, the content of fayalite Fe 2 SiO 4 slightly increases. In the lower mantle under the influence of very high pressure these minerals decomposed into oxides (SiO 2, MgO, FeO). Earth - an article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1981.

The aggregate state of the mantle is determined by the effects of temperatures and ultra-high pressure. Due to the pressure, the substance of almost the entire mantle is in a solid crystalline state, despite the high temperature. The only exception is the asthenosphere, where the effect of pressure is weaker than temperatures close to the melting point of the substance. Because of this effect, apparently, the substance here is either in an amorphous state or in a semi-molten state.

Core - the central, deepest part of the Earth, the geosphere, located under the mantle and, presumably, consisting of an iron-nickel alloy with an admixture of other siderophilic elements (a group of transitional chemical elements belonging mainly to the VIII group of Mendeleev's periodic system). The depth of occurrence is 2900 km. Average radius of the sphere = 3485 km. The core is divided into a solid inner core with a radius of 1300 km. and a liquid outer core with a radius of 2200 km, between which a transition zone is sometimes distinguished. The temperature in the center of the Earth's core reaches 600 0 С The Earth's Center is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought. European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (April 26, 2013)., Density - 12.5 t / m 3, pressure up to 360 GPa (3, 55 million atmospheres) .Mass of the core = 1, 9354 * 10 24 kg.

The concept of the nature of terrestrial magnetism is associated with the liquid state of the outer core. The Earth's magnetic field is changeable, the position of the magnetic poles changes from year to year. Paleomagnetic studies have shown that, for example, over the past 80 million years, there has been not only a change in the field strength, but also multiple systematic magnetization reversals, as a result of which the North and South magnetic poles of the Earth were swapped. It is assumed that the magnetic field is created by a process called the self-excited dynamo effect. The role of the rotor (movable element) of the dynamo can be played by the mass of the liquid core, which moves when the Earth rotates around its axis, and the excitation system is formed by currents that create closed loops inside the sphere of the core. A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 5 page 152 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Nucleus chemistry

A source
Allegre et.al., 1995 p.522	79,39 + 2	4, 87 + 0,3	2,30 + 0,2	4,10 + 0,5
Mc Donough, 2003 p.556

An important component of our planet and others is the atmosphere, since we are in this environment always and everywhere, but if it were not for the important chemical elements (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.) and their proportional combination, then all living things could not exist.

Atmosphere- (ancient Greek "atmosphere" - steam and "sphere" - a ball) - a gas envelope (geosphere) surrounding the planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partly the earth's crust, the outer one borders on the near-earth part of outer space.

The set of branches of physics and chemistry that study the atmosphere is usually called the physics of the atmosphere. The atmosphere determines the weather on the surface of the Earth, meteorology studies the weather, and climatology deals with long-term climate variations. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C0%F2%EC%EE%F1%F4%E5%F0%E0_%C7%E5%EC%EB%E8

The lower atmosphere consists of a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon gases http://www.grandars.ru/shkola/geografiya/sostav-atmosfery.html, as well as in the form small impurities in the air there are such gases: ozone, methane, substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen and sulfur oxides, ammonia. In the high layers of the atmosphere, the composition of the air changes under the influence of the hard radiation of the Sun, which leads to the decay of oxygen molecules into atoms. Atomic oxygen is the main component of the high layers of the atmosphere. Finally, in the layers of the atmosphere farthest from the Earth's surface, the lightest gases - hydrogen and helium - become the main components. Since the bulk of the matter is concentrated in the lower 30 km, changes in the air composition at altitudes over 100 km do not have a noticeable effect on the general composition of the atmosphere. Collier's Encyclopedia - Atmosphere.

Also, such a sphere as the magnetosphere plays an important role.

Magnetosphere - is a complex physical object formed as a result of the interaction of its own magnetic field Earth, interplanetary magnetic field and supersonic solar wind flux. In addition, there are flows of charged particles inside the magnetosphere, which in turn generate magnetic fields.

The Earth's own magnetic field (the field of internal sources) can be described using expansion in spherical harmonics, the expansion coefficients are determined from ground-based measurements. The geomagnetic field gradually decreases over time, and the coordinates of the magnetic poles slowly change. Currently, the generally accepted model IGRF (International Geomagnetic Reference Field) allows calculating the geomagnetic field for a given epoch in the interval 1945-2010. In the crudest approximation, the geomagnetic field can be regarded as a dipole field with a magnetic moment of the order of 8 10 19 Gs m 3. The center of the dipole is displaced from the center of the Earth by ~ 400 km, and the axis is tilted so that it intersects the earth's surface at points with coordinates 75 ° N, 101 ° W. and 66 ° S, 141 ° E. The contribution from the multipole terms decreases rapidly with increasing distance from the Earth. Penetration of cosmic rays into the Earth's magnetosphere. Yushkov B.Yu. Introduction.

From the above, we can conclude that each of these spheres is unique and important for US: people, animals, amphibians, etc. The composition and chemical properties of these spheres on our planet differ in many respects from the composition of other planets of the solar system, thereby allowing to develop living beings and organisms.

Conclusion

In this paper, we have considered the following topic: The Earth as a planet of the Solar System: its structure and geosphere.

We learned that the Earth is the fifth largest planet in terms of size and mass, but of the terrestrial planets, which includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, it is the largest. The most important difference between the Earth and other planets of the solar system is the existence of life on it, which reached its highest, intelligent form with the advent of man. Most of the Earth's surface is occupied by the World Ocean (361.1 million km 2, or 70.8%), land is 149.1 million km 2 (29.2%) and forms six large massifs - continents: Eurasia, Africa , North America, South America, Antarctica and Australia.

The mass of the Earth is 5976 * 1021 kg, which is 1/448 of the mass of the major planets and 1/330000 of the mass of the Sun. Under the influence of the Sun's gravity, the Earth, like other bodies of the solar system, revolves around it in an elliptical (not much different from a circular) orbit. The Sun is located in one of the foci of the Earth's elliptical orbit, as a result of which the distance between the Earth and the Sun during the year varies from 147.117 million km (at perihelion) to 152.083 million km (at aphelion). The period of the Earth's revolution around the Sun, called a year, has a slightly different magnitude, depending on which bodies or points are in relation to celestial sphere the motion of the Earth and the associated apparent motion of the Sun across the sky are considered.

Our planet Earth has a layered internal structure. It consists of hard silicate shells (crust, extremely viscous mantle), and a metal core. Consists of a number of geospheres: core, mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere, magnetosphere, atmosphere. Each of them has its own properties, which together form the terrain for the life of living beings.

Much has changed on our planet for last millennia, something for the better, something (to our shame) is not in better side, but one way or another this is our planet and we are obliged to know, protect, love.

WITHlist of literature

1 - Sadokhin A.P. KSE Moscow EKSMO 2007

2 - Afonkin S.Yu. Mysteries of the planet Earth. 2010

3 - Naydysh V.M. KSE 2004.

4 - Voytkevich V.G The structure and composition of the Earth. 1973

5 - Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1981.

6 - Collier's Encyclopedia.

7 - Yushkov B.Yu. Penetration of cosmic rays into the Earth's magnetosphere.

Internet resources:

1 - http://ru.wikipedia.org

2 - http://www.grndars.ru

3 - http://ecos.org.ua/?p=120

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Abstract on the topic

"Earth is a planet of the solar system"

The structure and composition of the solar system. Two groups of planets

Terrestrial planets. System Earth - Moon

Land

Ancient and modern exploration of the Earth

Exploring the Earth from Space

The emergence of life on Earth

The only satellite of the Earth is the Moon

Conclusion

The structure and composition of the solar system. Two groups of planets.

According to their physical characteristics, large planets are divided into two groups. One of them - the planets of the terrestrial group - are the Earth and similar to it Mercury, Venus and Mars. The second includes the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until 2006, Pluto was considered the farthest major planet from the Sun. Now it, together with other objects of a similar size - the long-known large asteroids (see § 4) and objects found on the outskirts of the solar system - are among the dwarf planets.

Most of the mass of the terrestrial planets falls on solids. The Earth and other terrestrial planets are composed of oxides and other compounds of heavy chemical elements: iron, magnesium, aluminum and other metals, as well as silicon and other non-metals. The four most abundant elements in the solid shell of our planet (lithosphere) - iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium - account for over 90% of its mass.

The low density of giant planets (at Saturn it is less than the density of water) is explained by the fact that they consist mainly of hydrogen and helium, which are predominantly in gaseous and liquid states. The atmospheres of these planets also contain hydrogen compounds - methane and ammonia. Differences between the planets of the two groups arose already at the stage of their formation (see § 5).

Of the giant planets, Jupiter is best studied, on which, even in a small school telescope, numerous dark and light stripes are visible, stretching parallel to the planet's equator. This is how cloud formations look in its atmosphere, the temperature of which is only -140 ° C, and the pressure is about the same as at the surface of the Earth. The reddish-brown color of the stripes is apparently explained by the fact that, in addition to the ammonia crystals, which form the basis of the clouds, they contain various impurities. The images taken by spacecraft show traces of intense and sometimes stable atmospheric processes. So, for over 350 years, an atmospheric vortex, called the Great Red Spot, has been observed on Jupiter. In the earth's atmosphere, cyclones and anticyclones exist on average for about a week. Atmospheric currents and clouds are recorded by spacecraft on other giant planets, although they are less developed than on Jupiter.

Structure. It is assumed that as it approaches the center of the giant planets, due to an increase in pressure, hydrogen must pass from a gaseous to a gas-liquid state, in which its gaseous and liquid phases coexist. At the center of Jupiter, the pressure is millions of times greater Atmosphere pressure existing on Earth, and hydrogen acquires properties characteristic of metals. In the interior of Jupiter, metallic hydrogen, together with silicates and metals, forms a core, which is approximately 1.5 times in size and 10-15 times in mass, larger than the Earth.

Weight. Any of the giant planets exceeds in mass all the terrestrial planets put together. The largest planet in the solar system, Jupiter, is 11 times larger than the largest planet of the terrestrial group - Earth in diameter and more than 300 times in mass.

Rotation. The differences between the planets of the two groups are also manifested in the fact that the giant planets rotate faster around the axis, and in the number of satellites: there are only 3 satellites for 4 terrestrial planets, more than 120 for 4 giant planets. All these satellites consist of the same substances as the planets of the terrestrial group - silicates, oxides and sulfides of metals, etc., as well as water (or water-ammonia) ice. In addition to numerous craters of meteoric origin, tectonic faults and cracks in their crust or ice cover have been found on the surface of many satellites. The most surprising discovery was the discovery of about a dozen active volcanoes on the satellite Io, closest to Jupiter. This is the first reliable observation of terrestrial-type volcanic activity outside our planet.

In addition to satellites, giant planets also have rings, which are clusters of small bodies. They are so small that they cannot be seen individually. Due to their rotation around the planet, the rings appear solid, although through the rings of Saturn, for example, both the surface of the planet and the stars shine through. The rings are located in the immediate vicinity of the planet, where large satellites cannot exist.

2. Planets of the terrestrial group. System Earth - Moon

Due to the presence of a satellite, the Moon, the Earth is often called a double planet. This emphasizes both the commonality of their origin and the rare ratio of the masses of the planet and its satellite: the Moon is only 81 times smaller than the Earth.

The nature of the Earth will be given in sufficient detail in the subsequent chapters of the textbook. Therefore, here we will talk about the rest of the terrestrial planets, comparing them with ours, and about the Moon, which, although it is only a satellite of the Earth, but by its nature belongs to the bodies of the planetary type.

Despite the common origin, the nature of the moon differs significantly from that of the earth, which is determined by its mass and size. Due to the fact that the force of gravity on the surface of the Moon is 6 times less than on the surface of the Earth, it is much easier for gas molecules to leave the Moon. Therefore, our natural satellite is devoid of a noticeable atmosphere and hydrosphere.

The absence of an atmosphere and slow rotation around the axis (days on the Moon are equal to the Earth's month) lead to the fact that during the day the surface of the Moon heats up to 120 ° C, and cools down to -170 ° C at night. Due to the lack of atmosphere, the lunar surface is subject to constant "bombardment" by meteorites and smaller micrometeorites, which fall on it at cosmic speeds (tens of kilometers per second). As a result, the entire Moon is covered with a layer of finely divided matter - regolith. As the American astronauts who visited the Moon describe, and as the images of the traces of the lunar rovers show, in its physical and mechanical properties (particle size, strength, etc.), the regolith is similar to wet sand.

When large bodies fall on the lunar surface, craters up to 200 km in diameter are formed. Craters of one meter and even one centimeter in diameter are clearly visible in the panoramas of the lunar surface obtained from spacecraft.

In laboratory conditions, rock samples delivered by our automatic Luna stations and by American astronauts who visited the Moon on the Apollo spacecraft were studied in detail. This made it possible to obtain more complete information than in the analysis of the rocks of Mars and Venus, which was carried out directly on the surface of these planets. Lunar rocks are similar in composition to terrestrial rocks such as basalts, norites, and anorthosites. The set of minerals in lunar rocks is poorer than in terrestrial rocks, but richer than in meteorites. On our satellite there is no hydrosphere or atmosphere of the same composition as on Earth. Therefore, there are no minerals that can form in aquatic environment and in the presence of free oxygen. Lunar rocks are depleted in volatile elements compared to terrestrial rocks, but they are distinguished by an increased content of iron and aluminum oxides, and in some cases titanium, potassium, rare earth elements and phosphorus. No signs of life, even in the form of microorganisms or organic compounds, were found on the Moon.

The light regions of the Moon - "continents" and darker - "seas" differ not only in appearance, but also in relief, geological history and the chemical composition of the substance covering them. On the younger surface of the "seas", covered with solidified lava, there are fewer craters than on the more ancient surface of the "continents". In various parts of the moon, relief forms such as cracks are noticeable, along which the crust is displaced vertically and horizontally. In this case, only fault-type mountains are formed, and there are no folded mountains so typical for our planet on the Moon.

The absence of the processes of erosion and weathering on the Moon allows us to consider it a kind of geological reserve, where all the forms of relief that have arisen during this time have been preserved for millions and billions of years. Thus, the study of the Moon makes it possible to understand the geological processes that took place on Earth in the distant past, from which there are no traces left on our planet.

3.Earth.

The Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System. It revolves around the star at an average distance of 149.6 million km for a period of 365.24 days.

The Earth has a satellite, the Moon, orbiting the Sun at an average distance of 384,400 km. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic is 66033`22``. The period of rotation of the planet around its axis is 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds. Rotation around its axis causes the change of day and night, and the tilt of the axis and rotation around the Sun causes the change of seasons. The shape of the Earth is a geoid, approximately a triaxial ellipsoid, a spheroid. The average radius of the Earth is 6371.032 km, equatorial - 6378.16 km, polar - 6356.777 km. The surface area of the globe is 510 million km², the volume is 1.083 * 1012 km², the average density is 5518 kg / m³. The mass of the Earth is 5976 * 1021 kg.

The earth has magnetic and electric fields. The gravitational field of the Earth determines its spherical shape and the existence of the atmosphere. According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed about 4.7 billion years ago from gaseous matter dispersed in the protosolar system. As a result of the differentiation of matter, the Earth, under the influence of its gravitational field, under the conditions of warming up the earth's interior, arose and developed various in chemical composition, state of aggregation and physical properties of the shell - the geosphere: the core (in the center), the mantle, the earth's crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere, magnetosphere. The composition of the Earth is dominated by iron (34.6%), oxygen (29.5%), silicon (15.2%), magnesium (12.7%). The earth's crust, mantle and inner core are solid (the outer part of the core is considered liquid). Pressure, density and temperature increase from the surface of the Earth towards the center.

The pressure in the center of the planet is 3.6 * 1011 Pa, the density is about 12.5 * 103 kg / m³, the temperature ranges from 50,000 ° C to 60,000 ° C.

The main types of the earth's crust are continental and oceanic; in the transition zone from the mainland to the ocean, an intermediate crust is developed.

Most of the Earth is occupied by the World Ocean (361.1 million km²; 70.8%), land is 149.1 million km² (29.2%), and forms six continents and islands. It rises above the world ocean level by an average of 875 m (the highest height is 8848 m - Mount Chomolungma), mountains occupy more than 1/3 of the land surface. Deserts cover about 20% of the land surface, forests - about 30%, glaciers - over 10%. The average depth of the world's oceans is about 3800 m (the greatest depth is 11020 m - the Mariana Trench (depression) in the Pacific Ocean). The volume of water on the planet is 1370 million km³, the average salinity is 35 g / l. The Earth's atmosphere, the total mass of which is 5.15 * 1015 tons, consists of air - a mixture of mainly nitrogen (78.08%) and oxygen (20.95%), the rest is water vapor, carbon dioxide, as well as inert and other gases. The maximum temperature of the land surface is 570º-580º C (in the tropical deserts of Africa and North America), the minimum is about -900º C (in the central regions of Antarctica). The formation of the Earth and the initial stage of its development belong to the pre-geological history. The absolute age of the most ancient rocks is over 3.5 billion years. The geological history of the Earth is divided into two unequal stages: the Precambrian, which occupies about 5/6 of the entire geological chronology (about 3 billion years), and the Phanerozoic, covering the last 570 million years.

About 3-3.5 billion years ago, as a result of the natural evolution of matter, life arose on Earth, and the development of the biosphere began. The totality of all living organisms inhabiting it, the so-called living matter of the Earth, had a significant impact on the development of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and sedimentary shell. A new factor that has a powerful impact on the biosphere is the production activity of man, which appeared on Earth less than 3 million years ago. The high growth rate of the world's population (275 million people in 1000, 1.6 billion people in 1900 and about 6.3 billion people in 1995) and the increasing influence of human society on the natural environment have raised the problem of rational use of all natural resources and nature protection.

Abstract on the topic

"Earth is a planet of the solar system"

1. The structure and composition of the solar system. Two groups of planets

2. Terrestrial planets. System Earth - Moon

3. Land

4. Ancient and modern exploration of the Earth

5. Exploring the Earth from Space

6. The emergence of life on Earth

7. The only satellite of the Earth is the Moon

Conclusion

1. The structure and composition of the solar system. Two groups of planets.

According to their physical characteristics, large planets are divided into two groups. One of them - the planets of the terrestrial group - are the Earth and similar to it Mercury, Venus and Mars. The second includes the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until 2006, Pluto was considered the farthest major planet from the Sun. Now it, together with other objects of a similar size - the long-known large asteroids (see § 4) and objects found on the outskirts of the solar system - are among the dwarf planets.

Structure. It is assumed that as it approaches the center of the giant planets, due to an increase in pressure, hydrogen must pass from a gaseous to a gas-liquid state, in which its gaseous and liquid phases coexist. At the center of Jupiter, the pressure is millions of times higher than the atmospheric pressure existing on Earth, and hydrogen acquires the properties characteristic of metals. In the interior of Jupiter, metallic hydrogen, together with silicates and metals, forms a core, which is approximately 1.5 times in size and 10-15 times in mass, larger than the Earth.

2. Planets of the terrestrial group. System Earth - Moon

In laboratory conditions, samples of rocks delivered by our automatic stations"Moon" and American astronauts who visited the moon in the Apollo spacecraft. This made it possible to obtain more complete information than in the analysis of the rocks of Mars and Venus, which was carried out directly on the surface of these planets. Lunar rocks are similar in composition to terrestrial rocks such as basalts, norites, and anorthosites. The set of minerals in lunar rocks is poorer than in terrestrial rocks, but richer than in meteorites. On our satellite there is no hydrosphere or atmosphere of the same composition as on Earth. Therefore, there are no minerals that can form in the aquatic environment and in the presence of free oxygen. Lunar rocks are depleted in volatile elements compared to terrestrial rocks, but they are distinguished by an increased content of iron and aluminum oxides, and in some cases titanium, potassium, rare earth elements and phosphorus. No signs of life, even in the form of microorganisms or organic compounds not found on the moon.

Light areas of the Moon - "continents" and darker - "seas" differ not only in outward appearance, but also in topography, geological history and the chemical composition of the substance covering them. On the younger surface of the "seas", covered with solidified lava, there are fewer craters than on the more ancient surface of the "continents". In various parts of the moon, relief forms such as cracks are noticeable, along which the crust is displaced vertically and horizontally. In this case, only fault-type mountains are formed, and there are no folded mountains so typical for our planet on the Moon.

Space has long attracted people's attention. Astronomers began to study the planets of the solar system in the Middle Ages, examining them in primitive telescopes. But a thorough classification, description of the structural features and movement of celestial bodies became possible only in the 20th century. With the advent of powerful equipment, state-of-the-art observatories and spacecraft, several previously unknown objects were discovered. Now each student can list all the planets of the solar system in order. Almost all of them were descended by a space probe, and so far man has only been to the moon.

What is the Solar System

The universe is huge and includes many galaxies. Our solar system is part of a galaxy with over 100 billion stars. But there are very few of them that look like the Sun. Basically, they are all red dwarfs, which are both smaller in size and shine less brightly. Scientists have suggested that the solar system was formed after the emergence of the sun. Its huge gravitational field was captured by a gas-dust cloud, from which, as a result of gradual cooling, particles of solid matter were formed. Over time, celestial bodies were formed from them. It is believed that the Sun is now in the middle of its life path, therefore it will exist, as well as all the celestial bodies dependent on it, for several more billion years. Astronomers have studied the near space for a long time, and anyone knows what planets in the solar system exist. Photos of them, taken from space satellites, can be found on the pages of all kinds of information resources dedicated to this topic. All celestial bodies are held by the strong gravitational field of the Sun, which makes up more than 99% of the volume of the solar system. Large celestial bodies rotate around the star and around its axis in one direction and in one plane, which is called the plane of the ecliptic.

The planets of the solar system in order

In modern astronomy, it is customary to consider celestial bodies starting from the Sun. In the 20th century, a classification was created, which includes 9 planets of the solar system. But the latest space exploration and the latest discoveries have pushed scientists to revise many provisions in astronomy. And in 2006, at the international congress, due to its small size (a dwarf not exceeding three thousand km in diameter), Pluto was excluded from the number of classical planets, and there were eight of them. Now the structure of our solar system has taken on a symmetrical, slender appearance. It includes four terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, then comes the asteroid belt, followed by four giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. On the outskirts of the solar system also passes which scientists called the Kuiper belt. It is in it that Pluto is located. These places are still poorly understood due to their remoteness from the Sun.

Features of the terrestrial planets

What allows these celestial bodies to be attributed to one group? Let's list the main characteristics of the inner planets:

relatively small size;
hard surface, high density and similar composition (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium and other heavy elements);
the presence of the atmosphere;
the same structure: a core of iron with nickel impurities, a mantle consisting of silicates, and a crust of silicate rocks (except for Mercury, it has no crust);
a small number of satellites - only 3 for four planets;
rather weak magnetic field.

Features of the giant planets

As for the outer planets, or gas giants, then they have the following similar characteristics:

large sizes and masses;
they do not have a solid surface and consist of gases, mainly helium and hydrogen (therefore they are also called gas giants);
liquid core, consisting of metallic hydrogen;
high rotation speed;
a strong magnetic field, which explains the unusual nature of many processes taking place on them;
there are 98 satellites in this group, most of which belong to Jupiter;
the most characteristic feature of gas giants is the presence of rings. All four planets have them, however, they are not always noticeable.

The first planet in a row - Mercury

It is located closest to the Sun. Therefore, from its surface, the luminary looks three times larger than from the Earth. This also explains the strong temperature drops: from -180 to +430 degrees. Mercury orbits very quickly. Maybe that's why he got such a name, because in Greek mythology Mercury is the messenger of the gods. There is practically no atmosphere here, and the sky is always black, but the Sun shines very brightly. However, at the poles there are places where its rays never fall. This phenomenon can be explained by the tilt of the rotation axis. No water was found on the surface. This circumstance, as well as the abnormally high daytime temperature (as well as low nighttime), fully explain the fact that there is no life on the planet.

Venus

If you study the planets of the solar system in order, then Venus is the second in a row. People could observe it in the sky even in antiquity, but since it was shown only in the morning and in the evening, it was believed that these are 2 different objects. By the way, our Slavic ancestors called her Mertsana. It is the third brightest object in our solar system. Previously, people called it the morning and evening star, because it is best seen before sunrise and sunset. Venus and Earth are very similar in structure, composition, size and gravity. Around its axis, this planet moves very slowly, making a complete revolution in 243.02 Earth days. Of course, conditions on Venus are very different from those on Earth. It is twice as close to the Sun, so it is very hot there. Heat is also explained by the fact that thick clouds of sulfuric acid and an atmosphere of carbon dioxide create a greenhouse effect on the planet. In addition, the pressure at the surface is 95 times greater than on Earth. Therefore, the first ship that visited Venus in the 70s of the 20th century lasted no more than an hour there. A feature of the planet is also the fact that it rotates in the opposite direction compared to most planets. More astronomers about this celestial object are not yet known.

The third planet from the Sun

The only place in the solar system, and in the entire universe known to astronomers where life exists, is Earth. In the terrestrial group, it has the largest dimensions. What else are her

The largest gravity among the terrestrial planets.
Very strong magnetic field.
High density.
She is the only one among all the planets that has a hydrosphere, which contributed to the formation of life.
It has the largest satellite in comparison with its size, which stabilizes its tilt relative to the Sun and affects natural processes.

The planet Mars

It is one of the smallest planets in our Galaxy. If we consider the planets of the solar system in order, then Mars is the fourth from the sun. Its atmosphere is very rarefied, and the pressure on the surface is almost 200 times less than on Earth. For the same reason, very strong temperature differences are observed. The planet Mars is little studied, although it has long attracted the attention of people. According to scientists, this is the only celestial body on which life could exist. Indeed, in the past, there was water on the surface of the planet. Such a conclusion can be made on the basis of the fact that there are large ice caps at the poles, and the surface is covered with many furrows, which could be dried up river beds. In addition, there are some minerals on Mars that can only form in the presence of water. Another feature of the fourth planet is the presence of two satellites. Their unusualness is that Phobos gradually slows down its rotation and approaches the planet, while Deimos, on the contrary, moves away.

What is Jupiter famous for

The fifth planet is the largest. The volume of Jupiter would fit 1300 Earths, and its mass is 317 times that of the Earth. Like all gas giants, its structure is hydrogen-helium, reminiscent of the composition of stars. Jupiter is the most interesting planet, which has many characteristic features:

it is the third brightest celestial body after the Moon and Venus;
Jupiter has the strongest magnetic field of all planets;
It makes a full revolution around the axis in just 10 Earth hours - faster than other planets;
an interesting feature of Jupiter is a large red spot - this is how the atmospheric vortex rotating counterclockwise is visible from the Earth;
like all giant planets, it has rings, although not as bright as those of Saturn;
this planet has the largest number of satellites. He has 63 of them. The most famous are Europa, where water was found, Ganymede - the largest satellite of the planet Jupiter, as well as Io and Calisto;
another feature of the planet is that in the shade, the surface temperature is higher than in places illuminated by the sun.

Planet saturn

It is the second largest gas giant, also named after an ancient god. It is composed of hydrogen and helium, but traces of methane, ammonia and water have been found on its surface. Scientists have found that Saturn is the most rarefied planet. Its density is less than that of water. This gas giant rotates very quickly - it makes one revolution in 10 Earth hours, as a result of which the planet is flattened from the sides. Huge speeds on Saturn and in the wind - up to 2000 kilometers per hour. This is more than the speed of sound. Saturn has another distinctive feature - it holds 60 satellites in its field of attraction. The largest of them - Titan - is the second largest in the entire solar system. The uniqueness of this object lies in the fact that, while exploring its surface, scientists first discovered a celestial body with conditions similar to those that existed on Earth about 4 billion years ago. But the most important feature of Saturn is the presence of bright rings. They encircle the planet around the equator and reflect more light than itself. Four is the most amazing phenomenon in the solar system. Unusually, the inner rings move faster than the outer rings.

- Uranus

So, we continue to consider the planets of the solar system in order. The seventh planet from the Sun is Uranus. It is the coldest of all - the temperature drops to -224 ° C. In addition, scientists did not find metallic hydrogen in its composition, but found modified ice. Therefore, Uranus belongs to a separate category of ice giants. An amazing feature of this celestial body is that it rotates while lying on its side. The change of seasons on the planet is also unusual: for 42 Earth years, winter reigns there, and the Sun does not appear at all, summer also lasts 42 years, and the Sun does not set at this time. In spring and autumn, the luminary appears every 9 hours. Like all giant planets, Uranus has rings and many moons. As many as 13 rings revolve around it, but they are not as bright as those of Saturn, and the planet holds only 27 satellites. If we compare Uranus with the Earth, then it is 4 times larger than it, 14 times heavier and is located at a distance of 19 times the path to the luminary from our planet.

Neptune: the invisible planet

After Pluto was excluded from the number of planets, Neptune became the last from the Sun in the system. It is located 30 times farther from the star than the Earth, and is not visible from our planet even through a telescope. Scientists discovered it, so to speak, by chance: observing the features of the movement of the planets closest to it and their satellites, they concluded that there must be another large celestial body beyond the orbit of Uranus. After discovery and research, interesting features of this planet were revealed:

due to the presence of a large amount of methane in the atmosphere, the color of the planet from space appears blue-green;
Neptune's orbit is almost perfectly circular;
the planet rotates very slowly - it makes one circle in 165 years;
Neptune is 4 times the size of Earth and 17 times heavier, but the force of gravity is almost the same as on our planet;
the largest of the 13 satellites of this giant is Triton. He is always turned to the planet on one side and slowly approaches it. From these signs, scientists suggested that he was captured by the gravity of Neptune.

All over the galaxy Milky Way- about one hundred billion planets. So far, scientists cannot study even some of them. But the number of planets in the solar system is known to almost all people on Earth. True, in the 21st century, interest in astronomy has faded a little, but even children know the name of the planets of the solar system.

The planets of the solar system

According to the official position of the International Astronomical Union (IAS), the organization that assigns names to astronomical objects, there are only 8 planets.

Pluto was excluded from the category of planets in 2006. since in the Kuiper belt there are objects that are larger / or equal in size to Pluto. Therefore, even if it is taken for a full-fledged celestial body, then it is necessary to add Eris to this category, which has almost the same size with Pluto.

By MAC definition, there are 8 known planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

All planets are divided into two categories depending on their physical characteristics: the terrestrial group and the gas giants.

Schematic representation of the location of the planets

Terrestrial planets

Mercury

The smallest planet in the solar system has a radius of only 2,440 km. The period of revolution around the Sun, for ease of understanding, equated to the Earth's year, is 88 days, while Mercury manages to complete a revolution around its own axis only one and a half times. Thus, its day lasts approximately 59 Earth days. For a long time it was believed that this planet was all the time turned to the Sun by the same side, since the periods of its visibility from the Earth were repeated with a frequency approximately equal to four Mercury days. This misconception was dispelled with the advent of the possibility of using radar research and conducting constant observations using space stations. The orbit of Mercury is one of the most unstable, changing not only the speed of movement and its distance from the Sun, but also the position itself. Anyone interested can observe this effect.

Mercury in color, image from the MESSENGER spacecraft

The proximity to the Sun has caused Mercury to experience the largest temperature fluctuations among the planets of our system. The average daytime temperature is around 350 degrees Celsius and the nighttime temperature is -170 ° C. Sodium, oxygen, helium, potassium, hydrogen and argon were found in the atmosphere. There is a theory that he was previously a satellite of Venus, but so far this remains unproven. He has no satellites of his own.

Venus

The second planet from the Sun, the atmosphere of which is almost entirely composed of carbon dioxide. It is often called the Morning Star and the Evening Star, because it is the first of the stars that becomes visible after sunset, just as before dawn it continues to be visible even when all other stars have disappeared from sight. The percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 96%, nitrogen in it is relatively small - almost 4%, and water vapor and oxygen are present in very small quantities.

Venus in the UV spectrum

This atmosphere creates a greenhouse effect, the surface temperature is therefore even higher than that of Mercury and reaches 475 ° C. It is considered the most leisurely, the Venusian day lasts 243 Earth days, which is almost equal to a year on Venus - 225 Earth days. Many call it the sister of the Earth because of its mass and radius, the values of which are very close to those of the Earth. The radius of Venus is 6052 km (0.85% of the Earth). There are no satellites, like Mercury.

The third planet from the Sun and the only one in our system where there is liquid water on the surface, without which life on the planet could not develop. At least life as we know it. The radius of the Earth is 6371 km and, unlike the rest of the celestial bodies of our system, more than 70% of its surface is covered with water. The rest of the space is occupied by continents. Another feature of the Earth is the tectonic plates hidden under the planet's mantle. Moreover, they are able to move, albeit with a very low speed, which over time causes a change in the landscape. The speed of the planet moving along it is 29-30 km / sec.

Our planet from space

One revolution around its axis takes almost 24 hours, and full walkthrough in orbit lasts 365 days, which is much longer in comparison with the nearest neighboring planets. The Earth's day and year are also taken as a standard, but this was done only for the convenience of perception of time intervals on the other planets. The Earth has one natural satellite - the Moon.

Mars

The fourth planet from the Sun, known for its tenuous atmosphere. Since 1960, Mars has been actively explored by scientists from several countries, including the USSR and the United States. Not all exploration programs have been successful, but water found in some areas suggests that primitive life on Mars exists, or has existed in the past.

The brightness of this planet allows you to see it from Earth without any instruments. Moreover, once every 15-17 years, during the Opposition, it becomes the brightest object in the sky, eclipsing even Jupiter and Venus.

The radius is almost half that of the Earth and is 3390 km, but the year is much longer - 687 days. He has 2 satellites - Phobos and Deimos .

An illustrative model of the solar system

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The sun
The sun is a star, which is a hot ball of incandescent gases at the center of our solar system. Its influence extends far beyond the orbits of Neptune and Pluto. Without the Sun and its intense energy and heat, there would be no life on Earth. There are billions of stars, like our Sun, scattered across the Milky Way galaxy.
Mercury
Scorched by the Sun, Mercury is only slightly larger than Earth's satellite Moon. Like the Moon, Mercury is practically devoid of an atmosphere and cannot smooth out the traces of impact from falling meteorites, therefore, like the Moon, it is covered with craters. The daytime side of Mercury gets very hot on the Sun, while on the night side the temperature drops hundreds of degrees below zero. There is ice in the craters of Mercury, which are located at the poles. Mercury makes one revolution around the Sun every 88 days.
Venus
Venus is a world of monstrous heat (even more than on Mercury) and volcanic activity. Similar in structure and size to Earth, Venus is covered in a thick and toxic atmosphere that creates a strong greenhouse effect. This scorched world is hot enough to melt lead. Radar images through the mighty atmosphere have revealed volcanoes and warped mountains. Venus rotates in the opposite direction from the rotation of most planets.
Earth is an ocean planet. Our home, with its abundance of water and life, makes it unique in our solar system. Other planets, including several moons, also have ice deposits, atmosphere, seasons and even weather, but only on Earth did all these components come together in such a way that life became possible.
Mars
Although details of Mars' surface are difficult to see from Earth, telescope observations show that Mars has seasons and white spots at the poles. For decades, people believed that the bright and dark areas on Mars were patches of vegetation and that Mars might be a suitable place for life, and that water exists in the polar caps. When the spacecraft Mariner 4 flew off Mars in 1965, many of the scientists were shocked to see photographs of the gloomy planet covered in craters. Mars turned out to be a dead planet. Later missions, however, revealed that Mars holds many secrets that still remain to be solved.
Jupiter
Jupiter is the most massive planet in our solar system, with four large moons and many small moons. Jupiter forms a kind of miniature solar system. To turn into a full-fledged star, Jupiter had to become 80 times more massive.
Saturn
Saturn is the farthest of the five planets that were known before the invention of the telescope. Like Jupiter, Saturn is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. Its volume is 755 times that of the Earth. Winds in its atmosphere reach speeds of 500 meters per second. These fast winds, combined with the heat rising from the planet's interior, are causing the yellow and golden streaks we see in the atmosphere.
Uranus
The first planet found with a telescope, Uranus was discovered in 1781 by astronomer William Herschel. The seventh planet is so far from the Sun that one revolution around the Sun takes 84 years.
Neptune
Nearly 4.5 billion kilometers from the Sun, distant Neptune orbits. It takes 165 years for one revolution around the Sun. It is invisible to the naked eye due to its great distance from Earth. It is interesting that its unusual elliptical orbit intersects with the orbit of the dwarf planet Pluto, which is why Pluto is inside the orbit of Neptune for about 20 years out of 248 during which it makes one revolution around the Sun.
Pluto
Tiny, cold and incredibly distant, Pluto was discovered in 1930 and has long been considered the ninth planet. But after the discoveries of Pluto-like worlds that were even further away, Pluto was transferred to the category of dwarf planets in 2006.

Planets are giants

There are four gas giants located beyond the orbit of Mars: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. They are found in the outer solar system. They are distinguished by their massiveness and gas composition.

Planets of the solar system, not to scale

Jupiter

The fifth in a row from the Sun and the largest planet in our system. Its radius is 69912 km, it is 19 times larger than the Earth and only 10 times smaller than the Sun. The year on Jupiter is not the longest in the solar system, it lasts 4333 Earth days (less than 12 years). His own day has a duration of about 10 Earth hours. The exact composition of the planet's surface has not yet been determined, but it is known that krypton, argon and xenon are present on Jupiter in much larger quantities than on the Sun.

It is believed that one of the four gas giants is actually a failed star. This theory is supported by the largest number of satellites, of which Jupiter has many - as many as 67. To imagine their behavior in the planet's orbit, a sufficiently accurate and precise model of the solar system is needed. The largest of them are Callisto, Ganymede, Io and Europa. At the same time, Ganymede is the largest satellite of the planets in the entire solar system, its radius is 2634 km, which is 8% larger than the size of Mercury, the smallest planet in our system. Io differs in that it is one of three satellites with an atmosphere.

Saturn

The second largest planet and the sixth in the solar system. Compared to other planets, the composition of chemical elements is most similar to the Sun. The radius of the surface is 57350 km, the year is 10 759 days (almost 30 Earth years). The day here lasts a little longer than on Jupiter - 10.5 Earth hours. By the number of satellites, it is not much behind its neighbor - 62 against 67. The largest satellite of Saturn is Titan, just like Io, which has an atmosphere. Slightly smaller in size, but no less famous from this - Enceladus, Rhea, Dione, Tethys, Iapetus and Mimas. It is these satellites that are the objects for the most frequent observation, and therefore we can say that they are the most studied in comparison with the rest.

For a long time, the rings on Saturn were considered unique phenomenon, inherent only to him. It has only recently been established that rings are present in all gas giants, but in others they are not so clearly visible. Their origin has not yet been established, although there are several hypotheses about how they came about. In addition, quite recently it was discovered that Rhea, one of the satellites of the sixth planet, also possesses a kind of rings.

The planets of the solar system in order. Planet Earth, Jupiter, Mars

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Geospheres - geographically concentric shells ( solid or discontinuous) that make up the planet Earth. Thus, we can distinguish a number of geospheres that make up the Earth:

- core,

- mantle,

- lithosphere,

- hydrosphere,

- atmosphere,

- magnetosphere. A.P. Sadokhin KSE chapter 5 p. 151 MOSCOW EKSMO 2007

Geospheres are conventionally divided into basic (main), as well as relatively autonomously developing secondary geospheres: anthroposphere (Rodoman BB 1979), sociosphere (Yefremov Yu.K 1961), noosphere (Vernadsky V.I.).

Lithosphere :

The main part of the lithosphere consists of igneous igneous rocks (95%), among which granites and granitoids prevail on the continents, and basalts in the oceans.

The deep strata of the lithosphere, which are studied by geophysical methods, have a rather complex, insufficiently studied structure, as well as the mantle and core of the Earth.

Modern soils are a three-phase system (uneven-grained solid particles, water and gases dissolved in the air), which consists of a mixture of mineral particles and organic substances. Soils play a huge role in the circulation of water, substances and carbon dioxide. http: // ecos.org.ua/?p=120

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