The area of ​​the andes mountains. The Cordillera: "The Great Mountain Ranges

The Andes are a large interoceanic watershed. To the east of the Andes, the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin flow. In the Andes, the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries originate, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. To the west of the Andes, there are mainly short rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean basin.

The Andes also serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones:

• equatorial,
• subequatorial,
• tropical,
• subtropical,
• moderate.

They are distinguished by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretched through the territories of 7 states of South America:

• Venezuela,
• Colombia,
• Ecuador,
• Peru,
• Bolivia,
• Chile,
• Argentina.

Vegetation and soil

The land cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains, a significant difference in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonation in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three high-altitude belts - Tierra Caliente, Tierra Fria and Tierra Elyada.

In the Andes of Venezuela, deciduous forests and shrubs grow on mountain red soils.

The lower parts of the windward slopes from the Northwest Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountain humid equatorial and tropical forests on lateritic soils (mountain gilea), as well as mixed forests of evergreen and deciduous species. The external appearance of the equatorial forests differs little from the external appearance of these forests in the flat part of the continent; various palms, ficuses, bananas, cocoa trees, etc. are characteristic.

Above (up to heights of 2500-3000 m), the nature of the vegetation changes; typical bamboos, tree ferns, coca bush (which is the source of cocaine), cinchona.

Between 3000 m and 3800 m - high-mountainous gilea with low-growing trees and shrubs; epiphytes and lianas are widespread, bamboos, tree ferns, evergreen oaks, myrtle, and heather are characteristic.

Above - predominantly xerophytic vegetation, paramos, with numerous Asteraceae; moss bogs in flat areas and lifeless rocky areas on steep slopes.

Above 4500 m there is a belt of eternal snow and ice.

Further south, in the subtropical Chilean Andes, there are evergreen shrubs on brown soils.

In the Longitudinal Valley there are soils that are similar in composition to chernozems.

The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows of paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - dry alpine-tropical steppes of the Chalka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° S latitude - desert types of vegetation (in the Atacama Desert - succulent vegetation and cacti). Many surfaces are saline, which hinders the development of vegetation; in such areas, wormwood and ephedra are mainly found.

Above 3000 m (up to about 4500 m) - semi-desert vegetation, called dry puna; dwarf shrubs (toloi), grasses (feather grass, reed grass), lichens, cacti grow.

To the east of the Main Cordillera, where there is more rainfall, there is steppe vegetation (puna) with numerous grasses (fescue, feather grass, reed grass) and pillow-like shrubs.

On the humid slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, tropical forests (palms, cinchona) rise up to 1500 m, low-growing evergreen forests with a predominance of bamboo, ferns, and lianas reach up to 3000 m; at higher altitudes - alpine steppes.

A typical inhabitant of the Andean highlands is polylepis, a plant of the Rosaceae family, common in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Chile; these trees are also found at an altitude of 4500 m.

In central Chile, forests have been largely deforested; once the forests rose along the Main Cordillera to heights of 2500-3000 m (higher mountain meadows began with alpine herbs and shrubs, as well as rare peat bogs), but now the mountain slopes are practically bare. Nowadays, forests are found only in the form of individual groves (pines, araucaria, eucalyptus, beeches and plane trees, in the undergrowth there are gorse and geranium).

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38 ° S lat. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mainly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are many mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42 ° S - mixed forests (in the area of ​​42 ° S latitude there is an array of araucaria forests). There are beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes, there are mainly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes - tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, forests (from deciduous and evergreen trees- for example, southern beeches and canelo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; above the border of the forest, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in some places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peat bogs are widespread.

The Andes are home to cinchona, coca, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other valuable plants.

Animal world

The fauna of the northern part of the Andes is part of the Brazilian zoogeographic region and is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains.

The fauna of the Andes south of 5 ° S latitude belongs to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion. The fauna of the Andes as a whole is characterized by an abundance of endemic genera and species.

The Andes are inhabited by llamas and alpacas (representatives of these two species are used by the local population for wool and meat, as well as pack animals), chain-tailed monkeys, relic spectacled bear, deer pudu and gaemal (which are endemic to the Andes), vicuña, guanaco, azar fox , sloths, chinchillas, marsupial possums, anteaters, degu rodents.

In the south - the blue fox, the Magellanic dog, the endemic rodent Tuco-Tuco, etc. There are many birds, among them hummingbirds, which are also found at altitudes of more than 4000 m, but are especially numerous and diverse in the "foggy forests" (tropical rainforests of Colombia, Ecuador , Peru, Bolivia and the extreme northwest of Argentina, located in the fog condensation belt); endemic condor, rising to a height of 7 thousand m; and others. Some species (such as chinchillas, in the 19th - early 20th centuries, were intensively exterminated for the sake of obtaining skins; wingless great crested grebes and Titicacus whistler, found only near Lake Titicaca; and others) are under threat of extinction.

A feature of the Andes is a large species diversity of amphibians (over 900 species). Also in the Andes there are about 600 species of mammals (13% are endemic), over 1,700 bird species (of which 33.6% are endemic) and about 400 species freshwater fish(34.5% endemic).

Ecology

One of the main environmental problems of the Andes is the deforestation, which is no longer renewable; the rainforests of Colombia, which are intensively reduced under plantations of cinchona and coffee tree, rubber plants.

With a developed agriculture, Andean countries are facing problems of soil degradation, soil pollution with chemicals, erosion, as well as desertification due to overgrazing (especially in Argentina).

Environmental problems of coastal zones - pollution of sea water near ports and large cities (caused not least by the release of sewage and industrial waste into the ocean), uncontrolled fishing in large volumes.

As in the rest of the world, in the Andes, there is an acute problem of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere (mainly in the production of electricity, as well as in ferrous metallurgy enterprises). Oil refineries, oil wells and mines also make a significant contribution to environmental pollution (their activity leads to soil erosion, pollution groundwater; the activity of mines in Patagonia had a detrimental effect on the biota of the area).

Due to a number of environmental problems, many species of animals and plants in the Andes are endangered.

sights

• Lake Titicaca;
• Lauca National Park;
• Chiloe National Park; Cape Horn National Park;
• Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the 16th-18th centuries, National Museum of Colombia;
• Quito: Cathedral, Musical Instrument Museum, Del Banco Central Museum;
• Cusco: Cusco Cathedral, La Campa Nha Church, Haitun Rumiyok Street (remains of Inca buildings);
• Lima: archaeological sites of Huaca Huallamarca and Huaca Pucllana, Archbishop's Palace, Church and Convent of San Francisco;
• Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachakamak, the ruins of the city of Karal, Sacsayhuaman, Tambomachai, Pukapukara, Kenko, Pisak, Ollantaytambo, Moray, the ruins of Pikillakta.

• The capital of Bolivia, La Paz, is the highest mountain capital in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3600 m above sea level.
• 200 km north of the city of Lima (Peru) are the ruins of the city of Caral - temples, amphitheaters, houses and pyramids. It is believed that Caral belonged to the oldest civilization in America and was built about 4000-4500 years ago. Archaeological excavations have shown that the city traded with vast areas of the continent. South America... It is especially interesting that archaeologists have not found a single evidence of military conflicts for about a thousand years in the history of Karal.
• One of the most mysterious historical monuments in the world is the monumental archaeological complex of Sacsayhuaman, located north-west of Cusco, at an altitude of approximately 3700 meters above sea level. The eponymous fortress of this complex is attributed to the Inca civilization. However, it has not yet been possible to establish how the stones of these walls, weighing up to 200 tons and fitted to each other with pinpoint accuracy, were processed. Also, the ancient system of underground passages has not yet been fully explored.
• The archaeological complex of Moray, located 74 kilometers from Cusco at an altitude of 3500 meters, is still admired not only by archaeologists. Here, huge terraces, going down, form a kind of amphitheater. Research has shown that this structure was used by the Incas as an agricultural laboratory, because different heights terraces made it possible to observe plants in different climatic conditions and experiment with them. Different soils and a complex irrigation system were used here, with a total of 250 species of plants grown by the Incas.

Inca empire

The Inca Empire in the Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of a highly developed civilization, which appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and died at the hands of illiterate aliens, still worries mankind.

The era of great geographical discoveries (XV-XVII centuries) made it possible for European adventurers to quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often cruel and unprincipled, the conquistadors rushed to America not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchange between civilizations.

The fact that the papal throne in 1537 recognized the Indians as spiritualized beings did not change anything in the methods of the conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the "humane" papal decision, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro had already executed the Inca emperor Atahualpa (1533), defeated the Inca army and seized the capital of the empire, the city of Cuzco (1536).

There is a version that at first the Indians mistook the Spaniards for gods. And it is quite possible that the main reason for this delusion was not the white skin of the aliens, not that they were riding on unseen animals, and not even that they possessed firearms. The Incas were struck by the incredible cruelty of the conquistadors.

At the first meeting of Pizarro and Atahualpa, the Spaniards who ambushed them killed thousands of Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like this. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifice, believed that human life- the highest gift, and that is why human sacrifice to the gods was the highest form of worship. But in order to simply destroy thousands of people who did not come to war at all?

There is no doubt that the Incas could have put up serious resistance to the Spaniards. After the murder of the captive Atahualpa, for whom the Indians paid a monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to plunder the country, mercilessly melting the Inca jewelry into ingots. But the brother of Atahualpa Manco, appointed by them as the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and led the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupac Amaru, Viceroy of Peru Francisco de Toledo was able to execute only in 1572, and even after that the leaders of new uprisings were called after him.

Little has survived from the Inca civilization to the present day - after the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both at the hands of the Spaniards and from work in mines, hunger, European epidemics, there was no one to maintain irrigation systems, high-altitude roads, beautiful buildings in order. The Spaniards destroyed a lot in order to get building material.

The country, whose inhabitants were accustomed to supply from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagabonds, for many years after the arrival of the conquistadors became a zone of human disaster.

Various theories determine the age of the Andes mountain system from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for the people living in the Andes, the process of the formation of these mountains is still ongoing.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, glaciers in the Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin observed the eruption of the Osorno volcano from the island of Chiloe. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the cities of Concepcion and Talcahuano and claimed numerous casualties. Such events are not uncommon in the Andes.

For example, in 1970 a glacier in Peru buried the city of Yungai with almost all its inhabitants literally in seconds, killing about 20,000 people. In 2010, an earthquake in Chile claimed hundreds of lives, left millions homeless and caused colossal material damage. In general, serious disasters occur in the Andes with a frightening cyclicality - once every 10-15 years.

Andes, The Cordillera of End(Spanish. Andes; Cordillera de los Andes ) - one of the longest (9000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Aconcagua, 6961 m) mountain systems of the Earth, bordering the whole of South America from the north and west; southern part of the Cordillera. In some places, the Andes reach a width of over 500 km (the greatest width - up to 750 km - in the Central Andes, between 18 ° and 20 ° S). The average height is about 4000 m.

The Andes are a large interoceanic watershed; to the east of the Andes, the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin flow (in the Andes, the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia rivers originate), to the west - the rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin (mostly short).

The Andes serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Main Cordillera from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and differ (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable extent of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina

origin of name

According to the Italian historian Giovanni Anello Oliva (g.), Originally European conquerors “ Andes or Cordilleras"(" Andes, o cordilleras ") was called the eastern ridge, while the western one was called“ sierra"(" Sierra "). Currently, most scholars believe that the name comes from the Quechuan word anti(high ridge, ridge), although there are other opinions [ which?] .

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Geological structure and relief

The Andes are revived mountains, erected by the newest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the planet's largest systems of alpine folding (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The beginning of the formation of the Andes dates back to the Jurassic time. The Andean mountain system is characterized by troughs formed in the Triassic, subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the Coastal Cordillera of Peru are granitoid intrusions of the Cretaceous age. Intermontane and foredeeps (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) were formed in the Paleogene and Neogene time. Tectonic movements accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone passes along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American, which contributes to the development of mountain building processes. The extreme southern part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia Plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores, mainly of non-ferrous metals (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, lead, molybdenum, zinc, arsenic, antimony, etc.); deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; in Chile there are large copper deposits. In the fore and foothill troughs, there is oil and gas (in the foothills of the Andes within Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina), in the weathering crusts there are bauxites. There are also deposits of iron (in Bolivia), sodium nitrate (in Chile), gold, platinum and emeralds (in Colombia) in the Andes.

The Andes consist mainly of meridional parallel ridges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie the inner plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altiplano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mountain system is mainly 200-300 km.

Orography

Northern Andes

The main system of the Andes mountains (Andean Cordilleras) consists of parallel ridges stretching in the meridional direction, separated by internal plateaus or depressions. Only the Caribbean Andes, located within Venezuela and belonging to the North Andes, stretch sublatitudinally along the coast of the Caribbean Sea. The northern Andes also include the Ecuadorian Andes (in Ecuador) and the Northwestern Andes (in the west of Venezuela and in Colombia). The highest ridges of the Northern Andes have small modern glaciers, on volcanic cones - eternal snow. The islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao in the Caribbean Sea represent the peaks of the continuation of the Northern Andes descending into the sea.

In the Northwestern Andes, fan-shaped to the north of 12 ° N. sh., there are three main Cordilleras - Eastern, Central and Western. All of them are high, steeply sloping and have a folded-block structure. They are characterized by faults, ups and downs of modern times. The main Cordillera are separated by large depressions - the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca-Patiia rivers.

The Eastern Cordillera is at its highest in its northeastern part (Mount Ritakuwa, 5493 m); in the center of the Eastern Cordillera - an ancient lake plateau (prevailing heights - 2.5 - 2.7 thousand m); the Eastern Cordillera is generally characterized by large alignment surfaces. In the highlands there are glaciers. In the north, the Eastern Cordillera is continued by the Cordillera de Merida (the highest point is Mount Bolivar, 5007 m) and the Sierra de Perija (reaching an altitude of 3,540 m); Lake Maracaibo lies between these ridges in a vast low-lying depression. In the far north - the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta horst massif with heights of up to 5800 m (Mount Cristobal Colon)

The valley of the Magdalena River separates the Eastern Cordillera from the Central, relatively narrow and high; in the Central Cordillera (especially in its southern part) there are many volcanoes (Huila, 5750 m; Ruiz, 5400 m; and others), some of them are active (Kumbal, 4890 m). To the north, the Central Cordillera decreases slightly and forms the Antioquia massif, strongly dissected by river valleys. The Western Cordillera, separated from the Central Valley of the Cauca River, has lower elevations (up to 4200 m); in the south of the Western Cordillera - volcanism. Further to the west - the low (up to 1810 m) ridge Serranio de Baudo, which passes in the north into the mountains of Panama. To the north and west of the Northwest Andes are the Caribbean and Pacific alluvial lowlands.

As part of the Equatorial (Ecuadorian) Andes, reaching 4 ° S latitude, there are two Cordilleras (Western and Eastern), separated by depressions with a height of 2500-2700 m. chains (the highest volcanoes are Chimborazo, 6267 m, Cotopaxi, 5897 m). These volcanoes, as well as the volcanoes of Colombia, form the first volcanic region of the Andes.

Central Andes

In the Central Andes (up to 28 ° S), the Peruvian Andes (extending south to 14 ° 30 S) and the Central Andes proper are distinguished. In the Peruvian Andes, as a result of recent uplifts and intensive incisions of rivers (the largest of which - Marañon, Ucayali and Huallaghi - belong to the upper Amazon system), parallel ridges (Eastern, Central and Western Cordillera) and a system of deep longitudinal and transverse canyons that dismembered the ancient leveling surface ... The peaks of the Cordilleras of the Peruvian Andes exceed 6000 m (the highest point is Mount Huascaran, 6768 m); in the Cordillera Blanca - modern glaciation. Alpine landforms are also developed on the blocky ridges of the Cordillera Vilcanota, Cordillera de Vilcabamba, Cordillera de Carabaia.

To the south is the widest part of the Andes - the Central Andean Highlands (up to 750 km wide), where arid geomorphological processes predominate; A significant part of the highland is occupied by the Pune plateau with heights of 3.7 - 4.1 thousand meters. For Pune, drainless basins ("bolsons") are characteristic, occupied by lakes (Titicaca, Poopo, etc.) and salt marshes (Atacama, Koipasa, Uyuni, etc. .). To the east of Pune - the Cordillera Real (Ankouma peak, 6550 m) with powerful modern glaciation; between the Altiplano plateau and the Cordillera Real, at an altitude of 3700 m, is the city of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, the highest in the world. East of the Cordillera Real - the subandian fold ridges of the Eastern Cordillera, reaching 23 ° S latitude. The southern continuation of the Cordillera Real is the Central Cordillera, as well as several block massifs (the highest point is Mount El Libertador, 6720 m). From the west, Pune is flanked by the Western Cordillera with intrusive peaks and numerous volcanic peaks (Sahama, 6780 m; Llullaillaco, 6 739 m; San Pedro, 6145 m; Misty, 5821 m; and others), which are part of the second volcanic region of the Andes. South of 19 ° S the western slopes of the Western Cordillera go to the tectonic depression of the Longitudinal Valley, occupied in the south by the Atacama Desert. Behind the Longitudinal Valley is the low (up to 1500 m) intrusive Coastal Cordillera, which is characterized by arid sculptural relief forms.

In Pune and in the western part of the Central Andes, there is a very high snow line (in some places above 6,500 m), therefore, snow was noted only on the highest volcanic cones, and glaciers are found only in the Ojos del Salado massif (up to 6,880 m).

Southern Andes

Andes near the border of Argentina and Chile

In the Southern Andes, extending south of 28 ° S latitude, there are two parts - the northern (Chilean-Argentine, or Subtropical Andes) and southern (Patagonian Andes). In the Chilean-Argentinean Andes, narrowing to the south and reaching 39 ° 41'S, a three-membered structure is clearly expressed - the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley and the Main Cordillera; within the latter, in the Cordillera Frontal, is the highest peak of the Andes, Mount Aconcagua (6960 m), as well as the large peaks Tupungato (6800 m), Mercedario (6 770 m). The snow line is very high here (at 32 ° 40'S - 6000 m). East of the Cordillera Frontal are the ancient Precordillera.

South of 33 ° S (and up to 52 ° S) is the third volcanic region of the Andes, where there are many active (mainly in the Main Cordillera and to the west of it) and extinct volcanoes (Tupungato, Maipa, Limeo, etc.)

When moving south, the snow line gradually decreases and at 51 ° S latitude. reaches a mark of 1460 m. The high ridges acquire the features of the alpine type, the area of ​​modern glaciation increases, and numerous glacial lakes appear. South of 40 ° S the Patagonian Andes begin with lower ridges than in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (the highest point is Mount San Valentin - 4058 m) and active volcanism in the north. About 52 ° S the highly dissected Cordillera Coast plunges into the ocean, and its peaks form a chain of rocky islands and archipelagos; The longitudinal valley turns into a system of straits reaching the western part of the Strait of Magellan. In the area of ​​the Strait of Magellan, the Andes (here called the Andes of Tierra del Fuego) deviate sharply to the east. In the Patagonian Andes, the height of the snow line barely exceeds 1500 m (in the extreme south it is 300-700 m, and from 46 ° 30'S glaciers descend to ocean level), glacial relief forms prevail (at 48 ° S - the powerful Patagonian ice sheet) with an area of ​​over 20 thousand km², from where many kilometers of glacial tongues descend to the west and east); some of the valley glaciers of the eastern slopes end in large lakes. Young volcanic cones (Corcovado and others) rise along the shores, heavily indented by fjords. The Andes of Tierra del Fuego are relatively low (up to 2469 m).

Climate

Northern Andes

The northern part of the Andes belongs to the subequatorial belt of the Northern Hemisphere; here, as in the subequatorial belt of the Southern Hemisphere, there is an alternation of wet and dry seasons; precipitation occurs from May to November, but in the northernmost regions the wet season is shorter. The eastern slopes are much more humid than the western ones; precipitation (up to 1000 mm per year) falls mainly in summer. In the Caribbean Andes, located on the border of the tropical and subequatorial zones, tropical air reigns throughout the year; there is little rainfall (often less than 500 mm per year); the rivers are short with typical summer floods.

In the equatorial belt, seasonal fluctuations are practically absent; for example, in the capital of Ecuador, Quito, the change in average monthly temperatures for the year is only 0.4 ° C. Precipitation is abundant (up to 10,000 mm per year, although usually 2500-7000 mm per year) and is more evenly distributed along the slopes than in the subequatorial belt. The altitudinal zonality is clearly expressed. In the lower part of the mountains there is a hot and humid climate, precipitation falls almost daily; in the depressions there are numerous swamps. The amount of precipitation decreases with height, but the thickness of the snow cover increases. Up to heights of 2500-3000 m, temperatures rarely drop below 15 ° C, seasonal temperature fluctuations are insignificant. There are already great daily temperature fluctuations (up to 20 ° C), the weather can change dramatically during the day. At altitudes of 3500-3800 m, daily temperatures already fluctuate around the 10 ° C mark. Above, a harsh climate with frequent snow storms and snowfalls; daytime temperatures are positive, but there are strong frosts at night. The climate is dry, as there is little rainfall with high evaporation. Above 4500 m - eternal snow.

Central Andes

Between 5 ° and 28 ° S there is a pronounced asymmetry in the distribution of precipitation along the slopes: the western slopes are much weaker than the eastern ones. To the west of the Main Cordillera there is a desert tropical climate (the formation of which is greatly facilitated by the cold Peruvian current), there are very few rivers. If in the northern part of the Central Andes, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls per year, then in the south their amount decreases and in some places does not exceed 50 mm per year. This part of the Andes is home to the Atacama, the driest desert the globe... Deserts rise in places up to 3000 m above sea level. A few oases are located mainly in the valleys of small rivers fed by the waters of mountain glaciers. Average January temperatures in coastal areas range from 24 ° C in the north to 19 ° C in the south, while average July temperatures range from 19 ° C in the north to 13 ° C in the south. Above 3000 m, in dry pune, there is also little precipitation (rarely more than 250 mm per year); the arrival of cold winds is noted when the temperature can drop to -20 ° C. The average July temperature does not exceed 15 ° C.

At low altitudes, with an extremely small amount of rain, significant (up to 80%) air humidity, therefore, fog and dew are frequent. The Altiplano and Puna plateaus have a very harsh climate, with average annual temperatures not exceeding 10 ° C. The large Lake Titicaca has a softening effect on the climate of the adjacent territories - in the lakeside areas, temperature fluctuations are not as significant as in other parts of the plateau. To the east of the Main Cordillera there is a large (3000 - 6000 mm per year) amount of precipitation (brought mainly in the summer by eastern winds), a dense river network. Along the valleys, air masses from the Atlantic Ocean cross the Eastern Cordillera, moisturizing its western slope. Above 6000 m in the north and 5000 m in the south - negative average annual temperatures; due to the dryness of the climate, there are few glaciers.

Southern Andes

In the Chilean-Argentinean Andes, the climate is subtropical, and the humidification of the western slopes - due to winter cyclones - is greater than in the subequatorial zone; when moving southward, the annual precipitation on the western slopes increases rapidly. Summers are dry, winters are wet. With distance from the ocean, the continentality of the climate increases, and seasonal temperature fluctuations increase. In the city of Santiago, located in the Longitudinal Valley, the average temperature of the warmest month is 20 ° C, the coldest - 7-8 ° C; precipitation in Santiago falls slightly, 350 mm per year (to the south, in Valdivia, precipitation is more - 750 mm per year). On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera there is more precipitation than in the Longitudinal Valley (but less than on the Pacific coast).

When moving to the south, the subtropical climate of the western slopes smoothly transforms into an oceanic climate of temperate latitudes: annual precipitation increases, and differences in moisture content decrease by seasons. Strong westerly winds bring a large amount of precipitation to the coast (up to 6000 mm per year, although usually 2000-3000 mm). Heavy rains fall more than 200 days a year, thick fogs often fall on the coast, and the sea is constantly stormy; the climate is unfavorable for living. The eastern slopes (between 28 ° and 38 ° S) are more arid than the western ones (and only in the temperate zone, south of 37 ° S, due to the influence of westerly winds, their moisture increases, although they remain less moistened compared to western ones). average temperature the warmest month on the western slopes is only 10-15 ° C (the coldest - 3-7 ° C)

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, there is a very humid climate, which is formed by strong humid westerly and southwestern winds; precipitation (up to 3000 mm) falls mainly in the form of drizzling rains (which occur most of the days of the year). Only in the most eastern part of the archipelago there is much less precipitation. Throughout the year stand low temperatures(at the same time, seasonal temperature fluctuations are extremely insignificant).

Soils and vegetation

The land cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains, a significant difference in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonation in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three high-altitude belts - Tierra Caliente, Tierra Fria and Tierra Elyada.

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38 ° S lat. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mainly evergreen, on

The Copper Mountains - this is what the Incas call these the longest mountains in the world. It is about the Andean Cordilleras, known to us as the Andes. This mountain range is not comparable in length to any of the existing ones on our planet. The length of the Andes is about 9 thousand km. They originate from the Caribbean Sea and reach Tierra del Fuego.

Width and height of the Andes

Aconcagua (pictured below) is the highest peak in the Andean Cordilleras. The height of the Andes at this point is 6962 meters. Aconcagua is located in Argentina. What are the prevailing whole line large peaks. Among them, it should be noted Mount Ritakuva (5493 meters), El Libertador (6720 meters), Huascaran (6768 meters), Mercedario (6770 m), etc. There are areas where mountains reach 500 km wide. As for their maximum width, it is about 750 km. The main part of them is occupied by the Pune plateau, which has a very high snow line, which reaches 6500 m.The average height of the Andes is about 4000 m.

Age of the Andes and their formation

According to experts, these mountains are quite young. The mountain building process was completed here several million years ago. As early as the Precambrian period, the fossil record began. Land areas then began to emerge on the site of the endless ocean. The area where the modern Andean Cordilleras are located for a long time was either sea or land, and the height of the Andes changed significantly. The mountain range completed its formation after the uplift of rocks. Huge folds, consisting of stone, as a result of this process, moved to an impressive height. By the way, this process is not over. It continues in our time. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes sometimes occur in the Andes.

Rivers originating in the Andes

The longest mountains on our planet are also considered the largest interoceanic watershed. The famous Amazon originates precisely in the Andean Cordilleras, as well as its tributaries. It should also be noted that tributaries of the major rivers of the states of Paraguay, Orinoco and Parana begin in the Andes. For the mainland, the mountains are a climatic barrier, that is, they shield the land from the west from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and from the east from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

Relief

The Andes are long, so it is not surprising that they are located in six climatic zones. In contrast to the southern slopes, the amount of precipitation is high on the western slopes. It reaches 10 thousand mm per year. Consequently, not only the height of the Andes varies significantly, but also their landscape.

The Andean Cordillera are divided into 3 regions in terms of relief: Central, Northern and Southern Andes. The main Cordillera are separated by depressions such as the Magdalena and Cauca. There are many volcanoes here. One of them, Huila, reaches 5750 m. The other, Ruiz, rises to 5400 m. Kumbal, which is now active, reaches a height of 4890 m. The Ecuadorian Andes, belonging to the North, include a volcanic chain marked by the highest volcanoes. Chimborazo alone is worth something - it rises to 6267 m. The height of Cotopaxi is not much less - 5896 m. The highest point of the Ecuadorian Andes is Huascaran - 6769 m is the absolute height of the mountain. The South Andes are divided into Chilean-Argentine and Patagonian. The highest points in this part are Tupungato (about 6800 m) and Medsedario (6770 m). The snow line reaches six thousand meters here.

Llullaillaco volcano

It is a very interesting active volcano located on the border of Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the Peruvian Andes (Western Cordillera ridge). This volcano is located in the Atacama Desert, which is one of the driest places on our planet. The absolute height of the Andes at the point is 6739 m. It is the highest of all the existing ones. In the area of ​​this volcano, the Andes mountains are very peculiar. Its relative height reaches 2.5 km. On the western slope of the volcano, the snow line exceeds 6.5 thousand m, which is its highest position on the planet.

Atacama Desert

In this unusual place, there are areas that have never rained. The Atacama Desert is the driest place on Earth. The fact is that the rains cannot overcome so they fall on the other side of the mountains. The sands in this desert extend to the very tropics for thousands of kilometers. The cold fog rising by the sea is the only source of moisture for native plants.

San Rafael glacier

Another interesting place that I would like to talk about is the San Rafael Glacier. It should be noted that in the south of the Alpine Cordilleras, where it is located, it is very cold. At one time, this very much surprised the pioneers, since the south of France and Venice lie at the same latitude in the northern hemisphere, and here they discovered the San Rafael glacier. It moves, at the same time constricting the slopes of the mountains, the peaks of which become sharper and steeper over time. Only in 1962 was its source discovered. A giant ice sheet cools the entire region.

Vegetation

The Andes are a unique place on our planet, and not only because of the impressive width and height of the mountains. The Andes are extremely picturesque. V different places they have their own flavor. In the Andes of Venezuela, for example, shrubs and deciduous forests grow on red soils. Equatorial and humid rainforests cover the lower slopes from the Northwest Andes to the Central Andes. Bananas, ficuses, cocoa trees, palms, vines and bamboos are found here. However, there are also rocky lifeless spaces, and many moss bogs. In places where the average height of the Andes exceeds 4500 m, there is an area of ​​eternal ice and snow. The Andean Cordilleras are known as the birthplace of coca, tomatoes, tobacco and potatoes.

Animal world

The fauna of these mountains is no less interesting. Llamas, alpacas, pudu deer, vicuñas, spectacled bears, blue foxes, sloths, hummingbirds, chinchillas live here. The inhabitants of our country can find all these animals only in zoos.

One of the features of the Andes is a wide variety of amphibian species (about 900). The mountains are home to about 600 species of mammals, as well as about two thousand species of birds. The variety of freshwater fish is also great. There are about 400 species of them in local rivers.

Tourism and locals

The Andean Cordilleras, apart from remote and rugged areas, are not an untouched corner of nature. Local residents cultivate almost every piece of land here. However, the road to the Andes for most tourists means a "departure" from modernity. For centuries, these places have maintained a constant way of life, which allows tourists to feel like they are in the past.

Travelers can follow the ancient Indian trails, where, however, sometimes it is necessary to stop to let the herd of guanacos, sheep or goats pass ahead. No matter how many times you have already visited these local places are always mesmerizing. Meetings with locals are also unforgettable. Their way of life is far from what we are used to. The huts in these areas are built of raw bricks. Local residents often do without electricity. In order to get water, they go to the nearest stream.

Hiking in the mountains is not mountaineering in the usual sense of the word. Rather, these are walks along steep paths. However, they should be performed only by absolutely healthy and well-trained people with special equipment.

ANDES (Andes, from Anta, in the language of the Incas copper, copper mountains), The Andean Cordillera (Cordillera de los Andes), the longest (estimated from 8 to 12 thousand km) and one of the highest (6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) mountain systems in the world; frames from the north and west South America. In the north they are bounded by the Caribbean Sea, in the west they face the Pacific Ocean, in the south they are washed by the Drake Passage. The Andes are the main climatic barrier of the continent, isolating the eastern part from the influence of the Pacific Ocean, and the western part from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.

Relief... The Andes consist mainly of the submeridional ridges of the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, separated by inland plateaus and depressions (see map).

By the totality of natural features and orography, the Northern, Peruvian, Central and Southern Andes are distinguished. The Northern Andes include the Caribbean Andes, the Colombian-Venezuelan and Ecuadorian Andes. The Caribbean Andes are stretched latitudinally and reach a height of 2765 m (Mount Niguata). The Colombian-Venezuelan Andes have a northeastern strike and are formed by the Western, Central and Eastern (height up to 5493 m) Cordilleras. The ridges fan out to the north of latitude 1 ° N and are separated by the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers. The northern branches of the Eastern Cordillera cover the intermontane Maracaibo depression. The isolated massif of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (height 5775 m, Mount Cristobal Colon) rises steeply over the coast of the Caribbean Sea. Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean there is a lowland up to 150 km wide, with low (up to 1810 m) ridges, separated from the Western Cordillera by the valley of the Atrato River. The Ecuadorian Andes (1 ° north latitude - 5 ° south latitude), less than 200 km wide (minimum width of the Andes), stretched submeridionally and formed by the Western (up to 6310 m, Chimborazo mountain) and the Eastern Cordillera, separated by a depression - the Quito graben. Along the coast there are lowlands and low mountains. The Peruvian Andes (5 ° -14 ° South latitude), up to 400 km wide, have a northwest strike. The coastal plain is almost absent. Western (height up to 6768 m, Mount Huascaran), Central and Eastern Cordillera are separated by the valleys of the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. In the Central Andes (Central Andes Highlands, 14 ° 28 ° South latitude), the strike changes from northwest to submeridional. The Western Cordillera (altitude up to 6900 m, Mount Ojos del Salado) is separated from the Central and Cordillera Real by the vast Altiplano basin. The eastern and central Cordillera are separated by a narrow depression with the headwaters of the Beni River. The Coastal Cordillera stretches along the coast, framed by the Longitudinal Valley from the east. The Southern Andes (Chilean-Argentine Andes and Patagonian Andes), 350-450 km wide, are located south of 28 ° S and are mainly submeridional. They are formed by the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley, the Main Cordillera (height up to 6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) and Precordillera. To the south, the heights decrease to 1000 m (on Tierra del Fuego). The Patagonian Andes are strongly dissected by modern and ancient (Quaternary) glaciers into numerous massifs and ridges. The coastal Cordillera becomes a chain of islands in the Chilean archipelago with deep valleys and fjords, and the Longitudinal Valley - into a system of straits. The Andes are part of the Pacific volcanic ring, and the appearance of the relief is largely determined by volcanic forms - plateaus, lava flows, volcanic cones. There are up to 50 large active, 30 extinct volcanoes and hundreds of small volcanic structures. In the Northern Andes - the volcanoes Cotopaxi (5897 m), Huila (5750 m), Ruiz (5400 m), Sangay (5230 m), etc .; in the Central Andes - Llullaillaco (6723 m), Misty (5822 m) and others; in the Southern Andes - Tupungato (6800 m), Llaima (3060 m), Osorno (2660 m), Corcovado (2300 m), Bernie (1750 m), etc.

Geological structure and minerals. The Andes, as the newest mountain structure, was formed at the Alpine stage (in the Cenozoic) in connection with the evolution of the active outskirts of South America. In its position, the Andes inherit the Andean fold system that developed throughout the Phanerozoic, the largest of the systems of the eastern part of the Pacific mobile belt. The modern Andes are a typical continental-marginal volcano-plutonic belt. At earlier stages of development (late Triassic - Cretaceous), island arc systems of the West Pacific type existed here. In terms of geological structure, the Andes have transverse and longitudinal zoning. Three segments are distinguished from north to south: Northern (Colombian-Ecuadorian), Central (with Peruvian-Bolivian and Northern Chilean-Argentine subsegments) and Southern (Southern Chilean-Argentinean). The easternmost element of the Andes is the band of the Subandian foredeeps, gradually narrowing to the south and consisting of individual links separated by transverse uplifts. The deflections are made by slightly deformed Eocene-Quaternary molasses. The Andes Orogen, thrust to the east, consists of several large uplifts with a fold-nappe structure (expressed in the relief by the Cordillera mountain ranges) and dividing them by narrower intermontane troughs or plateaus (Altiplano), filled with powerful Neogene-Quaternary molasses. The eastern (outer), partly central zones of the orogen are composed of fragments of the Early Precambrian metamorphic basement of the platform, its Paleozoic cover, and Late Precambrian (Brasilids) and Hercynian metamorphic fold complexes. The structure of the western (internal) zones is attended by Mesozoic (partly - Paleozoic) sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanic complexes formed in volcanic island arcs, back-arc basins on the ancient active outskirts of South America, as well as ophiolites of various origins. These formations were attached (accreted) to the outskirts of South America in the Late Cretaceous. At the same time, the introduction of giant multiphase granite batholiths (Coastal Cordillera of Peru, Main Cordillera of Chile, Patagonian) took place. In the Cenozoic, chains of large terrestrial stratovolcanoes formed along the active continental margin. Three volcanic groups are currently active: northern (South Colombia and Ecuador), central (southern Peru - northern Chile) and southern (southern Chile). The Andes retain high tectonic mobility, are characterized by intense seismicity associated with the subduction (subduction) of the Nazca plate under the South American plate.

The bowels of the Andes are extremely rich in minerals. Deposits of the Copper Belt of South America are associated with granite batholiths. Deposits of ores of silver, copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, platinum and other rare and non-ferrous metals (deposits in Peru and Bolivia) are confined to Cenozoic volcanic and subvolcanic formations. Oil and natural combustible gas deposits are associated with the belt of forward troughs made by Cenozoic molasses, especially in the north (Venezuela, Ecuador, northern Peru) and the extreme south of the Andes (southern Chile, Argentina). Large deposits of saltpeter, iron ores in Chile, emeralds in Colombia.

Climate... The Andes are crossed by 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical and subtropical, temperate), characterized by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the western (windward) and eastern (leeward) slopes. In the Caribbean Andes, 500-1000 mm of precipitation falls per year (mainly in summer), in the equatorial Andes (Ecuador and Colombia) on the western slopes - up to 10,000 mm, on the eastern - up to 5000 mm. The western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes and the inner regions of the Central Andes are characterized by a tropical desert climate, the eastern slopes receive up to 3000 mm of precipitation per year. South of 20 ° S latitude, precipitation increases on the western slopes and decreases on the eastern slopes. The western slopes south of 35 ° south latitude receive 5,000-10,000 mm of precipitation per year, and the eastern slopes 100-200 mm. Only in the very south, with decreasing heights, there is some leveling in the wetting of the slopes. The snow line is located in Colombia at an altitude of 4700-4900 m, in Ecuador - 4250 m, in the Central Andes 5600-6100 (in Pune 6500 m - the highest on Earth). It drops to 3100 m to 35 ° south latitude, 1000-1200 m - in the Patagonian Andes, 500-600 m - on Tierra del Fuego. South of latitude 46 ° 30'S, glaciers descend to ocean level. Large centers of glaciers are located in the Cordillera de Santa Marta and in the Cordillera de Merida (the total ice volume is about 0.5 km 3), in the Ecuadorian Andes (1.1 km 3), the Peruvian Andes (24.7 km 3 ), in the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes (12.1 km 3), in the Central Cordillera (62.7 km 3), in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (38.9 km including the Uppsala glacier). The Patagonian ice sheet is formed by two vast fields with a total length of 700 km, a width of 30-70 km, and a total area of ​​13 thousand km 2.

Rivers and lakes... An interoceanic watershed runs along the Andes, where the components and tributaries of the Amazon originate, as well as the tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana and the Patagonia rivers. In the Northern and Peruvian Andes, in narrow depressions located between the ridges, large rivers flow: Cauca, Magdalena, Marañon (source of the Amazon), Huallaga, Mantaro, etc. Most of their tributaries and rivers of the Central and Southern Andes are relatively short. The rivers of the Western and Coastal Cordilleras between 20 ° and 28 ° S latitude have almost no permanent streams, the river network is sparse. In the Central Andes, there are extensive areas of internal flow. The rivers flow into lakes Titicaca, Poopo and salt marshes (Koipasa, Uyuni, etc.). In the southern, especially the Patagonian, Andes, there are many large lakes of glacial origin (Buenos Aires, San Martin, Viedma, Lago Argentino, etc.) and hundreds of small (finite moraine and tar).

Soils, flora and fauna. The location in several climatic zones, contrasts in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes, the significant heights of the Andes cause a wide variety of soil and vegetation cover and a pronounced altitudinal zonation. In the Caribbean Andes - deciduous (during the winter drought) forests and shrubs on mountain red soils. On the eastern slopes of the Colombian-Venezuelan, Ecuadorian, Peruvian and Central Andes, there are mountain rainforests (mountain gilea) on lateritic soils, including the natural area of ​​Yungas. On the western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes - the Tamarugal and Atacama deserts, in the inner highlands - Pune. In the subtropical Andes of Chile - evergreen dry forests and shrubs on brown soils, south of 38 ° S latitude - moist evergreen and mixed forests on brown forest, in the south - podzolized soils. The high plateaus are characterized by special alpine types of vegetation: in the north - equatorial meadows (paramos), in the Peruvian Andes and in the northeast of Pune - dry cereal steppes (chalka). The Andes are home to potatoes, cinchona, coca and other valuable plants.

The fauna of the Andes is similar to that of the adjacent plains; Among the endemic species are the relic spectacled bear, llamas (vicuña and guanaco), the Magellanic dog (kulpeo), the azar fox, the pudu and uemul deer, the chinchilla, and the Chilean possum. Birds are numerous (especially in the Coastal Cordillera): condor, mountain partridge, geese, ducks, parrots, flamingos, hummingbirds, etc. It is possible that the horse, sheep and goat brought to South America contributed to the desertification of the Andes landscapes.

There are 88 national parks in the Andes with a total area of ​​19.2 million hectares, including: Sierra Nevada (Venezuela), Paramillo, Cordillera de los Pikachos, Sierra de la Macarena (Colombia), Sangay (Ecuador), Huascaran, Manu (Peru), Ishiboro Sekure (Bolivia), Alberto Agostini, Bernardo O'Higs, Laguna - San Rafael (Chile), Nahuel Huapi (Argentina), as well as numerous reserves and other protected areas.

Lit .: Lukashova E. N. South America. physical geography... M., 1958; Cordillera of America. M., 1967.

M. P. Zhidkov; A. A. Zarshchikov (geological structure and minerals).