The second person plural is Russian. Academic third-person writing
Often we use words when speaking in our native language without hesitation. Rarely does anyone make mistakes. However, there are different cases and situations when it is simply necessary to update knowledge, to clarify something, to repeat or re-learn.
Verb face
The face of the verb tells us who is performing the action. It is an inflectional grammatical category of verbs that expresses the action voiced by the verb relative to the participant in the speech. Such a category of a person is characteristic of:
- forms of the imperative verb;
- verbs of the indicative mood of the future and the present.
In Russian, an action called a verb is distinguished by quantity (singular (singular) and plural (plural)) and by persons, of which there are three:
- first: singular I mean that the speaker is the subject of speech and performs an action (I am preparing a holiday, I will pick a berry);
plural We - a group of persons together with the speaker perform an action (we watch TV, we go in for sports); - second: singular You - indicates the action performed by the interlocutor (you plant the eggplants, you read the magazine);
plural You - mean actions that relate simultaneously to the interlocutor and a group of persons (you dream of the sea, you dig up potatoes); - third: singular He, she, it - indicates an action with respect to a person or object that does not participate in speech (he shows the focus, she goes to the shooting gallery);
plural They - indicates actions regarding persons or objects that are not involved in speech (they play the ball).
How to determine the face of a verb
You can determine the face of the verb by posing a question, as well as highlighting the personal ending of the verb, determining its meaning, taking into account the content of the text:
Verb 1 l .: What will I do? What am I doing? What will we do? What are we doing?
Verb 2 L .: What will you do? What are you doing? What will you do? What you are doing?
Verb 3 L .: What will he do? What is he doing? What will they do? What are they doing?
Consider examples of using the faces of the verbs in the table. Please note: with the help of particles, yes, let it, let it form the forms of the first and third persons of the imperative verbs.
Exception: impersonal verbs (lit up, rained) and infinitives (sing, groan), past tense forms of the verb do not have the category of a person.
Determining the face of a verb in Russian will not be difficult for any person who knows the above information. After all, speaking competently in our time is a sign of good form!
In the Russian language they have a lot of grammatical categories. These include the category of the person, the category of tense and mood in verbs, the category of gender, etc. The study of categories and their grammatical expressions in the aggregate gives objective knowledge about the morphology of the language.
Person category in Russian
There are 3 persons in Russian - first, second and third. Its forms express the relation of the action to the speaker. To correctly determine the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person in Russian, you need to know the main pronouns that express its semantics. Let's turn to the table.
So, we have 3 persons in Russian. The table above shows which pronouns to look at when defining a face.
1st person shows the attitude to the action of the speaker or speakers. Speakers are participants in an action or conversation.
The 2nd person form expresses the attitude of the action towards the interlocutor or interlocutors. They are also participants in the conversation.
The third person forms are of a dual nature. They can express, firstly, the attitude of the action towards the person (people) who are not participating in the conversation. Moreover, they are indirect participants in the action. Secondly, the forms of the third person in Russian express the attitude of an action to an object or something inanimate.
Not all pronouns have a face identification. As you know, pronouns are divided into several categories: personal, reflexive (it is one - itself), possessive, interrogative-relative, negative, demonstrative and attributive. Only personal pronouns have a category of person, and they are all listed in the table above. It should be remembered that for personal pronouns, the category of a person is one of the most important, and most importantly, unchangeable categories.
Face category for verbs
Verbs have a pronounced category of person in Russian. Many foreigners who study Russian find it difficult to rebuild, because when the faces change, the endings of the verbs automatically change. It is also worth noting that not all verb forms have faces in Russian. So, for example, in the forms of the past tense, the person cannot be determined. Let's take the verb "read" as an example. Let's try to define his face: "I" read, "you" read, "he" read. It is clearly seen that when the persons change, the verb itself does not change. His face can only be identified in context. Compare: "I read the book." - "Pavel read the book."
The same phenomenon is observed in the plural forms: "we" read, "you" read, "they" read. Likewise, a face can only be contextual.
An interesting phenomenon is observed in the forms of the present. In the 3rd person, the category of gender is erased from future tense verbs. Compare: "She is painting a picture" and "He is painting a picture." If we take the verb “writes” without context, it becomes incomprehensible whether a male or female person performs this action.
1st person for verbs
For faces in Russian, verbs are mainly indicated by endings. First person singular verbs (in present and future tenses) have endings -Y or -YU... For example: I write, I read, I call, I scream. For verbs of the 1st and 2nd person conjugation, the endings in the 1st person are the same, therefore, when writing the 1st person verbs, people make fewer spelling mistakes.
2nd person for verbs
2 person in Russian for verbs has its own characteristics. They are associated with the endings of verbs. As you know, the endings in verbs depend on the conjugation. So, verbs of the 1st conjugation have the ending -EAT singular and -ETE in plural. For example, eat, come in. 2nd conjugation verbs end - SEE singular and -IT in the plural. For example, you call, shout. The 2nd person in verbs can be recognized either in a specific context, or by a special ending.
3rd person for verbs
As mentioned above, the 3rd person in Russian is defined by the pronouns "he", "she", "it", "they". 3rd person verbs have their own endings paradigm. For verbs of the 1st conjugation, these endings -THE singular and -YUT in the plural (he, she, it reads, they read). Verbs of the 2nd conjugation have endings -IT and -AT (YAT) plural - he, she, it calls, they call.
If you know the inflections that define faces in Russian for verbs, then there will be no problems with the formation of new forms. It is also worth noting that knowing the category of a person helps when spelling words. Verb endings are one of the most difficult spelling in school curriculum... Knowing the faces will help you navigate the choice of ending.
Conclusion
G.I. Kustova, 2011
Face- the inflectional grammatical category of the verb, characteristic finite(see) forms present-future tense(see Time) (presentation). The face has features of both syntactic and nominative categories. In the Russian grammatical tradition, forms that have a personal-numerical indicator are called personal, or conjugated (see. Verb form system, Finiteness). The facial paradigm includes first, second and third person forms. The shape of the face shows what is the role of the subject of the verb (subject) in the speech act: is the referent of the subject the speaker (1st person), the addressee (2nd person), or neither (3rd person).
1. Morphology
The face is morphologically expressed by the inflection of the present-future tense, in which the meaning of the face is combined with the meaning of the number (see Number of the verb).
In the indicative mood, the morphological indicator of the face is available in the forms of the present and future tense (see). The past tense forms of the indicative mood and the subjunctive mood forms do not have a grammatical category of a person, but have a grammatical category of gender. In the past tense and the subjunctive mood, the indication of a person is carried out in context - using a noun or personal pronoun: I've come; You came; He / a friend came.
1.1. Facial category expression: indicative mood
In the present and future simple tense, verbs have the following inflections, which differ (except for the 1st person singular forms) depending on the type of conjugation:
Other archaic verb conjugations to be (I am, you are) are also found in cult texts and texts high style and, accordingly, in quotes from these texts:
(3) The Lord said to Peter: “You you Peter, and on this rock I will build My Church ”(Matthew 16:18) [John Meyendorff. Orthodox testimony in modern world (1992)]
(4) Confirm, O Lord, on the stone of Thy commandments, my lost heart, as one is holy you and the Lord ... [L. Ulitskaya. Journey to the seventh side of the world (2000)]
Ligamentous and local to be usually has a null form: You ø is ill; He ø teacher; Children ø in the garden.
1.2. Facial category expression: imperative
2. Usage: syntax and semantics
2.1. Deictic nature of the face category
The category of a person is associated not only with a certain morphological form (finite, or personal), but also with a certain syntactic position: the finite forms of a verb in a sentence are predicate (for more details, see Finite).
The question of the status of the category of a person does not have an unambiguous solution in the Russian grammatical tradition. There is an approach in which a person is treated as a purely syntactic (conciliatory) category that does not have its own nominative meaning. The verb is consistent in the face with the subject [Melchuk 1998: 280–281]. With this approach, even in impersonal and vaguely personal sentences, a zero subject is postulated. Within the framework of another approach, it is customary to consider that the face of the verb has its own semantics, and pronouns are analytical adjectives of the face, duplicating personal inflection in the present-future tense. Wed: "Combinations of the type I write, you are writing, i wrote, you wrote etc. are in the Russian language not free syntactic phrases, but analytic-synthetic forms of the verb. This means that the elements I, you, he in combination with writing, you write, writes they act not as pronouns, but as (redundant) personal indicators of the verb form, which is reflected in their incomplete accentuation ”[Isachenko 2003 (2): 410].
The variety of approaches is partly due to the fact that both in the semantic and syntactic aspects, the category of a person differs from the "normal" nominative and syntactic categories (see article Grammar categories).
As for the content of the category of a person, then, in contrast to nominative categories such as the number of nouns, reflecting the properties of extra-linguistic reality, the category of a person is focused on a speech act, i.e. the semantics of the face is of a deictic nature. As for matching by face, it does not correspond to the canonical concepts of matching. In the standard case, the matched element duplicates the grammeme of the concordance controller: for example, the adjective being agreed receives the gender gramme from the concordant noun. The face category of the verb deviates too much from this schema to consider face selection as canonical agreement.
First, the conformance checker does not have the grammatical category of the person. In personal pronouns, the face is the lexical, not the grammatical meaning.
NOTE... There is a point of view (discussed, for example, in [Plungyan 2011: 310–312]) that personal pronouns are a closed class of "fully grammaticalized lexemes" that do not have lexical meaning, but have only grammatical - indicate the participants in the speech act. In the Russian grammatical tradition, this point of view has not received widespread(cf., for example, [Vinogradov 1947: 329–330], [Zaliznyak 1967: 62], [Grammar 1980 (1): §§1270–1280], where personal pronouns are considered common tokens, albeit with some peculiarities in behavior grammatical categories).
Nouns no longer have a category of person: nouns, by default, are equated with pronouns of the 3rd person, since they are combined only with the form of the 3rd person of the verb, however, there cannot be a grammatical category consisting of one grammeme, which is also found only in the form of the nominative case in the position of the subject and only with the verb of the present-future tense.
In the 1-2 person indicative mood, the subject can usually be omitted, because the form of the verb unambiguously indicates it, and imperative constructions in standard literary speech are usually used without a subject. Moreover, with forms of joint action (see), the use of the subject is prohibited, and its introduction turns the imperative form of joint action into an indicative form of the future tense, cf.: Masha, let's go to the cinema!- motivation; Masha, we are going to the cinema- statement.
Third-person forms can also express their deictic meaning (‘not the speaker and not the addressee’) without a subject. Another thing is that according to the form of the third person, in contrast to 1-2 persons, it is impossible to determine the referent of the subject of the verb. In the subject pronoun of 1-2 persons, two meanings are glued together: it indicates both the participant in the speech act (since this is a personal pronoun) and the subject of the action (since it is the subject). In this sense, the 3rd person pronoun does not give anything to the 3rd person verb: the sentence He will come soon in the same way does not provide specific information about the reference of the subject, as does the sentence Coming soon.
Thus, the choice of the person of the verb may not be oriented towards the subject, but appeal directly to the participants of the speech act, just like, for example, the gender of the verb in constructions like The doctor came reflects not the gender of the subject, but the gender of its denotation (for more details, see the article Gender). Considering these facts, we can say that the face of the verb in Russian is not entirely consistent and has features of the nominative category.
On the other hand, the category of a person undoubtedly has a concordant aspect, which is that both the subject and the predicate must refer to the same person. So, if the speaker speaks about himself in the 3rd person, for example: Listen to what your mom says to you(when a mother addresses her child, i.e. in the meaning of ‘listen to what I’m telling you’), the 1st person of the predicate is not allowed: * Listen to what your mom says to you.
It is significant that in the Russian grammatical tradition, in relation to the connection of the predicate with the subject, they speak not of agreement, but of coordination: in a speech act, a single indicator of a person is selected, which applies to both the subject and the predicate. Because of this, sentences in which the subject and predicate are uncoordinated are unacceptable in the Russian language, i.e. sentences of the form * Men go, which are found, for example, in the Adyghe language.
The relevance of an action to a person can be expressed not only by the forms of verbs ( I bring to your attention...) and not only personal pronouns (cf. to me be on duty – You be on duty – Him be on duty), but also by other means - lexical, constructive-syntactic, intonational, compare: The author of these lines; Your humble servant- attribution to the 1st person speaking; Stand up!; To me!; The carriage!- attribution to the 2nd person, the addressee. In the theory of functional grammar, all these means are considered within the category personalities, the core of which is the grammatical face of the verb and the system of personal pronouns [Bondarko 2002: 543–567].
2.2. Categorical meanings of personal forms
The use and interpretation of personal-numerical forms of verbs is influenced by various semantic, syntactic and communicative factors.
In the indicative mood, the forms of the 1st and 2nd person are opposed to the forms of the 3rd person, which is associated with the orientation of the category of the person towards the speech act. The values of the 1st and 2nd person in grammars are called personal since they correspond to the speaker and the addressee, which are always faces.
In the sphere of persons proper, the 1st and 2nd persons are opposed. V.V. Vinogradov noted that in the forms of the 1st person “even with a figurative use, the relation to a specific subject of speech is clearly preserved,” while the forms of the 2nd person, more abstract and indefinite, can lose direct relation to a specific interlocutor and receive a generalized meaning [Vinogradov 1947 : 459]. V.V. Vinogradov believed that only the context determines whether the form of the 2nd person refers to a specific interlocutor, i.e. to a single you", To any person ( you die - they will bury) or to the speaker himself, i.e. to 1st person ( will you go, used to ...) [Vinogradov 1947: 456].
The meaning of the 3rd person in grammars is called subject-personal since the subject of the situation, denoted by the form of the third person, can be either a person or an inanimate object. The 3rd person form does not contain information about the subject, except for the negative one - 'is neither the speaker nor the addressee', therefore, in the absence of a subject sentence with a predicate in the 3rd person form, they are considered semantically and structurally incomplete (about indefinite personal and impersonal meaning forms of the 3rd person, see).
In the imperative mood, the personal-number paradigm is arranged significantly differently than in the indicative one: as the form of the 2nd person ( Go!; Go!) and the form of joint action ( Let's go!; Come on!) includes an indication of the addressee. The meaning of the construction of the 3rd person ( Let him come in!) also appears to contain an implicit “target component” (something like ‘tell him to come in’).
Thus, if in the indicative the starting point of the personal system is the speaker, then in the imperative the starting point is the addressee.
2.3. The face and semantics of the verb. Personal and impersonal verbs
In the Russian grammatical tradition, personal verbs are opposed, which have a complete personal-numerical paradigm and in a sentence express the meanings of a person (change in persons and numbers), and impersonal verbs, which:
- do not change in persons and numbers and, therefore, do not express the corresponding grammatical meanings (impersonal verbs are considered to be outside the category of person);
- have a limited set of forms: they are used in the form of the 3rd person singular present and future tense ( Dusk), in the form of the neuter singular past tense and the subjunctive mood ( It was getting dark) and in the form of the infinitive ( It starts to get dark);
- are used as a predicate of an impersonal construction.
For many personal verbs it is also possible impersonal use: The paint smells strong – Smells strongly of paint.
The opposition of personal and impersonal verbs does not duplicate the opposition of situations related and not related to a person: an impersonal verb can describe the state of a person ( Brother can't sleep), and personal - a situation with an impersonal subject ( The dress looks good).
Among the impersonal verbs there are some that cannot be attributed to a person, cf. getting dark, getting colder, but there are those that designate only and exclusively the processes and states of a person, cf. be sick, chills, I want to, itching to... They represent these processes and states as having no source, but having a carrier subject, expressed in the forms of the dative or accusative (you are shivering; I would like to).
For personal verbs, i.e. verbs that formally have a complete personal paradigm, the use of certain forms of a person depends on lexical meaning verb.
Some verbs designate situations, the subject of which cannot be a person ( rust, burn, to flicker and under.). In these verbs in the direct meaning, only the forms of the 3rd person are normally used, but the forms of the 1st and 2nd person are not used. As noted by Yu.P. Knyazev, such verbs “could be called impersonal” [Knyazev 2008: 371], but this term is not used in grammars.
In addition, there are classes of verbs for which, for semantic or pragmatic reasons, the 1st person form is not used. First of all, these are verbs of behavior and interpretation (see [Apresyan 2006: 145–160]): show off, ask, boast, grovel, ascend, extol, fawn, fawn, grimace, break, be rude, run up, climb[to smb.], shield and under. They represent the situation through the eyes of an external observer and usually contain a negative-evaluative component. For them, it is unnatural to use in the form of the 1st person of the present tense: ? I break / creep / shield... However, in many contexts, the prohibition on attribution to the speaker is lifted: No matter how I shield, he is always reprimanded; In the end, of course, I agree, but for the sake of appearance, a little I will break ; If I I will climb to him with questions, he will not like it... Wed See also examples from Corpus:
(7) Firstly, people are still alive, and secondly, it's me boasting only, in fact, there is no longer my will over you, and what awaits you is that you yourself will prepare for yourself. [BUT. Slapovsky. Money Day (1998)]
(8) This is completely clear to me myself, but for some reason others do not believe, even the closest friends. Believe that I grimacing... [AND. Grekov. Ladies' Master (1963)]
(9) Oh my God, and what am I grimacing, all the same, this letter will not get not only to you, but even to the post office, so why not write the whole truth? [YU. Hermann. My dear man (1961)]
(10) He owns a bicycle. And I grimacing, hypocrite. [YU. K. Olesha. The Chain (1929)]
(11) And add to this the most terrible thing, that every time, having felt real inspiration, I immediately painfully feel the consciousness that I pretending and grimacing in front of people ... [A. I. Kuprin. The Pit (1915)]
Interpretive verbs with a negative assessment are sometimes conventionally called "3rd person verbs" (for reasons of their incompatibility with the speaker), while the 2nd person form in the function of reproaching the addressee is also very characteristic of them: What you breaking down ! ; Forever you are his shield! ; Do not be rude senior!
Wed corpus data on the frequency of 1/2/3 person forms in verbs boast and grimace:
Table 1. Facial forms of verbs interpretation according to Corpus data
In addition, in an independent position, the 1st person of verbs is not allowed, which include in their semantics an observer - a syntactically inexpressible subject of perception: to appear, be seen, turn white, loom and under.: ? I show myself on the road in a few minutes; ? I looming in the window... Within the scope of certain predicates or operators, some of them allow for reference to the speaker: As soon as I show myself from around the corner, turn on the camera(at the same time, there are verbs that both include the observer and require an inanimate subject, i.e. they never admit the 1st person: * Neighbors saw me whitening at the entrance, cf .: At the entrance turns white some kind of box).
Finally, some verbs internal state there is a ban on the use of the 1st person form of the present tense in independent negative sentences: ? I do not I know what have you come, cf .: I didn't know you came; They thought I didn't know about his arrival.
It is also believed that some verbs denoting internal processes and states of a person (such as see, to want etc.), the forms of the 1st person, on the contrary, are more common than the forms of other persons. Wed corpus data for verbs to want and see:
Table 2. Facial forms of verbs internal processes and human states according to the Corps data
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to want |
See |
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The following semantic groups of verbs have impersonal use: - states and phenomena of nature, the environment (dawn, dusk, dusk, freeze, get colder and etc.): (62) It took about fifteen minutes to get to the pump station, at least. - Phew how bakes... - Valya muttered, wiping her forehead. [T. Tronina. Mermaid for intimate meetings (2004)] - physical and mental conditions of a person (will feel sad, will like, (not)I believe, breathe, doze, shiver, it seems(not)lying down, feverish, bored, unwell, itching, uncomfortable, perspiration, washes away (ask), sickening, itching, hurting, giving up,(not)sitting,(not)sleeping, impatient, sick, wanting,(not)read and etc.): (63) To my wife unwell... [M. Shishkin. One night awaits everyone (1993-2003)] (64) Everyone lived by himself and did everything that he pleases... [IN. Medvedev. Barankin, be a man! (1957)] (65) Who could have known that I itch get out of the car this very minute. [TO. Surikov. Traffic accident (2003)] - events and processes not controlled by the person who is involved in them (will happen,ugorazdit and under.): (66) Will get will you ever see the performances of this great theater? [IN. Davydov. Theater of my dreams (2004)] - modal states (should, not fit, remains, befitting, have to, should, worth, succeed): (67) Under these conditions has to refer to the experience of foreign researchers, and those who worked in relatively similar social, political and economic conditions. ["Notes of the Fatherland" (2003)] (68) Thus, universities remains come to terms with the situation when not students compete among themselves for the right to study, but institutes― for the right to teach them. ["Kommersant-Vlast" (2002)] (69) To choosing a night care product costs be especially careful. ["Dasha" (2004)] - quantitative assessments (enough, getting): (70) As before, in the world enough socio-political, economic, interethnic, religious and other contradictions. ["Notes of the Fatherland" (2003)] (71) Parents simply do not enough neither time nor energy for various "pedagogical delights", as a result, these kids, who do not experience the exhausting pressure of parental love, grow up to be more balanced, self-confident and purposeful people. ["100% health" (2003)] (72) We, Russians, lacking consistency in the mind and we do not own the syllogism of the West ... [P. A. Sorokin. Sociologist's notes. Slavophilism inside out (1917)] In an impersonal form, verbs of physical processes and physical changes are often presented, presented as the result of the action of elemental forces (The rain will wash away the inscription → Rain wash away inscription; The current carries the boat → Flow refers boat): (73) And another time he sits in his room, the wind smells, he assures that he has a cold; the shutter knocks, he will shudder and turn pale; and in my presence he went to the wild boar one-on-one [M. Yu. Lermontov. A Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)] - pain and involuntary movements: (Stabs in the side; It hurts in the chest, it stings the wound; It bakes in the chest; Reduces the leg; It will be so skewed): (74) Sometimes so grab that at least lie down and die. [AND. Grekov. Fracture (1987)] Forms passive voice(see pledge): (75) Viktor Ilyukhin introduced a draft statement of the State Duma on the personnel strengthening of law enforcement agencies. In it the president offered dismiss Gryzlov from office. ["Newspaper" (2003)] (76) However, according to Muslim canons, a woman prohibited leave parts of the body open, except for the oval of the face and hands. ["Lawyer" (2004)] Impersonal use is not associated only with the 3rd person singular. In the past tense and the subjunctive mood, where there are no personal inflections, the impersonal use has the form of the neuter singular: (77) What kind of lace is there? Natalya Petrovna disgusted weave them. [BUT. Efros. Profession: director (1975-1987)]
The action is presented as being performed by an "undefined subject". We are talking about a specific action that can be performed by an indefinite number of persons ( Behind the wall talking ) or one person ( More to you will come ; Wait, you will call - possibly one person), see details. Uncertain personal suggestions(cm.): (78) And meanwhile they detained me by force here, they poke a lamp in my eyes, in the bath bathe, about Uncle Fedya something ask! [M. A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita (1929-1940)] The speaker does not know or does not care who is performing the action; or he doesn't want to name the subject for some reason. An indefinite personal form can only mean a person's action: Outside make noise can only be said about people, not about trees, cars, etc. In [Melchuk 1974] it is noted that an indefinite personal construction It was scratched expresses the presence of a human agent in a situation, as opposed to a passive construction He was scratched... Another feature of indefinite personal constructions, in contrast to generalized personal ones, is that in generalized personal constructions the speaker can include himself in a generalized subject, cf. You reread such books with pleasure.(‘Anyone, including myself’), while indefinitely personal constructions, on the contrary, express “alienation”, distance from the first person (see [Bulygina, Shmelev 1997: 341–347]). The literature provides whole line examples of such alienation, cf. examples from [Khrakovsky 1991]: “the statement The work was finished at 5 o'clock inappropriate if it comes about the work done by the speaker, as opposed to The work was completed at 5 o'clock where there is no such prohibition ”; Wed See also an example from [Paducheva 2012]: Late autumn days are usually scolded, but I love her(Pushkin), where the speaker is not simply "excluded from the potential set of persons who are meant as a subject", but is also opposed to this set. The exception is cases like Tell you…; Yes, they wish you well, understand!, which in [Bulygina, Shmelev 1997: 341] are interpreted as a result of a shift in empathy. Indefinite personal meaning can have both the plural forms of the 3rd person, and the plural forms of the past tense and the subjunctive mood, which do not have a formal indicator of a person: (80) Apples and prunes traditionally serve with a goose. [Recipes national cuisines: Scandinavian cuisine (2000-2005)] (81) Hence, “about tastes not argue"- the truth is not ethical or psychological, but physiological. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)] Modern researchers explain the differences between generalized personal and vaguely personal sentences in different ways. referential status(see Referential Status) of the third-person zero, which is seen in such proposals. A third-person zero can have specific reference status if the proposal relates to a specific single situation ", as in the example: (82) They read your novel, - Woland began, turning to the master, - and they said only one thing, that, unfortunately, it was not finished. [M. Bulgakov, Master and Margarita] and “may have generic status as in sentences Do not count your chickens before they are hatched; They do not beat someone who is lying down"[Paducheva 2012]. 2.5.2. Imperative mood
(83) Take care honor from a young age! (proverb) (84) Only Grigory Alexandrovich, in spite of the heat and fatigue, did not want to return without prey, such was the man: what he thinks, give it; apparently, as a child he was spoiled by his mother ... [M. Yu. Lermontov. A Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)] The 2nd person singular form can express duty, while it can be used in a generalized personal meaning: (85) But the trouble is when he is offended by such a person who does not dare not scold; home here hold on! [A.N. Ostrovsky. Thunderstorm (1860)] (86) Wherever throw, there is a wedge everywhere. (proverb) (87) He is a writer. Yes, he's a writer. And he doesn't even have his own office. Oh my god, right at least cry over the unfortunate fate of the writer Ivanko. [IN. Voinovich. Ivankiada, or the story of the settling of the writer Voinovich into a new apartment (1976)] There are also uses where the action is presented as generalized, but refers to the speaker himself: (88) What do you think, to tell him that I am already on my way home, or not: excuse yourself then from him! [SMS messages from senior schoolchildren (2004)] (89) And I still had a tooth with a hollow, something ached ... it must have been after bathing, - it ached so much, even though cry... [BUT. Nekrasov. The Adventures of Captain Vrungel (1960-1980)]
The plural form can refer to one person: (90) " Wrap up please, everything, ”I say, returning the token. ["Knowledge is Power" (2003)] (91) Try it explain your point of view to your partner in order to come to common decision that would suit both of you. ["Dasha" (2004)]
The motivation for such uses is directed to any person, including the addressee: (92) Not experiment over your own child, not make him with all his might to justify the hopes placed on him. ["100% health" (2003)] = ‘no one needs, don’t experiment’
Like the 1st person plural indicative form, the joint action form can express the meaning: (93) - Let's not we will cry, citizen, - said the first calmly, and the accountant, feeling that he was completely unnecessary here, jumped out of the secretary's room and a minute later was already at fresh air... [M. A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita (1929-1940)] M. 1967. 4. Main literature on the topic
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Morphology of the Russian literary language *
VERB
Conjugation of verbs
Future tense, simple and complex
The future tense forms of verbs are perfect. and imperfect. species, differing in meaning, also differ in their education. The verbs are perfect. the form of the future tense corresponds in formation to the form of the present tense of imperfect verbs. species, i.e. form, relative to it and in meaning. Both of these forms are synthetic forms in which the totality of real and formal meanings is expressed in the same word, cf. the present tense of the verbs is imperfect. of the kind I write, I read and the future tense of the verbs is perfect. of the kind I will write, read.
The verbs are imperfect. the form of the future tense is formed analytically, by combining the future tense form of the auxiliary verb to be with the infinitive of the conjugated verb, i.e. the verb from which the future tense must be formed, for example: I will read, you will write, they will decide etc. In the future tense form formed in this way, the infinitive of the conjugated verb expresses real and non-syntactic formal meanings (type, recurrence or irreversibility, transitivity or intransitivity), while the auxiliary verb expresses syntactic formal meanings (mood, tense, person, number).
According to the terminology accepted in Russian grammar, the synthetic future tense of verbs is perfect. species is called future simple (write, read), and the analytical future tense for verbs is imperfect. species - future complex (I will write, I will read).
Verb face shapes
In the present and future tense, verbs form forms called personal, or by persons... These forms designate the person to whom the speaker refers to the process expressed by the verb, and the person denoted by the verb is determined by its relation to the speaker. There are three such personal forms: 1st, 2nd and 3rd person. Each of them is presented in unit. and plural. number.
The faces of the verb, opposing each other in meaning, form two pairs of correlative forms. One of them is formed by the forms of the 1st and 2nd person. These forms, as actually personal, are opposed by the form of the third person, which in its meaning can be defined as impersonal and which is designated as the form of the third person only in relation to the first and second persons.
The personal meaning of personal forms proper, i.e. forms of the 1st and 2nd person, basically corresponds to the meaning of personal pronouns-nouns. 1st person form unit numbers means that the speaker relates the process expressed by the verb to himself: I write, I read... In other words, the person to whom the process belongs is "I". 1st person pl. numbers are used when the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to a group of persons, which include himself, i.e. refers it to "we": we write, we read.
2nd person form unit numbers means that the speaker relates the process expressed by the verb to his interlocutor, i.e. to the one to whom the speech is directed, to "you": you write, you read... The corresponding form is plural. numbers means that the speaker refers the process expressed by the verb to a group of persons (more than one) to whom he speaks, or to a group of persons, which includes the speaker's interlocutor, i.e. refers the process in general to "you": write, read... In addition, the 2nd person is plural. numbers are used as a form of polite or formal address to one person (to "you"): Listen, Gorsky ... You yourself know that I am not being capricious now.(I. Turgenev), I want to know: how do you explain this? `` And I want to know what right you have to question me, '' I replied.... (I. Turgenev)
2nd person shape unit numbers are also used in the so-called generalized personal meaning. This happens when the speaker means through it that the process expressed by the verb does not refer to any specific interlocutor, but to any possible person, including the speaker himself, for example: Has completely ruined a man ... What are you going to do!(A. Pisemsky), Until you know him, you will not enter him - you are afraid, as if you were shy; and if you come in, it’s as if the sun will warm you up, and you will be all cheerful... (I. Turgenev) In this meaning, the form of the 2nd person unit. numbers are widely used in proverbs: You will learn from the clever, from the stupid you will unlearn, Tears will not help grief, Plant a seed - you will grow an apple tree etc. Generalized personal meaning can have a 2nd person not only in the form of a unit. numbers, but also in the form of plural. numbers: A quarter of an hour before the sun goes down, in the spring, you go out into the grove with a gun, without a dog. You look for a place for yourself somewhere near the edge, look around, examine the piston, wink with a comrade ... Birds babble chatterously; young grass glistens with a cheerful sparkle of emerald ... you are waiting.(I. Turgenev)
Contrasted in meaning to the 1st and 2nd persons in their totality, the form of the 3rd person means that the speaker does not attribute the process expressed by the verb either to himself or to his interlocutor. In unit. number, the form of the third person in the absence of a subject has an impersonal meaning, i.e. it indicates the impossibility of attributing the process to any subject: My head is still pounding.(N. Gogol), The heat from her and glows... (I. Turgenev), There is a smell of fresh milk in the air.(N. Nekrasov), The sawmill is on fire... (A. Chekhov) Only if the subject is attached to the verb or it comes out of the context, "is implied", this form means that the process refers to the speaker to an object, but not to a person in the narrow sense of the word, i.e. .e. to the speaker and his interlocutor: he writes, reads... The same meaning in the presence of a subject has the form of the 3rd person plural. numbers indicating only the plurality of objects to which the process belongs: they write, read... In the absence of a subject, the form of the 3rd person is plural. number has an indefinite personal meaning, i.e. it means that the process refers to the speakers of some objects, but indefinite and undefined, since the speaker does not care who is doing the process expressed by the verb: They carry! carry! carry!(N. Gogol), What is the name of this bridge?(A. Pushkin), After a fight, they don't wave their fists... (Proverb), Asking not to smoke... Thus, the use of the form of the 3rd person unit. the number in the impersonal meaning corresponds to the use of the third person plpl. numbers with an indefinite personal meaning. The latter cannot have an impersonal meaning, since this is hindered by the plurality expressed by it. number. The value of plurality indicates that the process is produced by some objects (more than one) and, therefore, it cannot be presented in complete abstraction from the object that produces it.
decide |
decide |
will |
} | solve |
we will |
} | solve |
Personal forms, as already mentioned, are present in the forms of the present and future tense. Moreover, since the present tense of verbs is imperfect. species and the future is simple for verbs perk. species are synthetic forms, their personal forms are formed by changing the conjugated verb itself. In the complex future tense, the verbs are imperfect. species, which is an analytical form, personal forms are indicated by changing the auxiliary verb to be, i.e. are indicated by his personal forms.
Impersonal verbs
Some verbs from personal and generic forms form only the 3rd person singular. numbers in the present and future tense and average. genus in the past tense. 3rd person and medium shapes the gender of these verbs does not indicate any person and denote a process that occurs as if by itself, without anyone's active participation: I can't sleep, No fire.(A. Pushkin), He did not walk, did not walk, did not even want to climb up... (N. Gogol), There, here, but not at home... (A. Pushkin), It was already dark when we returned home... (I. Turgenev) Such verbs are called impersonal. They are usually names or some natural phenomena: dawn, dusk, freezes, dusk, soars(before the rain), etc., or various experiences and states of a person: asleep, I think, asleep, unwell, nauseous, fever.
Formation of personal forms of the verb
Personal forms are formed by joining the base of the present. time. special endings that simultaneously denote not only the person, but also the number of the verb. Therefore, verbs have six personal endings, three for each number. According to the differences in the sound expression of these endings, most of the verbs are divided into two conjugations: first and second... The first conjugation is characterized by the endings: -y, -sh (-e), -ot (-e), -th (-em), -ote (-e), -out; second: -u, -you, -it, -im, -it, -at.
In oral speech, the endings of the first and second conjugations in many people differ only when the ending is stressed. In the same case, when the stress falls on the stem, the same is pronounced for all verbs. unstressed endings: -ish (kol'ish, l'ub'ish), -it (kol'it, l'ub'it), -im (kol'im, l'ub'im), -it '(colit', l 'killed'), -ut (kol'-ut, l'ub'ut)... Consequently, in both the first verbs and the second verbs, the conjugation without stress is pronounced in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular. numbers and 1st and 2nd persons pl. end numbers of the second conjugation (since and- phoneme variant<and> rather than <о> ), in the 3rd person pl. numbers - end of the first conjugation. Such pronunciation of unstressed personal endings is typical, for example, of the language of many Muscovites.
A certain kind of difference exists for the verbs of the first and second conjugations in the nature of the stem from which personal forms are formed, i.e. foundations of the present time. The verbs of the first conjugation have the base of the present. time. in the form as it is found in the form of the 3rd person pl. numbers, may end in posterior palate consonants (pek-ut, bereg-ut), into hard consonants, paired with soft (push-ut, met-ut, ved-ut, nes-ut, carry-ut, row-ut, swim-ut, zhm-ut, or-ut), on hissing and j (pash-ut, knit-ut, cry-ut, shine-ut, splash-ut, playj-ut, drawj-ut) and soft p ', l' (pore, count), while the verbs of the second conjugation have the base of the present. time. into soft consonants, paired with hard (let-yat, sid-yat, vis-yat, voz-yat, yell-yat, love-yat, catch-yat, noise-yat, ring-yat, gor-yat, vel-yat) as well as hissing and j (kish-at, trembling-at, shout-at, crack-at, squeal-at, poj-at)... Thus, the basis of the present. time. on the posterior palatine consonants and hard consonants, paired with soft, have only verbs of the first conjugation, and the basis on soft consonants, paired with hard (except p ', l'), - only verbs of the second conjugation. The stems do not differ in conjugation only if they have hissing consonants at the end, j and soft p ', l'.
The formation of personal forms by attaching endings is accompanied by a change in the stem, expressed in the alternation of consonant phonemes at its end according to certain norms. These alternations are presented in verbs only with certain final consonants in the stem and occur in forms that are specific for each conjugation.
For verbs of the first conjugation, the alternation of phonemes at the end of the stem occurs when the forms of the 2nd and 3rd person singular are formed. numbers and 1st and 2nd person pl. numbers. In these forms, the posterior palatine consonants change to hissing: bake-ut, bake-you (bake, bake, bake, bake), shore-ut - take care of, and hard consonants paired with soft ones - to the corresponding soft ones: push-ut - push-yosh (push-yot, push-yom, push-yote), met-ut - meth-yosh, ved-ut - ved'-yosh, nes-ut - nes'- eat, carry-ut - carry-eat, row-ut - row-eat, swim-ut - swim-eat, press-ut - press-eat, or-ut - or'-eat etc. A completely single exception is only one verb. weave, which has a posterior To replaced in alternating order with non-sibilant h, like other verbs, but on the soft To', cf .: tk-ut - tk'-yosh, tk'-yot etc. It is interesting to note that the personal forms of the verb weave with To' are basically, apart from a few borrowed words, the only case in the Russian language where To' acts in a phonetically independent position, i.e. as a separate phoneme, not a variation of the posterior palatine phoneme<To>.
For verbs of the second conjugation, the alternation of the final consonants of the stem occurs when the form of the 1st person is formed. numbers. Here soft teeth change to hissing ones: let'-at - leach-u, sid'-at - sit-u, pros'-at - prosh-u, voz'-at - lead-u, sad'-at - sad-u, ride'-at - ride; and soft labial - on combinations of labial with soft l ': yop'-at - yell'-y, lyub-at - lyubl'-y, graph'-at - graph'-y, catch'-at - catching, shum'-at - shuml'-y etc.
The verbs are distributed by conjugation as follows: the second conjugation includes verbs in which the base of the present. time. non-derivative to a soft consonant or hissing, and the stem of the past. time. derivative with suffixes -and-(bel-and-l - bel-yat, resh-i-l - resh-at, lyub-i-l - lyub-yat and etc.), -(gor-e-l - gor-yat, yo-e-l - let-yat, sid-e-l - sid-yat and etc.), - (scream-a-l - scream-at, stoj-a-l - stoj-at, sp-a-l - sp'-yat and etc.). Consequently, the second conjugation includes, firstly, the verbs of the IV productive class (bel-and-l - bel-yat) and, secondly, the verbs of the second group I of the unproductive class (gor-e-l - gor-yat, cry-a-l - cry-at)... All other verbs, with the exception of a few, which differ in peculiarities in the formation of personal forms, refer to the first conjugation.
Three verbs – want to run and honor – form some personal forms according to the first conjugation, and others according to the second. Of these, the verb to want has a plurality of the number of endings of the second conjugation that are attached to the usual soft consonant stem for this conjugation T': hot-it, hot-it, hot-it... The personal forms of units. the numbers of this verb are formed by the endings of the first conjugation, and they are attached to the stem in which the consonant T' is replaced by h: I want, I want, I want, I want... The other two verbs - run and honor, having the stems of the present characteristic of the verbs of the first conjugation. time. on the back palatine G(cf. run-ut and shore-ut) and solid T(cf. th-ut and met-ut), which in the formation of the 2nd and 3rd person unit. numbers and 1st and 2nd person pl. numbers are replaced by f(cf. run-ish and save-eat) and T'(cf. what are you and met'-you), from personal forms according to the first conjugation form only the 3rd person pl. numbers: run-ut, th-ut, in other forms they have the endings of the second conjugation: run-ish, run-it, run-it, run-it and th-it, th-it, th-it, th-it.
Verbs are quite apart in the formation of personal forms. eat, get bored, give, create... They differ from other verbs primarily in that they have special personal endings in singular. number: 1st person -m, 2nd person you, 3rd person -st, and these endings are attached to a stem other than the stem of personal plural forms. numbers, i.e. to a vowel stem, not a consonant, as in the plural. number.
Mnog. number
Multiplier base the number of these verbs ends in a consonant d: soft for verbs eat, get bored(cf. ed-yat, annoying-yat) and hard in alternation with soft in verbs give, create(cf. dad-ut - dad'-im, create-ut - create'im). The former have a plurality in all personal forms. numbers of the end of the second conjugation, the second in the 1st and 2nd persons - the end of the second conjugation, and in the 3rd person - the first. As well as eat, get bored, give, create, form personal forms and their derived verbs with prefixes.
Past tense
Verbs in the past tense change in numbers, and in the singular they change, in addition, in gender. Gender and number in the past tense are indicated by endings. Namely, male. the genus is characterized by the absence of an ending (zero ending), feminine. the genus has an ending -but, average genus – -O, pl. number - ending -and... In addition to endings, generic singular forms. numbers differ from the plural form. numbers in that the first have a past tense suffix - a solid l, and the second has l soft.
Mnog. number
Verbs in which the past tense is formed from a stem ending in consonants: b, n, d, k, x, z, s, r, in man's. genus do not have a suffix -l, cf .: perished - perished, blinded - blinded, shore-whether-shore, tolk-whether - clean, dried-up - dried up, carried - carried, carried - carried, died - died.
The gender and number of the past tense are syntactic forms that, by means of agreement with the subject-noun, show that the process expressed by the verb refers to the subject masculine, feminine. or average kind or to the subject in plural. number, for example: The artillery wheezed harder. We received the order to move on the offensive. Suddenly the flames of fire licked the ranks of the front fighters sharply. A land mine exploded.
Average In addition, the genus of the past tense is used when words that do not distinguish genders, for example, numerals, act as the subject: About ten men were sitting beside him.(I. Turgenev), or the infinitive. I didn't have to lie... (I. Herzen), It never crossed my mind to laugh... (I. Turgenev) Finally, in the middle. the past tense is also used in impersonal sentences: A tree lit up with a thunderstorm, and there was a nightingale's nest on the tree... (N. Nekrasov), The open window felt damp and delightful.(A. Fadeev) In this case, the average. the genus of the past tense acts as a parallel form to the 3rd person of the present and future simple tense, when they are used in an impersonal meaning (see above, p. 35).
Plural form the number of the past tense can be used in an indefinite personal meaning corresponding to the same value of the third person pl. numbers of the present and future tense: He was caught at the station. They took me to the sponge check. When interrogated, he answered willingly and cheerfully. - The name of? - Grigory Ivanovich Peskov.(L. Seifullina)
The past tense has no personal forms. Therefore, the person to whom the verb belongs is denoted in the past tense by personal pronouns, which are always put with the verb if the process expressed by it refers to the 1st and 2nd person of both numbers, except for those cases when the person is clear from the context of speech: We received the order to move on the offensive. Silently crawled forward.
Short form of the verb
In emotional language, from some verbs (mainly onomatopoeic or denoting movement), a special short form is used with the meaning of a sudden single action: Grab a friend in the forehead... (I. Krylov), Then the knight jumped into the saddle and threw the reins.(I. Krylov), To the left, to the left and from the cart - whack into the ditch!(I. Krylov), The whip snapped - and like an eagle he rushed... (M.Lermontov), I yelled at her, and she suddenly slammed on the sofa... (A. Pisemsky) Short form expressed by a non-derivative stem of the verb and is usually used in the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood without indicating the person, number and gender. It has a transitive or intransitive meaning depending on which verb it is derived from, cf. from transitive verbs: enough, knock, blurt out(someone or something) - grab, knock, break – and from intransitive verbs: jump, plump, splash(somewhere) - jump, bang, bump.
Conditional mood
The conditional mood means that the process expressed by the verb is not considered as real, but as intended: He would have helped you, I would have done it better, He would not have done that... Depending on the syntactic conditions and the general context of speech, this meaning, which is basic for the conditional mood, can be slightly modified. So, in complex sentence when limiting the process by any conditions expressed in subordinate clause, the conditional mood in the main sentence expresses the process as possible under certain conditions, i.e. it becomes conditional in the proper sense of the word: He wouldn't do that if he knew, If I fell, I would never get up.(A. Pushkin) In a certain context, the conditional mood can express the process as desired: If only he came, I would like to talk with you, would you tell us something, you would sit better at home and others, approaching in this case in meaning with the imperative mood.
The conditional mood is formed analytically, by combining the past tense of the conjugated verb with a particle would or b, expressing the value of the assumption. At the same time, the form of the past tense itself loses its temporal meaning, and the conditional mood expresses a process, the intended implementation of which is irrespective of the moment of speech. Gender forms and numbers with their meanings, as well as the ways of expressing attitude to a person, are the same in the conditional mood as in the past tense.
Mnog. number
Particle would, b mobile: it can stand both after the verb and before it, finally, it can be separated from the verb in other words: I would come if I was not busy, Whatever happens, you will be to blame for everything, No matter how much you ask him, he still will not say... The most common place of a particle would- after the first word of the sentence.
The imperative mood and its forms
The imperative mood, expressing a demand, an urge to action, is an expressive form, which expresses the speaker's volitional attitude to the producer of the action. On this basis, it opposes the indicative and conditional moods, which are not in themselves forms of will. As an expressive form, the imperative mood is characterized by a special incentive intonation, often accompanied by appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Through this intonation, the meaning of motivation, command can be given to almost any word: Be silent! Keep quiet! Quiet! Here! Into the corner! Go away! etc. But while in this case intonation is the only means of expressing the motivation, in the imperative mood the motivation is expressed, in addition to intonation, and by its very forms. It, therefore, is a special grammatical form of the verb, which serves to express the urge, the expression of the will of the speaker.
The imperative mood is expressed by a number of forms, which, being opposed in meaning to each other, form a system of correlative forms. So, first of all, forms are opposed to each other, which express, on the one hand, the urge to action, addressed to the interlocutor of the speaker, and on the other hand, the urge addressed to the object of speech, i.e. 3rd person. The latter are called forms 3rd person imperative: Let me be denounced as an Old Believer... (A. Griboyedov), Let the Finnish waves forget their old enmity and captivity ...(A. Pushkin) The first, i.e. the forms expressing the motivation addressed to the interlocutor, in turn, are divided into opposed correlative forms: joint shape and form 2nd person.
The joint form, or, as it is less accurately called, the form of the 1st person, expresses the urge addressed to the interlocutor to perform an action together with the speaker himself, i.e. the speaker encourages the interlocutor to take part in the action that he himself intends to perform: Let's go, let's go, Pyotr Ivanovich!(N. Gogol), Give me your hand, dear reader, and come along with me... (I. Turgenev), Let's get out of here, Nikolai! Father, let's go!(A. Chekhov)
Unlike the joint form, the 2nd person of the imperative mood expresses the urge to action without indicating its implementation by the interlocutor together with the speaker: Look, Pavlusha, study, don't be silly and don't hang around.(N. Gogol), Don't tell me about him, please, don't tell me... (A. Ostrovsky) Thus, both of these forms, being combined in the sense that both express an appeal to the 2nd person, are subdivided into the joint form and the form of the 2nd person, depending on whether they contain or do not contain an indication of the joint performance of the action by the speaker's interlocutor with the speaker himself.
In the forms of the 2nd person imperative mood, there are known semantic differences associated and determined by the type of the verb. The verbs are perfect. of the form of the 2nd person is often expressed in a softer, polite appeal to the interlocutor than the corresponding form in imperfect verbs. species, cf .: clear the table and clear the table, sweep the room and sweep the room, write a letter and write a letter, solve the problem and solve the problem etc. This difference is due to the fact that the motivation expressed by the verb is committed. species, is no longer directed at the action itself, but at its result, while the form of the 2nd person imperative mood in verbs is imperfect. species expresses the urge to action, as if ignoring its result. Somewhat different differences in meaning, determined by the type of the verb, are observed in the case when the forms of the 2nd person of the imperative mood are formed in negative verbs, i.e. particle-prefixed verbs not... Namely, for negative verbs, perk. the form of the 2nd person imperative usually has a warning meaning: don't fall, don't slip, don't catch a cold, don't forget(the warning refers to the result of the action), and for verbs it is imperfect. species, this semantic shade is absent: do not read this book, do not go there, do not listen to him etc., and the imperative mood has the meaning of prohibition. It is characteristic that such differences are not observed in a joint form.
The joint form and the 2nd person of the imperative mood form a singular. and pl. numbers, and the ratio of these forms is such that the value of unit. number is defined negatively with respect to the plural. number. Multiple forms numbers indicate that the motivation for action is directed at more than one person: Workers of all countries, unite! Guys! Isn't Moscow behind us? Well die near Moscow ...(M.Lermontov) Forms of the same unit. the numbers do not indicate the number of persons to whom the motivation for action is directed. Therefore unit. the number can be used as when referring to one person: Look, Pavlusha, study, do not be foolish and do not hang... (N. Gogol), Prove that you are my friend, we will go together. Let's go shake the old days... (A. Chekhov), and when referring to the number of persons, more than one: Listen to my command! Build up!(A. Fadeev), Nothing to do, break down the door guys... (N. Chernyshevsky), Friends! Let's go with a sad soul to him the last duty to repay... (N.Karamzin) a number, in addition to its main meaning, can also have the meaning of a polite appeal to one person: Give me your hand, dear reader, and come along with me... (I. Turgenev), ... (I. Turgenev)
As already mentioned, the forms expressing an appeal to the interlocutor, i.e. the joint form and the form of the 2nd person in their totality are opposed by the forms of the 3rd person. The meaning of the face of these forms generally corresponds to the personal meaning of the forms of the third person of the present and future tense. In particular, the form of the 3rd person pl. numbers can have an indefinite personal meaning, for example: Let me be denounced as an Old Believer... (A. Griboyedov)
|
Done. view |
Imperfect. view |
|||
(let's) decide |
let's decide |
||||
|
decide |
decide |
|||
|
let him decide |
let him decide |
In addition to these forms, the imperative mood also has forms that denote a certain kind of intimacy in relation to the speaker to the person to whom he is addressing. The meaning of intimacy in addressing is often accompanied by a tinge of some familiarity. These forms are formed by means of a special suffix -ka, which can be attached to any imperative mood: Listen, we'd better look for a ford... (I. Krylov), Jacob, raise the curtain, brother... (A. Chekhov), “Let's go to Lgov,” Yermolai once told me... (I. Turgenev), Anyway, let's start drinking tea better.... (I. Turgenev), etc. Depending on the presence or absence of this suffix, all forms of the imperative mood can be subdivided into forms indicating intimacy in addressing the face and into forms without such an indication.
Use of the 2nd person singular imperative
In the system of forms will command. inclination form of the 2nd person unit. number stands out in the sense that it can be used not only in the meaning of command. inclinations. The possibility of such use is explained mainly by the peculiarities of the personal meaning of this form. Appearing, as he generally commands. mood, a form expressing the speaker's volitional attitude to the person, the form of the 2nd person has the meaning of command. mood, however, only when it is used to refer to a specific person or persons. In the same case, when it is used in a generalized personal meaning, corresponding to the generalized personal meaning of the form of the 2nd person of the present and future tense, it will command to a greater or lesser extent, or even completely lose its meaning. inclinations: Well, I admit, cut the forests out of need, but why destroy them.(A. Chekhov), Need some tea, sugar? Do you need tobacco? Here and turn around.(A. Chekhov), Even if you die of melancholy, will they regret you? Why wait... At the same time, the characteristic will be lost. inclination motivating intonation. It is significant that in a similar meaning it is precisely the form that will command is used. mood, which is largely characterized by negative grammatical features: the absence of an indication of the joint implementation of an action and an indication of the number of persons to whom the speaker addresses with urge.
Losing meaning will command. inclinations, form of the 2nd person unit. number remains, however, an emotional, expressive form and is used mainly in oral speech to express various shades of predicative meaning. The generalized personal meaning of this form allows at the same time to use it when applied to 1st and 3rd persons. So, the form of the 2nd person will command. mood can be used in the meaning of a forced action, usually reported with a tinge of discontent, protest: He and serve the master, and sweep, and clean... (I. Goncharov), They have a ball, and the father dragged to bow... (A. Griboyedov), Here you sin, and the bosses are responsible for you... (V. Sleptsov), And he keeps laughing, but make others laugh... (I. Turgenev) and others; or in the meaning of an involuntary action with an emotional tinge of surprise: It’s my father that he should love him: what will you order me to do?... (I. Turgenev), Well, if he thinks about me, this man... (V. Sleptsov), And get them together at night, convicts... (L. Tolstoy), But all of a sudden she bowed, but supine, and even broke her leg.(I. Turgenev)
In a complex sentence, the form of the 2nd person unit. numbers will command. mood, mainly formed from the verbs perv. species, can be used in the meaning of the conditional mood. The action expressed by her in this case can refer to any person and with her (usually after) the subject is put in any of the numbers: Be he seven spans in his forehead, but he will not leave my judgment... (A. Pushkin), And if there were pistols, he would have been gone for a long time... (N. Gogol), And if it weren't for me, you would smoke in Tver... (A. Griboyedov), Do not spare the fox a pinch of hair, she would have a tail... (I. Krylov)
Formation of forms of imperative mood
In the conjugation system, the verb will command. the inclination is distinguished by the wide use of the analytical method of forming forms. So, the form of the third person and to a large extent the joint form will command. moods are formed by combining an auxiliary word or particle with the form of the conjugated verb, which in this case mainly expresses only the real meaning and non-syntactic formal meanings, while syntactic formal meanings are expressed as a separate auxiliary word. Extremely characteristic of the command. inclinations are also agglutinative forms, i.e. forms formed by attaching suffixes expressing only one formal meaning, so that several formal meanings are conveyed by a series of suffixes that "stick" to each other. In this respect, the forms of the 2nd person will command are especially indicative. inclinations. True, their main forms are unit forms. numbers - are formed in the usual inflectional way for the Russian language, i.e. by means of a suffix denoting several formal meanings, with a change in the base through alternating phonemes, and represent not one, but two types of forms, but derivatives of singular. form numbers are formed in a typically agglutinative way, by "gluing" single-valued and uniform suffixes. There are also elements of agglutination in the joint form will command. inclinations.
Joint form unit. numbers coincide in form with the 1st person pl. future tense numbers. Moreover, since the verbs are imperfect. kind of future tense, the so-called complex future, is formed analytically, then their joint form is also analytical, cf. view decide, say, do and imperfect. view we will decide, we will speak, we will do... However, some verbs are imperfect. species form a joint form unit. numbers according to the pattern of verbs perk. species. These are the verbs with the meaning of a certain movement, in which this form coincides with the form of the 1st person plural. present tense numbers: go, run, fly and etc.
Analytical joint form, coinciding with the form of the 1st person plural. the number of the future tense is used, in general, relatively rarely. Instead, the verbs are imperfect. species, the analytical form is usually used, which is formed by combining a movable auxiliary particle let's and the infinitive of the conjugated verb: let's decide, let's talk, let's do etc. The same particle is often put in the joint form of verbs perk. kind: let's decide, let's write, let's fly away and etc.
2nd person shape unit numbers will command. inclinations are usually derived from the stem of the present tense. Very few verbs are an exception in this respect. Thus, verbs VII are unproductive. class, i.e. verbs with the basis of the past. time. on the suffix -wa- and the basis of the present. time. without this suffix to suffix -j- (yes-wa-l - yes-j-ut) have in the 2nd person will command. inclination a special basis on -vaj-, cf .: yes-j-ut - yes-wai, (so) zda-j-ut - (so) zda-wai, (u) know-j-ut - (u) know-wai, (in) hundred-j-ut - (c) sta-wai... Then, verbs VI have a non-product. class with the basis of the past. time. on a vowel and and the basis of the present. time. without this vowel on j (bi-l - bj-ut) the base of the 2nd person will command. mood differs from the base of the present. time. fluent vowel e, cf .: bj-ut - bey, vj-ut - wei, lj-ut - lei, pj-ut - drink, shj-ut - shey... Isolated verbs give, create form will command. inclination with stem give, create, and the verb there is- with base eat... Finally, the verb drive as the 2nd person will command. mood is a form formed from a completely different root : go.
In modern Russian, there are two types of formation of the form of the 2nd person will command. inclinations. For some verbs, it is formed by joining the base of the present. time. suffix -and: id-ut - id-i, nes-ut - nes-i, push-ut - push-and, for other verbs - without this suffix, and then it equals the stem: get up - get up, hide-ut - hide, play j-ut - play j, draw j-ut - draw j.
With suffix -and will command. mood is formed in verbs that are singular in the 1st person. the number of the present. time. have an emphasis on the ending: I keep - keep, shout - shout, carry - carry, to the shore - take care, walk - walk, take off - take off, except for a few with the base of the present. time. on the j: I sing - sing, I stand - wait, I'm afraid - be afraid, I chew - chew etc. The stress in such forms is on the suffix -and... Also, the form with the suffix -and, already unstressed, also form some verbs in which the stress in the 1st person singular. the number of the present. time. falls on the stem, but only if this stem ends in two consonants: cum - cum, jump - jump, knock - knock, clean - clean(but cleanse), spoil - spoil(but more often spoil), etc. Also with unstressed suffix -and form the form will command. mood verbs with a prefix you-, putting stress on themselves, when they themselves are formed from verbs that have in command. mood suffix -and, cf .: carry and take out, buy and redeem, write and write out etc. The rest of the verbs form the 2nd person will command. moods without a suffix.
With the formation of both one and the other form, i.e. both with a suffix and without a suffix, in certain cases there is a change in the basis from which the command is made. mood. Namely, for verbs with a base of the present. time. to a hard consonant, paired with a soft one, this consonant will command. the mood is replaced in the order of alternation with the corresponding soft consonant. So in forms without a suffix: sit-ut - sit, bud-ut - be, climb-ut - climb, den-ut - day, get up - get up, throne-ut - touch etc. The same is observed in the formation of forms with a suffix, where before the phoneme and, i.e. in a phonetically independent position for hard phonemes, however, soft consonants are pronounced: met-ut - met'-i, id-ut - id'-i, nes-ut - nes'-i, vez-ut - vez'-i, push-ut - tolkn'-i, call-ut - call '-i, row-ut - row'-and etc.
The replacement of hard consonants by soft ones occurs only in relation to those hard ones for which there are paired soft consonants. Hard phonemes that do not have paired soft ones remain with the formation of the 2nd person will command. inclinations without replacement. Therefore, solid sibilant consonants are not replaced. w, w: hear-at - hear, write-ut - write-and, dir-ut - cut, lie-at - lie-and and others, and therefore the posterior palatine consonants are not replaced: lie-ut - lie... Form lie down, although it is completely isolated, but it is formed quite naturally, not representing any "exception". Its uniqueness is only in the fact that no other verb with the base of the present. time. on the posterior palatine form of the 2nd person will command. mood is not formed without a suffix and, cf .: pek-ut - pek-i, tk-ut - tk-i, bereg-ut - bereg-i, lg-ut - lies etc. However, even in the form with a suffix, there is no replacement of hard phonemes with soft ones. The softness of consonants here is not the result of replacing one phoneme with another, i.e. their alternation, and the consequence of the phonetic change in the posterior palatine phonemes k, g in their position before the phoneme and, since this position is known to be a phonetically dependent position for the posterior palatine, in which they change into softened variations k ', g'... Thus, at the end of the stem in forms like tk-i, lg-i etc. - the same posterior palatine phonemes as in the form lie down... The difference between them is purely phonetic.
As a result of the replacement during the formation of the 2nd person, he will command. inclinations of hard consonants, paired with soft ones, to the corresponding soft ones, the base of this form can have only soft consonants at the end, and from hard consonants only unpaired with soft ones, i.e. hissing w, w and back palatine k, g.
Education plural the number of the joint form and the shape of the 2nd person has an agglutinative character. Mnog. the number of both forms is formed by attaching the plural suffix -those to the form unit. numbers: decide, say, let's go; sit down, climb, play, push, call etc. In the joint form formed analytically, the suffix -those joins an auxiliary verb we will or particle let's, i.e. to a word that is the carrier of not real, but formal meanings: let's work, let's write, let's decide and others. Also to the auxiliary particle let's prefix plurality suffix -those in the case when this particle is placed in the joint form formed from the verbs perk. species, cf .: decide and let's decide, do and let's do, write and let's write and etc.
Similarly, forms with the meaning of intimate appeal are formed. They are formed by attaching the suffix -ka, but not only to unit forms. numbers: let's decide, let's go, sit down, play, go, as well as to plural forms. numbers: decide, come on, sit down, play, come on... In analytical forms, the suffix -ka joins, as does the plural suffix. numbers -those, to the auxiliary word: let's work, let's write, let's do(cf. let's write) and etc.
Some peculiarities should be noted in the order of attachment of the suffix -ka in education will command. moods of reflexive verbs. While the suffix -those attaches to unit forms. numbers before the return particle: walk, walk suffix -ka attaches to unit forms. and pl. numbers after the return particle: take a walk, take a walk.
The shape of the 3rd person will command. mood is an analytical form. It is formed by combining an auxiliary particle let be or let it with the shape of the 3rd person present. or bud. simple tense depending on the type of the verb: let be or let it go, let it go or let him come... Unlike other analytical forms in the 3rd person will command. moods, an auxiliary word are expressed, however, not all formal meanings. So, the person and the number in it are indicated by the conjugated verb: 3rd person singular. numbers - the form of the 3rd person unit. the number of the present. or bud. (simple) time: let it go, come; 3rd person pl. numbers - the form of the 3rd person pl. numbers: let them come, come... Only the meaning of intimacy in circulation is expressed in the usual way for analytical forms, by attaching a suffix to the auxiliary particle -ka: let it go, let it come.
In solemn poetic speech, he will command as an auxiliary word for the education of the third person. mood is used instead of particles let it, let it particle Yes: May the defeated element be reconciled with you!(A. Pushkin), May he greet a century with abundant honor, may he be a glorious participant ...(V. Zhukovsky), Honor to calloused hands! Yes their work is arguing!(F. Miller)
PARTICIPLE
The predicative forms of the verb are opposed by the attributive forms - participle and gerunds, i.e. forms in which the verb acts as minor members of the sentence.
The participle is an attributive form of the verb that expresses the process denoted by the verb as a property of the object: wastelands overgrown with bushes, a dimly burning lamp, a bone-chilling wind, cracked rocks, a slow moving wagon etc. Therefore, in a sentence, it acts as a minor member that defines a noun, i.e. as a definition. The relation of participles to a noun is expressed by the syntactic forms of gender, number and case, by means of which the participles are consistent in gender, number and case with the noun they define. The participles, therefore, are inflected forms, and their declension is the same with the declension of adjectives, with which they approach the consistent forms of gender, number and case, as well as the similarity in syntactic use.
The participles express non-syntactic formal meanings of time, which denote the relationship between the moment of the process, expressed by the participle, and the moment of speech. According to the differences in this ratio, the present participles and the past participles differ. Their temporal meaning generally corresponds to the temporal meaning of the forms of the present and past tense indicative mood.
The participles of the present tense denote that the process expressed by them occurs regardless of the moment of speech: Everyone was jealous of the agreement that reigned between the arrogant Troekurov and his poor neighbor... (A. Pushkin), and therefore, can occur at the time of speech: I saw a horse slowly climbing up the hill, carrying a wagon of brushwood.(N.Nekrasov) These participles are formed only with imperfect verbs. species. Past participles denote that the process expressed by them preceded the moment of speech: I walk along the field with a narrow border, overgrown with gruel and tenacious swan.(A. Maikov), The steppes were teeming with herds of deer and wild horses roaming in herds.(N. Gogol), The sun was already hiding in a black cloud resting on the ridge of the western mountains.(M.Lermontov) These participles are formed as in imperfect verbs. species, and the verbs are committed. species. Thus, verbs are imperfect. species have participles of both present and past tense ( playing and playing whitening and whitened, painting and painted etc.), and the verbs are committed. view - only past participles ( played, turned white, painted etc.). True, the verbs are perfect. species, in some cases, participles are formed according to the type of present participles in imperfect verbs. kind, for example: We are very glad when someone who comes from the capital will find that they have the same thing as in Petersburg.(N. Gogol), Kalinovich involuntarily recalled Nastenka, doomed to live in the wilderness and throughout her life, perhaps not seeing balls or theaters.(A. Pisemsky), however, such forms have not been established in the language and are perceived as erroneous. Some verbs of this kind have meaning of adjectives, For example: future, coming, next and etc.
Thus, participles are attributive forms of the verb, which, expressing the process as a property of an object, have a non-syntactic formal meaning of time and syntactic consistent forms of gender, number and case, indicating the relation of a participle to a noun.
In terms of their meaning and syntactic use, participles are very close to adjectives, into which they often pass, losing their temporal and verb meaning. This transition is favored by some syntactic conditions, for example, the use of participles without controlled words or even without words that define participles, in the position before the noun being defined. In this case, it is often difficult to determine whether a given form is a participle or an adjective. In particular, there is often a transition to adjectives of present participles, for example: brilliant mind, pleading eyes, evocative voice, aspiring writer, prominent politician etc. The temporal meaning of this form, which is essentially negative, can easily be perceived as the absence of an indication of time, as a result of which the sign denoted by the word appears in the meaning of a constant property and quality, and not a process taking place in time.
To be continued
* From the book: Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. An outline of the grammar of the Russian literary language. Part I. Phonetics and morphology. M .: Uchpedgiz, 1945.
Writing in third person is easy, you just need to practice a little. Its use in academic, that is, educational or scientific texts means abandoning the pronouns "I" or "you", as a rule, in order to achieve a more objective and formal style. IN fiction the third person can take the form of multiple points of view - the point of view of an all-knowing author, a limited third-person narrative (one or more focal characters), or an objective third-person narrative. Choose for yourself which of them you will lead your story with.
Steps
Academic third-person writing
- The third-person pronouns include: he, she, it, they and their forms in all cases - him, her, them, him, her, them, them, and so on.
- People's names are also suitable for third-person narration.
- Example: " Orlov believes otherwise. According to his research, earlier statements on this topic are incorrect. "
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Avoid first person pronouns. The first person assumes the personal point of view of the author, which means that such a presentation looks subjective and based on opinion, and not on facts. In an academic essay, the first person should be avoided (unless the assignment provides otherwise - say, state your opinion or results your work).
Avoid second person pronouns. Through them, you speak directly to the reader, as if you know him personally, and your writing style becomes too familiar. The second person should never be used in academic writing.
Talk about the subject in general terms. Sometimes the author needs to refer to the subject without naming him specifically. In other words, he needs to mention a person in general, and not some already known person. In this case, there is usually a temptation to write "you". However, in this case, it would be appropriate to use a generalized noun, or a pronoun - indefinite, determinative or negative.
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Avoid the redundant "he or she" construct. Sometimes modern authors write "he or she" instead of "he", although the subject is originally mentioned in the masculine gender.
- This use of pronouns is dictated by political correctness and is the norm, for example, in English, but in Russian it usually only makes the phrase redundant. After the noun "scientist", "doctor", "child", "man", you can and should write "he".
- Incorrect: “The witness wanted to give anonymous testimony. He or she was afraid to get hurt if his or her the name will be known. "
- Correct: “The witness wanted to give anonymous testimony. He he was afraid to suffer if his name became known. "
An omniscient author's point of view
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Move focus from one character to another. When you write artistic text from the point of view of an omniscient author, the narrative jumps from one character to another, rather than following the thoughts, actions and words of one hero. The author knows everything about each of them and about the world in which they live. He decides for himself which thoughts, feelings or actions to reveal to the reader, and which to hide from him.
- Let's say there are four main characters in a work: William, Bob, Erica, and Samantha. At different points in the story, the writer should depict the actions and thoughts of each of them, and he can do this within one chapter or paragraph.
- Example: “William thought Erica was lying, but he wanted to believe that she had something good reason... Samantha, too, was sure that Erica was lying, and besides, she was tormented by jealousy, since Tony dared to think well of another girl. "
- Authors of omniscient narratives should avoid leaps and bounds — don't change a character's perspective within a single chapter. This does not violate the canons of the genre, but is a sign of narrative looseness.
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Disclose any information you want. From the point of view of an omniscient author, the story is not limited to the experiences and inner world of a single character. Along with thoughts and feelings, the writer can reveal to the reader the past or future of the heroes directly in the course of the story. In addition, he can express his own opinion, evaluate events from the standpoint of morality, describe cities, nature or animals separately from scenes with the participation of characters.
- In a sense, an author writing from this point of view is something like a "god" in his work. A writer can observe the actions of any character at any time, and, unlike a human observer, he not only sees external manifestations, but is also able to look into the inner world.
- Know when to hide information from the reader. Although the author can tell about whatever he wants, the piece can benefit from a bit of understatement, when some things are revealed gradually. For example, if one of the characters is shrouded in an aura of mystery, it would be wise to keep the reader out of his feelings until his true motives are revealed.
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Avoid using first and second person pronouns. The first person pronouns - "I", "we" and their forms - can only appear in dialogues. The same applies to the second person - "you" and "you".
- Do not use first and second person in the narrative and descriptive part of the text.
- That's right: “Bob said to Erica, 'I think this is pretty scary. What do you think?""
- Incorrect: “I thought it was pretty scary, and Erica and Bob agreed. And what do you think?"
Limited third-person storytelling (one character)
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Choose a character from whose point of view you will lead the story. With limited third-person narration, the author has full access to the actions, thoughts, feelings, and views of a single character. He can write directly from the position of the thoughts and reactions of this character, or step aside for a more objective story.
- The thoughts and feelings of the rest of the characters remain unknown to the narrator throughout the entire text. Having chosen a limited narrative, he can no longer freely switch between different characters.
- When the narration is in the first person, the narrator acts as the protagonist, while in the third person, everything is exactly the opposite - here the author moves away from what he writes. In this case, the narrator can reveal some details that he would not have disclosed if the story was in the first person.
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Describe the actions and thoughts of the character "from the outside". Although the writer focuses on one character, he must consider it separately from himself: the personalities of the narrator and the hero do not merge! Even if the author relentlessly follows his thoughts, feelings and inner monologues, the story needs to be narrated from the third person.
- In other words, the first person pronouns ("I", "me", "mine", "we", "our" and so on) can only be used in dialogues. The narrator sees the thoughts and feelings of the protagonist, but the hero does not turn into the narrator.
- That's right: "Tiffany felt terrible after having an argument with her boyfriend."
- That's right: "Tiffany thought, 'I feel terrible after our fight with him."
- Incorrect: "I felt terrible after the fight with my boyfriend."
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Show the actions and words of other characters, not their thoughts and feelings. The author knows only the thoughts and feelings of the protagonist, from whose position the story is being told. However, he can describe other characters as the hero sees them. The narrator can do whatever his character can; he just cannot know what is going on in the head of other actors.
- A writer can make guesses or guesses about the thoughts of other characters, but only from the point of view of the protagonist.
- That's right: "Tiffany felt terrible, but seeing the expression on Karl's face, she knew that he was no better - or even worse."
- Incorrect: “Tiffany felt terrible. However, she did not know that Karl was even worse. "
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Do not disclose information that the hero does not possess. Although the narrator can digress and describe the scene or other characters, he should not talk about anything that the hero does not see or know. Do not jump from one character to another within the same scene. The actions of other characters can only become known if they take place in the presence of the hero (or he learns about them from someone else).
- Correct: "From the window Tiffany saw Karl walk up to the house and ring the doorbell."
- Incorrect: "As soon as Tiffany left the room, Karl breathed a sigh of relief."
Limited third-person storytelling (multiple focal characters)
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Switch from one character to another. Limited narration from the perspective of several characters, called focal, means that the author is telling the story from the perspective of several characters in turn. Use the vision and thoughts of each of them to reveal important information and help the story unfold.
- Limit the number of focal characters. You should not write from the perspective of multiple characters, so as not to confuse the reader and overload the work. Each focal character's unique vision should play a role in the storytelling. Ask yourself how each contributes to the story.
- For example, in a romantic story with two main characters - Kevin and Felicia - the author can give the reader an opportunity to understand what is going on in the soul of both of them, describing events alternately from two points of view.
- One character can be given more attention than another, but each focal character must get his share at one point or another in the story.
Use a third party for any academic writing. When describing research results and scientific evidence, write in a third party. This will make your text more objective. For academic or professional purposes, this objectivity is important so that what you write appears to be impartial and therefore more credible.
Use correct pronouns. In the third person, people are said to be "from the outside." Use nouns, proper nouns or third person pronouns.
