Economic reforms of Peter the Great. Economic reforms of Peter I

TSTU

Department of History and Political Science

Abstract on the topic:

“ Administrative and economic reforms of PeterI”

Completed by: Polyakov V.A.

Group: ATPP-15

accepted:

Tver, 1997

List of used literature.

1. Soloviev S.M. About history new Russia. - M.: Education, 1993.

2. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L.: Lenizdat, 1989.

3. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Historian.

Document. - M.: MIROS, 1994.

4. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

Introduction

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas of the state life of the country. Many of these transformations are rooted in the 17th century - the socio-economic transformations of that time served as the prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was the formation of an absolutist bureaucratic apparatus of nobility.

The escalating class contradictions led to the need to strengthen and strengthen the autocratic apparatus in the center and in the localities, centralize management, build a harmonious and flexible system of administrative apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military force to carry out a more aggressive foreign policy and suppression of the increasing popular movements. It was necessary to consolidate the dominant position of the nobility by legal acts and give it a central, leading place in public life. All this together led to the implementation of reforms in various spheres of state activity. For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the significance of the Petrine transformations, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of milestones history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved. The specific historical assessment of the reforms depends on what is considered useful for Russia, what is harmful, what is the main thing, and what is secondary.

The famous historian Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, who probably most deeply investigated the personality and actions of Peter the Great, wrote: “The difference in views ... came from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the duration of the influence of this deed; the more significant a phenomenon is, the more divergent views and opinions it generates, and the more they talk about it, the more they feel its influence on themselves.

As already mentioned, the prerequisites for the reforms of Peter the Great were the transformations of the end of the 17th century. In the second half of this century, the system of state administration changes, becoming more centralized. Attempts were also made to more clearly distinguish between the functions and spheres of activity of various orders, the beginnings of a regular army appeared - regiments of a foreign system. There were changes in culture: the theater appeared, the first higher educational institution.

But despite the fact that almost all the reforms of Peter the Great were preceded by certain state initiatives of the 17th century, they were undoubtedly revolutionary in nature. After the death of the emperor in 1725, Russia was on the way to becoming a completely different country: from the Muscovite state, whose contacts with Europe were rather limited, it turned into the Russian Empire - one of the greatest powers in the world. Peter turned Russia into a truly European country (at least, as he understood it) - it is not for nothing that the expression “cut a window to Europe” has become so often used. Milestones on this path were the conquest of access to the Baltic, the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg, active intervention in European politics.

Peter's activity created all the conditions for a wider acquaintance of Russia with the culture, lifestyle, technologies of European civilization, which was the beginning of a rather painful process of breaking the norms and ideas of Muscovite Russia.

One more important feature Peter's reforms was that they affected all sectors of society, in contrast to the previous attempts of Russian rulers. The construction of the fleet, the Northern War, the creation of a new capital - all this became the business of the whole country.

At present, Russia, like two centuries ago, is in the process of reforms, so the analysis of Peter the Great's reforms is especially necessary now.

Administrative changes

Since 1708, Peter began to rebuild the old authorities and administration and replace them with new ones. As a result, by the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. the following system of authorities and administration was formed.

All the fullness of legislative, executive, and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after the completion Northern war received the title of emperor. In 1711, a new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions. It was fundamentally different from its predecessor, the Boyar Duma.

Council members were appointed by the emperor. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. The Prosecutor General was supposed to perform the functions of "the eye of the state." He exercised this control through prosecutors appointed to all government offices. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the system of prosecutors was supplemented by a system of fiscals, headed by an oberfiskal. The duties of the fiscals included reporting on all abuses of institutions and officials that violated the "state interest".

The order system that had developed under the Boyar Duma did not correspond in any way to the new conditions and tasks. The orders that arose at different times (Ambassadorial, Streltsy, Local, Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc.) differed greatly in their nature and functions. Orders and decrees of orders often contradicted each other, creating unimaginable confusion and delaying the resolution of urgent issues for a long time.

Instead of the outdated system of orders in 1717-1718. 12 colleges were created, each of which was in charge of a certain industry or area of government and was subordinate to the Senate. Three boards were considered the main ones: Foreign, Military and Admiralty. The competence of the Komerz-, Manufaktura- and Berg- Collegia included issues of trade and industry. Three colleges were in charge of finances: the Chamber College - income, the States - College - expenses, and the Revision - College controlled the receipt of income, the collection of taxes, duties, the correctness of spending by the institutions of the amounts allocated to them. The College of Justice was in charge of civil proceedings, and the Votchinnaya, established somewhat later, was in charge of noble land ownership. The Chief Magistrate, who was in charge of the entire township population, was also created; the magistrates and town halls of all cities were subordinate to him. The boards received the right to issue decrees on those issues that were within their jurisdiction.

In addition to the collegiums, several offices, offices, departments, orders were created, the functions of which were also clearly delineated. Some of them, for example, the King of Arms office, which was in charge of the service and production to the ranks of the nobility; The Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the Secret Office, which were in charge of cases of state crimes, were subordinate to the Senate, others - the Mint Department, the Salt Office, the Land Survey Office, etc. - were subordinate to one of the colleges.

In 1708 - 1709. restructuring of local authorities and administrations began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population. So, the Smolensk and Arkhangelsk provinces did not differ much from modern regions in their size, and the Moscow province covered the entire densely populated center, the territory of modern Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Tver, Kostroma, Moscow, Ryazan, Tula and Yaroslavl regions where almost half of the country's population lived. The provinces included St. Petersburg, Kiev, Kazan, Azov and Siberia.

At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, who concentrated executive and judicial power in his hands. Under the governor there was a provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the Senate, but also to all colleges, whose orders and decrees often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. At the head of the province was a governor with an office attached to him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties with a voivode and a county office. Some time during the reign of Peter the county administration was replaced by an elected zemstvo commissar from local nobles or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting the poll tax, monitoring the performance of state duties, and detaining fugitive peasants. The zemstvo commissar of the provincial office was subordinate. In 1713, the local nobility was given the choice of 8-12 landrats (advisers from the nobles of the county) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the poll tax, regimental districts were created. The military units stationed in them observed the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal actions. The list of ranks on January 24, 1722, the table of ranks, introduced a new classification of employees. All the newly established positions - all with foreign names, Latin and German, except for a very few - are lined up according to the table in three parallel rows: military, civilian and court, with each divided into 14 ranks, or classes. A similar ladder with 14 steps of rank was introduced in the fleet and court service. This founding act of the reformed Russian bureaucracy put the bureaucratic hierarchy, merit and service, in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book. In one of the articles attached to the table, it is explained with emphasis that the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, no position is given to people of a noble breed until they show merit to the sovereign and the fatherland.

Economic reforms

During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. followed the path outlined by the previous period. In the Muscovite state of the XVI-XVII centuries. there were major industrial enterprises- Cannon Yard, Printing Yard, arms factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo, etc. Peter's policy in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree use of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased needs of the state for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread use of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.

In the Petrine era, the country was sharply divided into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where landowning nobles sought to expand corvee .

The state duties of the peasants also increased. They built cities (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting was carried out, old fees were increased and new ones were introduced. main goal Peter's policy all the time was to obtain the largest possible financial and human resources for state needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718, the male "soul" became the unit of taxation, regardless of age, from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kopecks per year).

This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues (by about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million rubles a year).

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly the labor of peasants - possession, ascribed, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants to secure them to the enterprise (possession peasants).

State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. encouraged entrepreneurial activity, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones.

There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder,

paper, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry.

By the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg powder factories, metallurgical plants of the Urals, Khamovny yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths were hired to Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia enriched itself with the most advanced technologies Europe.

As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in anything.

CONCLUSION

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

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The wise man avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu

The Russian economy in the 17th century lagged far behind European countries. Therefore, the economic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating conditions for economic development countries in the present and future. Separately, it should be noted that the main direction of the development of the economy of that era was the development, first of all, of the military industry. It is important to understand this, since the entire reign of Peter 1 took place during the period of wars, the main one of which was the Northern War.

The economy of the era of Peter and should be considered from the point of view of the following components:

The state of the economy at the beginning of the era

The Russian economy before Peter 1 came to power had a huge number of problems. Suffice it to say that in a country with a huge number of natural resources, did not have required material for their own provision, even for the needs of the army. For example, metal for cannons and artillery was purchased in Sweden. The industry was in decline. Throughout Russia there were only 25 manufactories. For comparison, in England during the same period there were more than 100 manufactories. As for agriculture and trade, the old rules were in effect and these industries practically did not develop.

Features of economic development

Peter's great embassy to Europe opened up to the tsar the problems that were in the Russian economy. These problems were exacerbated with the start of the Northern War, when Sweden cut off the supply of iron (metal). As a result, Peter I was forced to melt church bells into cannons, for which the church called him almost the Antichrist.

The economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter the Great was aimed primarily at the development of the army and navy. It was around these two components that the development of industry and other objects took place. It is important to note that since 1715, individual entrepreneurship has been encouraged in Russia. Moreover, part of the manufactories and factories were transferred to private hands.

The basic principles of the economic policy of Peter 1 developed in two directions:

Protectionism. This is support domestic manufacturer and encouraging the export of goods abroad.
Mercantilism. Predominance of exports of goods over imports. In economic terms, exports prevail over imports. This is done to concentrate funds within the country.

Industry development

By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, there were only 25 manufactories in Russia. This is extremely small. The country could not provide itself even with the most necessary. That is why the beginning of the Northern War was so sad for Russia, since the lack of supplies of the same iron from Sweden made it impossible to wage war.

The main directions of the economic policy of Peter 1 fluttered in 3 main areas: the metallurgical industry, the mining industry, and shipbuilding. In total, by the end of Peter's reign in Russia, there were already 200 manufactories. best indicator The fact that the economic management system worked is the fact that before Peter came to power, Russia was one of the largest iron importers, and after Peter 1, Russia took the 3rd place in the world in iron production and became an exporting country.

Under Peter the Great, the first industrial centers in the country began to form. Rather, there were such industrial centers, but their significance was insignificant. It was under Peter that the formation and rise of industry in the Urals and Donbass took place. back side industrial growth - attracting private capital and difficult conditions for workers. During this period, ascribed and sessional peasants appeared.

Posession peasants appeared by decree of Peter 1 in 1721. They became the property of the manufactory and were obliged to work there all their lives. Posessional peasants replaced the ascribed ones, who were recruited from among the urban peasants and assigned to a specific factory.
History reference

The problem of the peasants, expressed in the creation of a possessive peasantry, was associated with the lack of a skilled workforce in Russia.

The development of industry in the Petrine era was distinguished by the following features:

The rapid development of the metallurgical industry.
Active participation of the state in economic life. The state acted as the customer of all industrial facilities.
Employment of forced labor. From 1721 factories were allowed to buy peasants.
Lack of competition. As a result, large entrepreneurs had no desire to develop their industry, which is why there was a long stagnation in Russia.

In the development of industry, Peter had 2 problems: poor efficiency government controlled, as well as the lack of interests of large entrepreneurs for development. It was all decided simply - the king began to transmit, including large enterprises, in the management of private owners. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 17th century famous family Demidov controlled 1/3 of all Russian iron.

The figure shows a map of the economic development of Russia under Peter 1, as well as the development of industry in the European part of the country.

Agriculture

Consider what changes took place in Russian agriculture during the reign of Peter. The Russian economy under Peter I in the field of agriculture developed along an extensive path. The extensive path, in contrast to the intensive one, did not imply an improvement in working conditions, but an expansion of opportunities. Therefore, under Peter, active development of new arable land began. The most quickly developed lands were in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia. At the same time, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. Approximately 90% of the population lived in villages and was engaged in agriculture.

The orientation of the country's economy towards the army and navy was also reflected in the agriculture of Russia in the 17th century. In particular, it was precisely because of this direction in the development of the country that the development of sheep and horse breeding began. Sheep were needed to supply the fleet, and horses to form the cavalry.

It was in the Petrine era that new tools of labor began to be used in agriculture: a scythe and a rake. These tools were purchased from abroad and imposed on the local economy. Since 1715, what year did Peter I issue a decree to expand the sowing of tobacco and hemp.

As a result, an agricultural system was created in which Russia could feed itself on its own, and also, for the first time in history, began to sell grain abroad.

Trade

The economic policy of Peter 1 in the field of trade generally corresponds to the general development of the country. Trade also developed along a protectionist path of development.

Until the Petrine era, all major trade was conducted through the port in Astrakhan. But Peter the Great, who loved St. Petersburg terribly, by his own decree forbade trading through Astrakhan (the Decree was signed in 1713), and demanded a complete transfer of trade to St. Petersburg. This did not bring any special effect for Russia, but it was an important factor in strengthening the position of St. Petersburg as a city and capital of the Empire. Suffice it to say that as a result of these changes, Astrakhan reduced its trade turnover by about 15 times, and the city gradually began to lose its rich status. Simultaneously with the development of the port in st. petersburg, ports in Riga, Vyborg, Narva and Revel were actively developing. At the same time, St. Petersburg accounted for approximately 2/3 of the foreign trade turnover.

Support for domestic production was achieved through the introduction of high customs duties. So, if the goods were produced in Russia, then its customs duty was 75%. If the imported goods were not produced in Russia, then its duty varied in the range from 20% to 30%. At the same time, the payment of the duty was made exclusively in foreign currency at a favorable exchange rate for Russia. This was necessary to obtain foreign capital and to be able to purchase the necessary equipment. Already in 1726, the volume of exports of products from Russia was 2 times higher than the volume of imports.

The main countries with which Russia traded at that time were England and Holland.

In many respects, the development of transport went on for the development of trade. In particular, 2 large canals were built:

Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1709). This canal connected the Tvertsa River (a tributary of the Volga) with the Msta River. From there, through Lake Ilmen, a path to the Baltic Sea opened.
Ladoga Bypass Canal (1718). Went around Lake Ladoga. This detour was necessary because the lake was turbulent and ships could not move on it.

Development of finance

Peter 1 had one oddity - he loved taxes very much and in every possible way encouraged people who came up with new taxes. It was during this era that taxes were introduced on almost everything: on stoves, on salt, on government forms, and even on beards. In those days, they even joked that there were no taxes only on air, but such taxes would soon appear. The increase in taxes and their expansion led to popular unrest. For example, the Astrakhan uprising and the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin were the main major discontents of the masses of that era, but there were also dozens of minor uprisings.

In 1718, the tsar carried out his well-known reform, introducing a poll tax in the country. If earlier taxes were paid from the yard, now from every male soul.

Also, one of the main undertakings was the financial reform of 1700-1704. The main attention in this reform was given to the minting of new coins, equating the amount of silver in the ruble with silver. The weight of the Russian ruble itself was equated to the Dutch guilder.

As a result of financial changes, the growth of revenues to the treasury was increased by about 3 times. This was a great help for the development of the state, but made it almost impossible to live in the country. Suffice it to say that during the Petrine era, the population of Russia decreased by 25%, taking into account all the new territories that this tsar conquered.

Consequences of economic development

The main results of the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, during the reign of Peter 1, which can be considered the main ones:

Growth in the number of manufactories by 7 times.
Expansion of the volume of manufactured products within the country.
Russia has taken the 3rd place in the world in metal smelting.
In agriculture, new tools began to be used, which later proved their effectiveness.
The founding of St. Petersburg and the conquest of the Baltic states expanded trade and economic ties with European countries.
St. Petersburg has become the main commercial and financial center of Russia.
Due to the state's attention to trade, the importance of the merchant class has grown. It was during this period that they established themselves as a strong and influential class.

If we consider these points, then a positive reaction to the economic reforms of Peter 1 suggests itself, but here it is important to understand at what cost all this was achieved. The tax burden on the population increased greatly, which automatically caused the impoverishment of most peasant farms. In addition, the need to develop the economy at a rapid pace actually contributed to the strengthening of serfdom.

New and old in the Petrine economy

Consider a table that presents the main aspects of the economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter 1, indicating which aspects were before Peter and which appeared under him.

Table: features of the socio-economic life of Russia: what appeared and what was preserved under Peter 1.

Factor	Appeared or survived
Agriculture as the basis of the country's economy	Preserved
Specialization of economic regions	Appeared. Prior to Peter, specialization was insignificant.
Active industrial development of the Urals	Appeared
Development of local land tenure	Preserved
Formation of a single all-Russian market	Appeared
Manufactory production	Preserved, but greatly expanded
Protectionist policy	Appeared
Registration of peasants to factories	Appeared
Excess of exports of goods over imports	Appeared
Canal construction	Appeared
Growth in the number of entrepreneurs	Appeared

Regarding the growth in the number of entrepreneurs, it should be noted that Peter 1 actively contributed to this. In particular, he allowed any person, regardless of his origin, to conduct research on the discovery of minerals and establish their own factories at the location.

The formation of the Russian state as an empire and its emergence as a serious player on the European international arena was inevitably accompanied by bloody wars and a trade struggle for markets. Under such conditions, the country needed modernization, the beginning of which was the reforms of Peter the Great. These reforms included very large-scale transformations in many areas of public life: administrative, judicial, religious, public,

military. One of the most important transformations in the rise of Russia was the economic reforms of Peter 1. The giant leap that trade and, above all, industry made, provided the possibility of Russia's internal self-sufficiency, independent of the import of goods, as well as the creation of mass exports of Russian goods abroad. The economic reform of Peter 1 consisted of the following series of measures.

Industry

Redistribution of labor

The economic reform of Peter 1 was often carried out by forced labor. So, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the state duties of the peasants were seriously increased. The serfs were forcibly transferred from their land allotments to work in the created manufactories, the construction of canals and other works. This process was especially active in the northern non-chernozem regions of Russia. As a result of this use of forced labor by the state, the future capital, St. Petersburg, was built.

foreign experience

Foreign qualified specialists were intensively involved in the economy, education and diplomatic structures of Russia, which contributed to the acquisition of advanced European experience in their own homeland.

taxes

To fill the state treasury, the economic reforms of Peter 1 provided for an increase in duties and the creation of new types of taxes. There were new duties on baths, stamped paper, the famous Petrine tax on beards. Thus, the economic reforms of Peter 1 significantly contributed to the creation of the industrial base of the Russian state, the establishment of a high turnover and export trade, and the development of sea and river routes in the country.

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories.
Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he encouraged their creation in every possible way. The policy of the state was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europe by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Regulations of 1724). Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, used mainly the labor of peasants - sessional, ascribed, quitrent and others - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner.

In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants to secure them to the enterprise (possession peasants).
State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.
Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc.

Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones. In 1711, in a decree on the transfer of the linen manufactory to Moscow merchants A. Turchaninov and S. Tsynbalshchikov, Peter wrote: "And if they multiply this plant with their zeal and make profit in it, and for that they ... will receive mercy."

There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals was made by Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry. At the beginning of the XVIII century. about 150 thousand poods of pig iron were smelted in Russia, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand poods (from 1722 Russia exported cast iron), and by the end of the 18th century. more than 2 million pounds.

Like most European figures of the second half of XVII- the beginning of the 18th century, Peter I followed in economic policy principles mercantilism. Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs through broad benefits, attributed serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.

In foreign trade, the mercantilist policy of Peter I led to strict protectionism (high duties were imposed on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). State regulation of the economy was widely used. Peter I contributed to the laying of canals, roads and other means of communication, the exploration of minerals. A powerful impetus to the Russian economy was given by the development of the mineral wealth of the Urals.

Church reform Peter I - briefly

As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian church, which had previously been quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king prescribed not elect new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have him until the council of 1917. Instead was appointed king"locum tenens of the patriarchal throne" - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.

This "uncertain" state of affairs persisted until the final reform of church administration was carried out in 1721, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich. According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a "spiritual college" - Holy Synod. Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church has now legally become completely dependent on the secular authorities.

In 1701 the church's land holdings were transferred to the control of the secular Monastic order. After the synodal reform of 1721, they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter now completely submitted to the state, this return was of little importance. Peter the Great also placed monasteries under strict state control.

For more details, see the articles Church reform of Peter I, Peter I and the Church.

Reforms of Peter I in the field of culture, science and education - briefly

Immediately upon return from foreign travel(1698) Peter I became cut the beards of the boyars and nobles and to introduce Western clothes for them in order to give the upper class of Russia a European look.

Peter I sought to disseminate useful knowledge in Russia - mainly technical and practical, rather than humanitarian. His cultural reforms were expressed in the founding of a number of schools for teaching foreign languages, mathematics, maritime and engineering. Western scientific literature was translated into Russian.

The old complicated Church Slavonic writing was replaced (1708) by a simpler "civil alphabet". Under Peter I, the first publicly available Russian newspaper, Moskovskie Vedomosti, began to be published (since 1703). At the end of his reign, Peter I made an attempt (1724) to establish an Academy of Sciences in Russia, which, however, soon closed.

Peter I introduced European household customs in Russia as well. Among the nobles spread " assembly"(secular receptions) of a purely secular nature. Noisy public festivities were held in the Western manner. A freer position of a woman than in Muscovite Rus' was promoted.

Reforms of Peter 1

Legal registration fragile power of the monarch. The creation of political institutions on which he relied: the regular army, navy, bureaucracy, police, fiscal system.

prerequisites:(1682) abolition of parochialism; merger of local and patrimonial cities →1714 decree on single inheritance, 1722 - table of ranks. 30s of the 17th century - reorganization of the armed forces: soldiers, dragoon regiments, which preceded the standing army. Industrial construction→one of the ways to combat backwardness. 43% of industrial enterprises are state-owned. Ural metallurgical region - 1725 800 thous. pounds of cast iron. 1750 - 2 mil. - 1 place for the production of pig iron.

1719 - serfs per capita (was household) - 73 kopecks; state - 1.20 kopecks. Odnodvortsy, service people, security guards, Cossacks began to pay taxes. The nobles had to learn to read and write (from 10-15 years old) in special schools.

Table of ranks 1722 - 14 classes (ranks). 6 - chief prosecutors (from ensigns to captains in the army, from the Kalezh register to the titular adviser); 4 - staff officers (from major to crippled). the first officer rank in the military and naval service, then the nobles. In the civilian service from the 8th rank (Kalezh assessor), then the nobles.

1714 - decree on uniform inheritance. estate = estate.

Central government reforms: since 1708 the breaking of the old institutions; 1711 - Boyar Duma → Senate (the supreme governing body, issued laws, controlled other bodies). At the head is the Prosecutor General; fiscals - denounced. 1717-18 - orders (44) → boards (13 - chambers board (trade), manufacturing, ber board (metallurgical), chambers board (financial), staff (expenditure), board of justice (civil clerical work.), patrimonial board, chief master (city), synod, foreign, military, admiralty, revision). From 1708-09. shared (:) m / y counties and orders: provinces and provinces. 8 provinces headed by governors (executive and judicial power). provinces: provinces (50): counties.

1699 - the townspeople were transferred to the elected town halls and masters. administrative reforms- absolutized the monarchy.

Military reforms: a regular army is created → a new form of equipment. 1705 - cons. a new form of convocation into the army: forced recruitment was carried out in the yards - 22 yards - a recruit. 1724 - the number of souls, put in the salary. Recruitment duty is a system of completing the Russian army, introduced by Peter1 and consisted in the obligatory supply of a certain number of recruits by the estates (life term → from 1793-25 years → 1834-20 years → 1874-abolished). The rank and file are peasants, townspeople. Command staff - from the yards, officers from the nobility. By 1725 - 130 thousand people garrisons - 80 thousand. the old gun was replaced by a more advanced one with a bayonet and a percussion flint lock. The infantry had grenades, the artillery of the infantry regiments. 23-pounder guns and 4 light mortars.

Creation of the Navy. 1702-1715 – 25 battleships, 19 frigates, 298 ships of other classes. by 1725 - The Baltic fleet consisted of 32 lines. ships, 16 freg. 8 augers, 85 galleys, more than 300 rowboats. Charter of 1720

Church reform.(1701-1725). goal: to subordinate the church to the state, the elimination of the patriarchate → Synod. 4 stages: 1) 1701-1705 - secularization of church wealth; 2) 1705-1720 - 2nd stage of secularization; 3) 1720-1721-closing of monastic orders liquidation of the patriarchate, synod. 4) 1722-1725 - development, introduction of states for the church, institutions. 1764. - the church is subordinate to the state. May 17, 1722 - an appendix on clerics (to inform the king about the dissatisfied, i.e. violation of the secrecy of confession.)

Reforms of Culture. 1701 - mathematical and navigational sciences. Moscow. L. Magnitsky. 3 branches - elementary, digital, marine (navigation). Studied: arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy, astronomy. were transferred to St. Petersburg. (Naval Academy). 1720. - digital school in 42 cities, 46 cities of the school of the clergy. School of Engineering- technicians and artillery, medicine, shipbuilding, navigators, handicrafts, the Russian alphabet was simplified (brought closer to the Latin alphabet), a civil font appeared - books were printed. Introduction to Arabic numerals. 1703 - Magnitsky's arithmetic and Smotrytsky's grammar. 1703 - Vedomosti. 1725 - opening of the Academy of Sciences. 1755- Moscow State University

Changes in everyday life - assemblies, short clothes (in a modern way), the prohibition of a beard.

Meaning of transformations: 1) strengthening of absolutism, 2) development of industry, trade; 3) great success in the field of science, 4) fleet, army