Economic reforms of Peter I - briefly. Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly

Introduction……………………………………………..…………………………….3

Economic reforms……………………………………………………………5

The state of the financial and credit system of Russia at the end of the XVII - beginning

XVIII centuries………………………………………………………………………...8

The role of finance in economic policy Peter I …………….…………….10

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….15

List of used literature………………………………..………….…17

Introduction

During the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas

public life of the country. Many of these transformations go

rooted in the 17th century - the socio-economic transformations of that time

served as prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was

formation of the nobility and bureaucracy.

Growing class contradictions led to the need

strengthening and strengthening the autocratic apparatus in the center and in the regions,

centralization of management, building a harmonious and flexible system

administrative apparatus, strictly controlled by the highest authorities

authorities. It was also necessary to create a combat-ready regular military

forces to pursue a more aggressive foreign policy and suppress

growing popular movements. Needed to be legalized

the dominant position of the nobility and grant it a central,

leading position in public life. All this together and

led to reforms in various areas of activity

states. In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.

A specific historical assessment of the reforms depends on what is considered for Russia useful, what is harmful, what is the main, and what is secondary.

As already mentioned, the prerequisites for Peter's reforms were

transformations at the end of the 17th century. In the second half of this century

changing, becoming more centralized, the system of public

management. Efforts have also been made to better define the functions

and areas of activity of various orders, the beginnings of a regular

armies - regiments of a foreign system. There have been changes in culture:

theater appeared, the first institution of higher education.

Peter turned Russia into a truly European country (in any case, as

he understood this) - it’s not for nothing that the expression “cut a window to Europe” became

so commonly used. Milestones on this path were the conquest

access to the Baltic, the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg,

active involvement in European politics.

Another important feature of the Petrine reforms was that they

affected all sectors of society, unlike previous attempts by Russian

rulers. Construction of the fleet, the Northern War, the creation of a new capital -

all this became the business of the whole country.

At present, Russia, like two centuries ago, is in the process of

reforms, so the analysis of Peter's reforms is now especially necessary.

Economic reforms

In the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and, above all,

industry has taken a giant leap. At the same time, development

economy in the first quarter of the 18th century followed the paths outlined by the previous

period.

Peter's policy towards economic life was characterized by a high degree of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from

further development of fertile lands, cultivation of technical

crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry,

advancing agriculture to the east and south, as well as more intensive

exploitation of the peasants. The increased demand of the state for raw materials for

Russian industry led to the widespread use of such

crops like flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and

hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. Decree of 1712

ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in Kazan, Azov and

Kyiv provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.

In the Petrine era, there is a sharp delimitation of the country into two zones

management of the feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords translated

their peasants for cash rent, often letting them go to the city and other

agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where

noble landowners sought to expand the corvée.

The state duties of the peasants also increased. By their forces

cities were built (40 thousand people worked on the construction of St.

peasants), manufactories, bridges, roads; held annual recruitment

sets, old fees were raised and new ones were introduced. main goal

Peter's policy all the time was to receive as much money and

human resources for government needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the 1718 census

the unit of taxation was the "soul" of the male, regardless of

age from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from

state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kop. in year).

This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues.

(about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million people).

rub. in year).

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small

peasant and handicraft farms into manufactories. Under Peter it was

founded at least 200 new manufactories, he strongly encouraged their creation.

State policy was also aimed at protecting the young Russian

industry from competition from Western Europe by introducing

very high customs duties (Customs charter of 1724)

State state-owned factories used the labor of state

peasants, ascribed peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They're in

mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards,

mines. At merchant manufactories that produced mainly goods

consumption, both sessional and quitrent peasants worked, and

as well as the civilian labor force. Landlord enterprises completely

provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.

The protectionist policy of Peter led to the emergence of manufactories in

a wide variety of industries, often appearing in Russia

first. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy:

metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen,

leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged,

The formation of the Russian state as an empire and its emergence as a serious player on the European international arena was inevitably accompanied by bloody wars and a trade struggle for markets. Under such conditions, the country needed modernization, the beginning of which was the reforms of Peter the Great. These reforms included very large-scale transformations in many areas of public life: administrative, judicial, religious, public,

military. One of the most important transformations in the rise of Russia was the economic reforms of Peter 1. The giant leap that trade and, above all, industry made, provided the possibility of Russia's internal self-sufficiency, independent of the import of goods, as well as the creation of mass exports of Russian goods abroad. The economic reform of Peter 1 consisted of the following series of measures.

Industry

Redistribution of labor

The economic reform of Peter 1 was often carried out by forced labor. So, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the state duties of the peasants were seriously increased. The serfs were forcibly transferred from their land allotments to work in the created manufactories, the construction of canals and other works. This process was especially active in the northern non-chernozem regions of Russia. As a result of this use of forced labor by the state, the future capital, St. Petersburg, was built.

foreign experience

Foreign qualified specialists were intensively involved in the economy, education and diplomatic structures of Russia, which contributed to the acquisition of advanced European experience in their own homeland.

taxes

To fill the state treasury economic reforms Peter 1 provided for an increase in duties and the creation of new types of taxes. There were new duties on baths, stamped paper, the famous Petrine tax on beards. Thus, the economic reforms of Peter 1 significantly contributed to the creation of the industrial base of the Russian state, the establishment of a high turnover and export trade, and the development of sea and river routes in the country.

Tsar Peter Alekseevich was called the great reformer because changes took place in all areas human activity. He did not bypass the economy.

Reforms of Peter I in the field of economy

From the Grand Embassy to Russia, the young tsar returned with a firm conviction that Russia needed modernization and reorientation from east to west. In short, it was necessary to redo everything and everywhere. Reforms in the social and cultural sphere were difficult and rejected by the society in every possible way.

Everything changed with the start Northern war. It was she who showed the military, technical and economic backwardness of Russia against the backdrop of European powers. The defeat near Narva and the invasion of the Swedish army into Ukraine forced Peter to speed up the implementation of socio-economic reforms.

Rice. 1. Portrait of Peter I.

It must be understood that the economic reforms of Peter the Great were not planned in the form in which they took place. The essence of all his transformations was to achieve one goal - victory in the Northern War, which he lived for 21 years. That is why metallurgy, textile and cloth business received a special impetus.

In the Urals, the accelerated construction of metallurgical plants begins, in which the industrialists Demidovs took the leading role. Almost all of them were engaged in the production of cannonballs and bullets for muskets. Several Ural factories were engaged in the mining and smelting of silver, which had a strong influence on the development of the mint in Russia.

In the port cities, the construction of shipyards was actively going on, which could not but affect the development of trade. It consisted of several levels: from specific trading in the regions to wholesale purchases abroad. Inside the country, a whole network of customs duties was formed, the development of which led to the construction of river channels.

Table "Reforms of Peter I in the field of economy"

*Reform*	*Year*	*The essence of the reform*	*Consequences*
Kuppanstvo for the construction of the fleet		Forcing the Church and private landowners to build a certain number of ships for the state	The Azov Flotilla was created
Secularization of lands and peasants		Transfer of church lands under the control of the Monastic order	Improved land use efficiency
Decree on Ascribed Peasants		Peasants were assigned to manufactories to work at the expense of the state	Forced production of military products
Decree on the introduction of monopolies		Monopolization of salt, tar, alcohol, lard, chalk, fish oil by the state	Increasing state budget revenues
Introduction of the poll tax		Household tax has been abolished. Taxes began to be paid by the entire population, and not by an individual family.	Growth of revenues to the state treasury
Decree on Possession Peasants		The owners of manufactories were allowed to buy for the work of serfs	Increased manufacturing productivity
Establishment of workshops and guilds		Union of artisans of similar professions	Established production and marketing of goods
New customs tariff		Increasing duties on foreign goods	Introduction of a policy of protectionism

1. Industrial development

Already in the XVII century. small-scale craft began to take shape in Russia, the first manufactories appeared. However, the country's economic development was held back by isolation from world markets due to the lack of maritime trade routes.

A decisive breakthrough in economic development was made in the first quarter of the 18th century, under Peter I. If for the entire 17th century. about 30 manufactories were founded in the country, then in the first quarter of the 18th century. - about 200.

The economic transformations carried out by Peter the Great were not carried out according to a predetermined plan. They were dictated by the needs of the army during the Northern War. The army and navy demanded large quantities of iron, timber, sails, ropes, shoes, cloth, etc. With the beginning of the Northern War, Russia lost the supply of Swedish iron. The state was forced to hastily develop industries that worked for military needs. The Urals became the main metallurgical region of the country, pushing the old Olonetsky and Tula-Kashirsky regions into the background. In 1698, the Nevyansk Metallurgical Plant was built in the Urals. In 1702-1707, 11 more factories were founded. This made it possible to satisfy the country's need for metal. Ural iron turned out to be the best in the world for a long time.

Light industry enterprises also developed. Built: Khamovny (linen), Rope, Harness, Leather, Hat, Cloth yards, button, glass, cotton, silicate and other factories. All of them were enterprises of the manufactory type, the most advanced at that time. All these enterprises were built at public expense and belonged to the treasury.

At the end of the Northern War, Peter began to encourage private enterprise. In 1719, the Berg privilege was announced, according to which all Russian subjects received the right to develop subsoil resources and build factories. Factories that previously belonged to the treasury began to be widely transferred into private hands. As a rule, merchant companies, which were granted loans and tax benefits, became the new owners. At the same time, the goals of production remained the same: first of all, enterprises had to fulfill government orders. Violation of this condition was punishable by the confiscation of the plant, even if it was founded on the owner's own funds.

Work on a government order was attractive to entrepreneurs, as it provided guaranteed sales of products. But the same circumstance, reducing competition, made it possible not to worry about the technical and organizational improvement of production. Giving benefits to merchant companies also meant suppressing competitors.

Russian manufactory was fundamentally different from Western European not only in its close connection with the state, but also in the nature of the labor force used. If in the pre-Petrine period people worked at manufactories both for free hire and under duress, then under Peter I, workers at manufactories became almost completely forced labor. Since the needs of the army for recruits and the tax reform required the consolidation of the population in the field, the search for fugitives became much tougher. In this situation, civilian workers simply could not be enough. In this regard, in 1721, Peter I, by a special decree, allowed the owners to buy serfs for factories. Unlike serfs, such peasants were called possessive. They were considered the property not of the owner, but of the plant and could not be sold separately from the enterprise. At state-owned enterprises, in addition to the main workers, ascribed peasants worked in auxiliary work, for whom factory work replaced state taxes.

Thus, the Russian manufactory of the Petrine era, being a bourgeois phenomenon in terms of the nature of the organization of production (division of labor, partial work for the market), remained feudal in terms of the way labor was exploited.

2. Development of trade

In an effort to replenish the state treasury, Peter I sought to expand trade. For this purpose, large merchant companies were created, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, linking St. Petersburg with the Volga basin. The construction of the Volga-Don Canal was also planned.

The production and sale of many goods were declared a state monopoly and were farmed out to large merchants. Often foreign merchants became monopolists. However, at the end of the Northern War, most of the monopolies were abolished. The state strictly controlled trade, instructing the merchants which ports to carry goods to, which ships to build.

Foreign trade developed in accordance with the theory of mercantilism. According to it, the basis of state wealth is the accumulation of money in the treasury. Therefore, exports had to exceed imports. The main means to ensure this was protectionism, i.e. high customs duties on imports of domestically produced goods and incentive low duties on exports. In this regard, the policy of Peter I continued and developed the Russian traditions of the 17th century. The customs tariff of 1724 had an even more pronounced protectionist character than the Novotrade Charter of 1667: duties on some types of iron products reached 75% of their value. Already in 1726, Russian exports exceeded imports by a factor of two. Petersburg became the main trading port, the turnover of which exceeded the turnover of Arkhangelsk 12 times. Russian exports were mainly products of agriculture and forestry: flax, hemp, wood, leather. Iron and linen were added to them. Cloths, silks, paints, wines, sugar, luxury items were imported.

3. Russian bourgeoisie

The Russian bourgeoisie, in comparison with the Western European, turned out to be more connected with the regime. Government subsidies, state orders, a patronizing customs policy - all this made the bourgeoisie dependent on the government. Being, in essence, a feudal class, the merchants sought to obtain benefits, privileges, monopolies, and the richest merchants tried to acquire the title of nobility. If in Europe the bourgeoisie fought against class barriers, then in Russia - for their strengthening. All this, given the traditional weakness of the institutions of self-government in the Russian city, led to the fact that the Russian bourgeoisie did not become an independent political force, the bearer of the idea of representative government.

4. Tax policy

The main source of funds, which, under Peter I, was especially needed in connection with the many years of war, were taxes and taxes. Traditionally, Russia has had both direct and indirect taxation. The main form of direct taxation was the household tax. In an effort to reduce payments, peasants often settled several families in one yard. In 1718, a population census was carried out, which made it possible to switch to capitation taxes. However, due to the concealment of "souls", an audit was carried out after the census, which was completed in 1724. Since 1725, all diverse taxes were replaced by a single poll tax of 74 kopecks. per year from a landlord peasant, 1 rub. 14 kop. from a state peasant or townsman. The difference was explained by the fact that the serf, in addition to state payments, had to pay duties to his master. Since then, revisions have been made periodically. Taxes were taken only from the male population, but regardless of age - both from babies and the elderly. The peasant, listed in the revision documents ("revision tales"), was called the revision soul. Even if he died, they stopped collecting taxes for him only after the next revision.

With the introduction of the poll tax, the total amount of taxation almost doubled. In addition to the per capita, various one-time payments were also levied (for the construction of a fleet, roads, etc.) and in-kind duties (construction, underwater, road, etc.).

The poll tax was extended to serfs who had not previously paid the state tax. With the introduction of the poll tax, the serfs lost the right to go free in the event of the death of their master. The difference between serfs and peasants has completely disappeared. Slavery as a social category ceased to exist.

Thus, Peter's reforms contributed to a significant acceleration of the country's economic development. But at the same time they strengthened the feudal order and thus laid the conditions for the subsequent lagging behind the developed countries of the West.

What to look for when answering:

The connection of the economic policy of Peter I with the Northern War.

Ensuring the interests of the state is the main goal of the economic policy of Peter I.

Active government intervention is the main tool for boosting Russia's economic development.

Lack of developed ideas about the guarantees of private property. The contradictory position of the merchants under Peter I.

The feudal nature of Russian manufactory.

The political weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie.

Continuity of the economic policy of Peter I in relation to the XVII century.

Answer left Guru

Under him, more than 200 manufactories were created

In terms of metal production, Russia took third place in Europe (after England and Sweden). A feature of Russian industry was that it was based on serf labor. The government allowed breeders to buy peasants, who were called possessive. Difficult working conditions and high mortality led to frequent changes of workers. The number of artisans continued to grow. The largest craft centers were Moscow and St. Petersburg. The main types of production were household items: locks, knives, pewter, canvases, jewelry made of gold, silver, enamel. The felting craft (felt boots and hats), candle and soap production developed. Unlike industry, changes in agriculture were not significant. Peter ordered the use of a Lithuanian scythe and a rake when harvesting grain. They were purchased in thousands and sent to the provinces, which made it possible to increase the productivity of peasant labor. Agricultural land development continued in the Volga region and Siberia. Merino sheep were bought in Holland and Spain for the production of cloth. The first stud farms were created. For the needs of the courtyard, silkworms were bred. The sowing of industrial crops - flax and hemp, which were required for army needs, increased significantly. Peter I brought potatoes, tomatoes and tobacco to Russia. An all-Russian market developed. The main centers of trade were rural markets, where sellers and buyers from neighboring villages gathered two or three times a week. Wholesale fairs also appeared. Peter I improved the means of communication: he built the Vyshnevolotsky canal and began the construction of the Ladoga bypass canal, which had a positive effect on the development of domestic trade. This was also facilitated by the growth in the number of cities and the urban population, the increase in the volume of manufacturing production, the creation of a large army. Exit to Baltic Sea contributed to the increase in the volume of foreign trade. Russia's main European trading partners were England and Holland. Through Astrakhan, Russia traded with Persia and Transcaucasia. As part of a policy of protectionism, Peter in 1724 adopted the Customs Tariff, which set a 75% duty on the import of foreign goods if they were produced in sufficient quantities in Russia. It was also forbidden to export raw materials needed by domestic industry.

The wise man avoids all extremes.

The Russian economy in the 17th century lagged far behind European countries. Therefore, the economic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating conditions for the economic development of the country in the present and future.

Separately, it should be noted that the main direction of the development of the economy of that era was the development, first of all, of the military industry. It is important to understand this, since the entire reign of Peter 1 took place during the period of wars, the main one of which was the Northern War.

The economy of the era of Peter and should be considered from the point of view of the following components:

The state of the economy at the beginning of the era

The Russian economy before Peter 1 came to power had a huge number of problems.

Suffice it to say that in a country with a huge number of natural resources, did not have required material for their own provision, even for the needs of the army. For example, metal for cannons and artillery was purchased in Sweden. The industry was in decline. Throughout Russia there were only 25 manufactories.

For comparison, in England during the same period there were more than 100 manufactories. As for agriculture and trade, the old rules were in effect and these industries practically did not develop.

Features of economic development

Peter's great embassy to Europe opened up to the tsar the problems that were in the Russian economy.

These problems were exacerbated with the start of the Northern War, when Sweden cut off the supply of iron (metal). As a result, Peter I was forced to melt church bells into cannons, for which the church called him almost the Antichrist.

The economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter the Great was aimed primarily at the development of the army and navy.

It was around these two components that the development of industry and other objects took place. It is important to note that since 1715, individual entrepreneurship has been encouraged in Russia.

Moreover, part of the manufactories and factories were transferred to private hands.

The basic principles of the economic policy of Peter 1 developed in two directions:

Protectionism. This is support domestic manufacturer and encouraging the export of goods abroad.
Mercantilism. Predominance of exports of goods over imports. In economic terms, exports prevail over imports. This is for concentration. Money inside the country.

Industry development

By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, there were only 25 manufactories in Russia.

This is extremely small. The country could not provide itself even with the most necessary. That is why the beginning of the Northern War was so sad for Russia, since the lack of supplies of the same iron from Sweden made it impossible to wage war.

The main directions of the economic policy of Peter 1 fluttered in 3 main areas: the metallurgical industry, the mining industry, and shipbuilding. In total, by the end of Peter's reign in Russia, there were already 200 manufactories.

The best indicator that the economic management system worked is the fact that before Peter came to power, Russia was one of the largest importers of iron, and after Peter 1, Russia came out on the 3rd place in the world in iron production and became an exporting country.

Under Peter the Great, the first industrial centers in the country began to form.

Rather, there were such industrial centers, but their significance was insignificant. It was under Peter that the formation and rise of industry in the Urals and Donbass took place. back side industrial growth - the attraction of private capital and difficult conditions for workers.

During this period, ascribed and sessional peasants appeared.

Posession peasants appeared by decree of Peter 1 in 1721. They became the property of the manufactory and were obliged to work there all their lives. Posessional peasants replaced the ascribed ones, who were recruited from among the urban peasants and assigned to a specific factory.

History reference

The problem of the peasants, expressed in the creation of a possessive peasantry, was associated with the lack of a skilled workforce in Russia.

The development of industry in the Petrine era was distinguished by the following features:

The rapid development of the metallurgical industry.
Active participation of the state in economic life.
The state acted as the customer of all industrial facilities.
Employment of forced labor. From 1721 factories were allowed to buy peasants.
Lack of competition.
As a result, large entrepreneurs had no desire to develop their industry, which is why there was a long stagnation in Russia.

In the development of industry, Peter had 2 problems: the weak efficiency of public administration, as well as the lack of interests of large entrepreneurs for development.

All this was decided simply - the tsar began to transfer, including large enterprises, to the management of private owners. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 17th century famous family Demidov controlled 1/3 of all Russian iron.

The figure shows a map of the economic development of Russia under Peter 1, as well as the development of industry in the European part of the country.

Agriculture

Consider what changes took place in Russian agriculture during the reign of Peter.

The Russian economy under Peter I in the field of agriculture developed along an extensive path. The extensive path, in contrast to the intensive one, did not imply an improvement in working conditions, but an expansion of opportunities. Therefore, under Peter, active development of new arable land began. The most quickly developed lands were in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia. At the same time, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. Approximately 90% of the population lived in villages and was engaged in agriculture.

The orientation of the country's economy towards the army and navy was also reflected in the agriculture of Russia in the 17th century.

In particular, it was precisely because of this direction in the development of the country that the development of sheep and horse breeding began.

Economic reforms of Peter 1

Sheep were needed to supply the fleet, and horses to form the cavalry.

It was in the Petrine era that new tools of labor began to be used in agriculture: a scythe and a rake. These tools were purchased from abroad and imposed on the local economy.

Since 1715, what year did Peter I issue a decree to expand the sowing of tobacco and hemp.

As a result, an agricultural system was created in which Russia could feed itself on its own, and also, for the first time in history, began to sell grain abroad.

Trade

The economic policy of Peter 1 in the field of trade generally corresponds to the general development of the country.

Trade also developed along a protectionist path of development.

Until the Petrine era, all major trade was conducted through the port in Astrakhan. But Peter the Great, who loved St. Petersburg terribly, by his own decree forbade trading through Astrakhan (the Decree was signed in 1713), and demanded a complete transfer of trade to St. Petersburg.

This did not bring any special effect for Russia, but it was an important factor in strengthening the position of St. Petersburg as a city and capital of the Empire. Suffice it to say that as a result of these changes, Astrakhan reduced its trade turnover by about 15 times, and the city gradually began to lose its rich status.

Simultaneously with the development of the port in st. petersburg, ports in Riga, Vyborg, Narva and Revel were actively developing. At the same time, St. Petersburg accounted for approximately 2/3 of the foreign trade turnover.

Support for domestic production was achieved through the introduction of high customs duties. So, if the goods were produced in Russia, then its customs duty was 75%.

If the imported goods were not produced in Russia, then its duty varied in the range from 20% to 30%. At the same time, the payment of the duty was made exclusively in foreign currency at a favorable exchange rate for Russia. This was necessary to obtain foreign capital and to be able to purchase the necessary equipment. Already in 1726, the volume of exports of products from Russia was 2 times higher than the volume of imports.

The main countries with which Russia traded at that time were England and Holland.

In many respects, the development of transport went on for the development of trade.

In particular, 2 large canals were built:

Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1709). This canal connected the Tvertsa River (a tributary of the Volga) with the Msta River. From there, through Lake Ilmen, a path to the Baltic Sea opened.
Ladoga Bypass Canal (1718). Went around Lake Ladoga. This detour was necessary because the lake was turbulent and ships could not move on it.

Development of finance

Peter 1 had one oddity - he loved taxes very much and in every possible way encouraged people who came up with new taxes.

It was during this era that taxes were introduced on almost everything: on stoves, on salt, on government forms, and even on beards. In those days, they even joked that there were no taxes only on air, but such taxes would soon appear.

The increase in taxes and their expansion led to popular unrest. For example, the Astrakhan uprising and the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin were the main major discontents of the masses of that era, but there were also dozens of minor uprisings.

In 1718, the tsar carried out his well-known reform, introducing a poll tax in the country.

If earlier taxes were paid from the yard, now from every male soul.

Also, one of the main undertakings was the financial reform of 1700-1704. The main attention in this reform was given to the minting of new coins, equating the amount of silver in the ruble with silver. The weight of the Russian ruble itself was equated to the Dutch guilder.

As a result of financial changes, the growth of revenues to the treasury was increased by about 3 times.

This was a great help for the development of the state, but made it almost impossible to live in the country. Suffice it to say that during the Petrine era, the population of Russia decreased by 25%, taking into account all the new territories that this tsar conquered.

Consequences of economic development

The main results of the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, during the reign of Peter 1, which can be considered the main ones:

Growth in the number of manufactories by 7 times.
Expansion of the volume of manufactured products within the country.
Russia has taken the 3rd place in the world in metal smelting.
In agriculture, new tools began to be used, which later proved their effectiveness.
The founding of st. petersburg and the conquest of the Baltic states expanded trade and economic ties with European countries.
St. Petersburg has become the main commercial and financial center of Russia.
Due to the state's attention to trade, the importance of the merchant class has grown.
It was during this period that they established themselves as a strong and influential class.

If we consider these points, then a positive reaction to the economic reforms of Peter 1 suggests itself, but here it is important to understand at what cost all this was achieved. The tax burden on the population increased greatly, which automatically caused the impoverishment of most peasant farms.

In addition, the need to develop the economy at a rapid pace actually contributed to the strengthening of serfdom.

New and old in the Petrine economy

Consider a table that presents the main aspects of the economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter 1, indicating which aspects were before Peter and which appeared under him.

Factor Appeared or persisted

Agriculture as the basis of the country's economy	Preserved
Specialization of economic regions	Appeared. Prior to Peter, specialization was insignificant.
Active industrial development of the Urals	Appeared
Development of local land tenure	Preserved
Formation of a single all-Russian market	Appeared
Manufactory production	Preserved, but greatly expanded
Protectionist policy	Appeared
Registration of peasants to factories	Appeared
Excess of exports of goods over imports	Appeared
Canal construction	Appeared
Growth in the number of entrepreneurs	Appeared

Regarding the growth in the number of entrepreneurs, it should be noted that Peter 1 actively contributed to this.

In particular, he allowed any person, regardless of his origin, to conduct research on the discovery of minerals and establish their own factories at the location.

Russia under Peter I

in Russia in the 18th century. along with the strengthening and formation of the estate system, profound changes are taking place in the economic and social development affecting all sides National economy and social character of the country. These changes were based on the process of disintegration of feudalism and the genesis of capitalist relations, which began as early as the 17th century. The culmination of this process was, of course, the era Peter I(1672-1725), king-transformer.

Peter I correctly understood and realized the complexity of the tasks that faced the country, and began to purposefully implement them.

Absolutism and government. Under Peter I, absolutism was finally established in Russia, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant strengthening the power of the tsar himself, he became an autocratic and unlimited monarch.

In Russia, a reform of the state apparatus was carried out - instead of the Boyar Duma, a Senate, which included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I.

The Senate was the legislative body, controlled the finances of the country and the activities of the administration. At the head of the Senate was the Prosecutor General.

The reform of public administration also affected the system of orders, they were replaced boards, the number of which reached 12. Each collegium was in charge of a certain branch of management: foreign relations were managed by the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the Admiralteyskaya fleet, revenue collection by the Chamber Collegium, noble land ownership by Votchinnaya, etc.

The cities were in charge of the Chief Magistrate.

During this period, the struggle continued between the supreme and secular authorities and the church. In 1721 was established spiritual board, or Synod, which testified to the complete subordination of the church to the state.

In Russia, the post of patriarch was abolished, the supervision of the church was entrusted to the chief prosecutor of the Synod.

The system of local government was reorganized, the country was divided in 1708 into eight provinces(Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian) headed by the governors, who were in charge of the troops. Since the territories of the provinces were huge, they were subdivided into 50 provinces. The provinces were further divided into counties.

These measures testified to the creation in Russia of a unified administrative-bureaucratic system of government - an indispensable attribute of an absolutist state.

The reforms of Peter I affected the army and navy.

Since 1705, recruitment duty has been introduced in the country, the norm for placing a soldier for lifelong service was established - one recruit from 20 peasant households. Thus, the army was created with a single principle of recruitment, with uniform weapons and uniforms. New military regulations were introduced. Officers' schools were organized. Artillery guns were supplied to the army, many ships were built. So, by 1725 the Baltic Fleet had more than 30 battleships, 16 frigates and over 400 other ships.

Under Peter I, the Russian army and navy became one of the strongest in Europe.

An important result and legislative consolidation of the entire reform activities Petra appeared Table of ranks(1722), which was a law on the order of public service.

The adoption of this law meant a break with the previous patriarchal tradition of governance, embodied in localism. Having established the order of rank-keeping in the military and civil service, not by nobility, but by personal abilities and merit, the Table of Ranks contributed to the consolidation of the nobility and the expansion of its composition at the expense of persons loyal to the tsar from different segments of the population.

Development of manufacturing production The most characteristic feature of Russia's economic development was the decisive role of the autocratic state in the economy, its active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life.

Established by Peter 1, Berg-, Manufactory-, Commerce College- and the Chief Magistrate were institutions of state regulation of the national economy, bodies for the implementation of the commercial and industrial policy of the autocracy.

There are two stages in industrial policy: 1700-1717. - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury; since 1717, private individuals began to establish manufactories.

At the same time, the owners of manufactories were exempted from the state service.

At the first stage, priority was given to the production of products for military needs.

Economy under Peter 1

At the second stage, the industry began to produce products for the population.

By decree of 1722, city artisans were united in workshops, but unlike Western Europe they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves, for the manufacture of products needed by the army and navy.

A higher form of industrial production was manufactory.

As a result of the transformations of Peter I in the first quarter of the XVIII century. in the development of the manufacturing industry there was a sharp leap. Compared with the end of the XVII century. the number of manufactories increased by about five times and in 1725 amounted to 205 enterprises.

Particularly great successes were achieved in the metallurgical industry, which was caused by the need to arm the army and build a navy. Along with factories in the old regions (Tula, Kashira, Kaluga), factories arose in Karelia, and then in the Urals.

It was during this period that the widespread development of iron and copper ores of the Urals began, which soon became the main metallurgical base of the country. Iron smelting reached 815 thousand tons.

poods per year, according to this indicator, Russia came in third place in the world, second only to England and Sweden. Large-scale copper production was organized. In second place were textile manufactories, which were developed in the center of the country. Leather enterprises also worked here, providing products primarily to the army.

Under Peter I, new industries arose in Russia: shipbuilding, silk spinning, glass and earthenware, and paper production.

The state played an important role in the development of large-scale industry.

It built factories, helped private entrepreneurs, and provided manufactories with labor.

The manufactories used both civilian and forced labor of peasants who worked at the patrimonial enterprises of their landlords, as well as ascribed peasants from the state and palace villages. Decree of 1721

merchants were allowed to purchase serfs for their factories, who later became known as sessional. Thus, in the first quarter of the XVIII century. there was a leap in the development of large-scale production and in the use of free hired labor. This can be considered the second stage in the initial period of the genesis of capitalist relations in the industry of Russia (the first stage - the 17th century).

Trade. During the reign of Peter I received incentives for the development of domestic and foreign trade.

This was facilitated by the development of industrial and handicraft production, the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea, and the improvement of communications. During this period, canals were built that connected the Volga and Neva (Vyshnevolotsky and Ladoga). Between separate parts countries, exchange increased, the turnover of Russian fairs (Makarievskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, etc.) grew, which manifested the formation of an all-Russian market.

For the development of foreign trade, not only the construction of the St. Petersburg port was important, but also the support of Russian merchants and industrialists from the government of Peter I.

This was reflected in the policy of protectionism and mercantilism, in the adoption of the Protective Tariff of 1724. In accordance with it (and the emperor himself took part in its development), the export of Russian goods abroad was encouraged and the import of foreign products was limited. Most foreign goods were subject to a very high duty, reaching up to 75% of the value of the goods.

Income from trade contributed to the accumulation of capital in the field of trade, which also led to the growth of the capitalist structure. General feature development of trade was to pursue a policy of mercantilism, the essence of which was to accumulate money through an active trade balance.

The state actively intervened in the development of trade:

monopolies were introduced for the procurement and sale of certain goods: salt, flax, yuft, hemp, tobacco, bread, lard, wax, etc., which led to an increase in prices for these goods within the country and limited the activities of Russian merchants;

often the sale of a certain commodity, for which a state monopoly was introduced, was transferred to a specific farmer for payment large amount of money;

direct taxes (customs, drinking fees), etc. were sharply increased;

practiced the forced relocation of merchants to St. Petersburg, which at that time was an unsettled border town.

The practice of administrative regulation of cargo flows was applied, i.e.

it was determined in which port and what to trade. The gross intervention of the state in the sphere of trade led to the destruction of the shaky foundation on which the well-being of merchants, primarily loan and usurious capital, rested.

monetary reform. In conditions when there was a significant expansion of industrial production, the turnover of domestic and foreign trade increased, it was necessary to reform the monetary system.

It took shape in the 17th century. and now, in the era of Peter's reforms, it has ceased to correspond to the interests of economic development.

For wholesale trade and foreign trade operations, the silver kopeck in circulation turned out to be too small a monetary unit. At the same time, for small market trade, it was unnecessarily valuable.

Therefore, Peter 1 carried out a reform of the monetary business. It provided for the minting of gold, silver and copper coins. The basis of the monetary system was the decimal principle: ruble, hryvnia, kopeck. The main units of the new monetary system were the copper penny and the silver ruble, which, in order to facilitate foreign trade settlements, was equated by weight with the thaler, which was used as a monetary unit in a number of European countries.

The minting of coins became the monopoly of the state.

Agriculture. A notable phenomenon in the history of agriculture of the XVIII century. was the process of territorial division of labor, which began in the XVII century. In general, the formation of regions specialized in the production of certain agricultural products has been completed, and their trade orientation has become more clearly defined. Agriculture was dominated by the production of cereals and industrial crops, among which the leading place was occupied by flax and hemp.

Social politics. In the field of social policy, Petrine legislation followed, in principle, the general trend that emerged in the 18th century.

The attachment of peasants to the land, fixed by the Code of 1649, not only did not change at that time, but also received further development. This is evidenced by the introduction new system accounting of the population and taxation, carried out in order to increase the effectiveness of control over the collection of taxes from the population.

The state, seeking to identify each individual taxpayer, introduced a new principle of taxation - the poll tax. Taxes began to be collected - now not from the yard, but from audit soul1. AT 1718-1724

a census of the entire taxable population was carried out, and all those included in the lists had to pay a certain per capita tax per year. The introduction of the poll tax led to several important consequences: the consolidation of existing social structures, strengthening the power of the landlords over the peasants and, in addition, the spread of the tax burden on new groups of the population.

Another major initiative in the field of state regulation of social relations was Peter I's attempt to stabilize the ruling class economically and politically.

In this respect important role played the Decree on the order of inheritance of movable and immovable property of March 23, 1714, known as the Decree on Majorate. Under the new law, all land holdings of a nobleman were to be inherited only by one eldest son or daughter, and in their absence, to one of the family members. In a long historical perspective, Peter's decree would have kept large land holdings indivisible, would have prevented their fragmentation.

However, the Russian nobility met him with extreme hostility. The decree on the majorate, despite repeated reminders and threats, was never implemented, and was canceled in subsequent reigns.

The history of this legislative provision well shows the limits and possibilities of state intervention in the rationalization of social relations, the regulation of the ruling class.

At the same time, it was of great importance, since from that moment the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate, there were no differences between them - the estate, like the estate, became inheritable.

This decree marked the merger of the two estates of feudal lords into a single class. Since that time, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles.

If the Code of 1649 formalized serfdom for the bulk of the rural population, then the tax reform extended serfdom to sections of the population that were either free (walking people) or had the opportunity to gain freedom after the death of the master (serfs). Both those and others forever became serfs.

The results of the census conducted by Peter give an idea of the population of Russia, it was 15.5 million people.

people, of which 5.4 million were men, from whom the tax was collected.

Strengthening the tax burden led to a mass exodus of peasants. In 1724, Peter issued a decree forbidding peasants to leave the landowners to work without written permission. So in Russia the beginning of the passport system was laid.

The main goal of the state activity of Peter (1696-1725) was to turn Russia into a powerful modern state. Peter set himself the main tasks: 1.creation of large-scale production (manufactory), 2.development of trade (especially maritime), 3.Creation of a powerful army and navy, 4.development of science, education and education. To solve the first problem, capital and free labor were required.

There was neither one nor the other resource in the country. Walkers were the only free labor force in the country, but there were very few of them. Many scientists were brought from abroad to develop mining wealth and to train Russians in mining. Persistent efforts of Peter were crowned with success, iron and copper were even exported abroad. Under Peter, many linen, sailing, cloth factories, as well as factories for the production of consumer goods, arose.

Since trade could only be overland, Peter took care of improving the means of communication. The great deed of Peter was the creation of a regular Russian army. Recruitment kits were introduced to equip the army with soldiers (1-1705).

Several special schools were established for the training of officers. It was forbidden to promote to officers nobles who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments. At the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 200,000. One of the tasks was the creation of the navy. As a result, the navy consisted of 48 battleships, 800 galleys and other vessels.

No less important were reforms to transform public administration.

The highest institution of the Petrine administration was the senate, which replaced the boyar duma. Peter made a radical restructuring of the central government.

In 1717-18. 9 collegiums were established: military, admiralty, foreign affairs, justice collegium, chamber collegium (department of state revenues), revision collegium, state collegium (department of state expenses), commercial collegium, berg-, manufactory collegium. The board consisted of 11 members. At the end of 1708 Peter issued a decree on the division of Russia into 8 provinces. Provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into districts.

Russia reared up

He spent church reform. He approved the spiritual regulations: the elimination of the autonomy of the church and its subordination to the state, the establishment of a spiritual college (synod) for management, the abolition of the patriarchate.

The nobility under Peter was far from being a privileged class. higher officials Peter appointed the central and regional administration, completely disregarding their origin.

The official service of the entire nobility under Peter not only did not become easier, but, on the contrary, became more difficult than it was in the Muscovite state. The nobles under Peter were obliged from the age of 15 to enter regular soldier regiments. They had to serve in the army until old age or until they lost their ability to work. On the other hand, every soldier who rose to the rank of officer received hereditary nobility. Thus, access to the nobility, through military service, was open to all classes of the population.

The former Moscow official "ranks", which depended on the origin of the service people, were canceled by Peter. The “table of ranks” published by him (1722) divided the entire mass of civil servants, military and civil, into 14 ranks, or “ranks”, through which each officer and civil official had to advance. In addition to official duty, Peter assigned a completely new, educational duty to the nobility. All male noble children were taught to read and write, arithmetic and geometry. At the same time, Peter limited the rights of the nobles to dispose of their estates.

By decree of the same inheritance, Peter forbade the landowners to divide the estates between all the sons and ordered to bequeath the real estate to only one son. Peter's did not interfere directly and directly in relations between peasants and landowners and did not regulate these relations. But the introduction of the "poll" tax - contributed to the deterioration of the position of the serfs.

The tax was laid equally on peasants and serfs.

Peter wanted Russian artisans to organize themselves into workshops, following the model of Western European ones.

Simultaneously with the reform in the field of education, the development of publishing has been rapidly developing. Great successes have been achieved in geodesy, hydrography, cartography, and in the study of bowels and minerals. In the era of Peter the Great, the everyday way of life of Russian society changed. The tsar, by order, introduced barbering, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms.

Peter issued a decree on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Encouraged to use in conversations foreign words, predominantly French.

The problem of the development of the USSR in the 20s: NEP

The Soviet government, led by the Communist Party, emerged victorious in the revolution. But having won, she was almost in a losing state. Workers fled the cities or hunted with primitive manual labor. Peasants everywhere took up arms. It was restless in the army. Strikes have begun. By the spring of 1921. it became clear that the dissatisfaction of the lower classes, their armed pressure could lead to the overthrow of the power of the Soviets, if the policy of concessions was not started.

The extremely difficult situation in the country pushed the Bolsheviks to a more flexible economic policy. It was not only the war that led to the economic and political crisis, but also the policy of war communism.

The people were exhausted. For a number of years people lived from hand to mouth. There were not enough clothes, shoes, medicines.

The transition to the NEP was proclaimed by Lenin in March 21. at the Tenth Party Congress. The first step of the NEP was the abolition of the surplus appraisal (most of the products were forcibly taken from the peasants). Instead, a tax in kind was introduced, which was half the apportionment and was announced in advance. It could not be increased within a year. All the surplus left after the payment of the tax came at the disposal of the peasants.

This created a material incentive to increase agricultural production. Fundamental changes have taken place in the field of industrial production. The decree on the total nationalization of industry was repealed.

Now small and part of medium-sized enterprises were transferred to private hands. Some large enterprises were allowed to be leased to private individuals. All these innovations required the abolition of forced labor and the introduction of a labor market, reforming the wage system.

In 1992 a new land code was adopted, the peasants received the right to freely enter from the community and choose the forms of land use.

The State Bank was restored, which controlled the network of newly formed cooperative banks, credit and insurance partnerships. 1992 A monetary reform was carried out, the result of which was the introduction of a solid monetary unit backed by gold, the gold chervonets, which was highly valued on the world currency market.

But a significant part of industry and all foreign trade remained in the hands of the state. However, government industrial enterprises received more independence under the new charter.

The loss-making nature of large-scale state industry and the unequal exchange between town and country resulted in a marketing crisis. Mass peasant uprisings broke out in a number of places. This forced the government to make some concessions - it was softened in favor of rural producers price policy, the right to lease land and the use of hired labor has been expanded.

During the transition to industrialization in the country, the problem of grain procurements became more acute. The food supply of the cities was jeopardized. Withdrawal of surpluses and repressions only exacerbated the crisis. In February 1929 ration cards appeared in the cities.

The most rapidly adapted to the NEP was small industry, retail and village. The recovery of heavy industry proceeded at a slower pace.

But the introduction of cost accounting (ensuring the profitability of production) and material incentives nevertheless bore fruit. Agriculture gradually began to increase its volumes. By 28 the country has reached the pre-war level in terms of basic economic indicators. This created the conditions for some improvement in the material situation of workers, peasants and employees.

And yet, in general, there was a sharp shortage of industrial goods, which led to an increase in prices, and this, in turn, hampered the growth of the living standards of all categories of the population. Unemployment was a major problem. The housing problem was not only not resolved, but became even more aggravated. Agrarian overpopulation has become a real disaster for the country. All these serious problems testified to the need to adjust the NEP course.

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