Functions of the Novgorod veche meeting. Cheat sheet: Novgorod Veche: the main problems of organization and activity

The system of Novgorod administration was based on a compromise between the people and the nobility, the mob and the boyars. The veche was a visible symbol and the main power institution of this compromise. As a result of this duality of its nature, we cannot give a clear and well-defined definition of veche. This is a state authority and a people's assembly, and a political institution - the owner of almost supreme power, and a place where the highest form of anarchy was actually legalized - a brawl, and a spokesman for the interests of the aristocracy (boyars) as the true leadership of the city on the Volkhov, and an instrument of genuine democracy . Such ambiguity of the veche, its organization and activities, gave rise to many disputes, thanks to which now we can rightfully say: we know practically nothing definite about the veche.

The supreme bodies of state power in Novgorod were the veche and the Council of Lords.

In its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, similar to the others that existed in other cities of Russia in the 12th century. Veche was not a permanent body. It was not convened periodically, but only when there was a real need for it. Most often this happened during wars, uprisings and the call of princes. A veche was convened by a prince, a posadnik or a thousand on the Trade side of the city, in Yaroslav's courtyard, or they gathered a veche at the will of the people, on the Sofia or Trade side. It consisted of residents of both Novgorod and its suburbs; there were no restrictions among Novgorod citizens: every free and independent person could go to the Veche. Veche gathered at the ringing of the veche bell.

In fact, the veche consisted of those who could come to it, that is, mostly residents of Novgorod, since the convening of the veche was not announced in advance. But sometimes the veche was attended by delegates from large suburbs of Novgorod, such as Pskov, Ladoga and others. For example, Ladoga and Pskovians attended the Veche in 1136. More often, however, the inhabitants of the suburbs came to the veche with a complaint about this or that decision of the Novgorodians. So, in 1384, the inhabitants of Orekhov and Korela sent their delegates to Novgorod with a complaint against the Lithuanian prince Patricius, who had been imprisoned by the Novgorodians. Questions to be discussed by the veche were proposed to him with a degree by a prince, a posadnik or a thousand. The veche had a legislative initiative, resolved issues of foreign policy and internal structure, and also judged the most important crimes. The veche had the right to pass laws, invite and expel the prince, choose, judge and dismiss the posadnik and the thousandth, resolve their disputes with the princes, resolve issues of war and peace, distribute volosts to feed the princes.

State administration of Novgorod was carried out through a system of veche bodies: in the capital there was a city-wide veche, separate parts of the city (sides, ends, streets) convened their own veche meetings. Formally, the veche was the highest authority (each at its own level), which decided the most important issues from the economic, political, military, judicial, and administrative spheres. Veche elected the prince. An agenda was prepared for the meetings, as well as candidates for elected officials. Decisions at the meeting were to be taken unanimously. There was an office and an archive of the veche meeting, office work was carried out by veche clerks. The organizational and preparatory body (preparation of bills, veche decisions, control activities, convening a veche) was the boyar council (“Ospoda”), which included the most influential persons (representatives of the city administration, noble boyars) and worked under the chairmanship of the archbishop.

Formally and legally, the city veche was the highest authority. It had the highest rights in issuing laws, concluding international treaties, issues of war and peace, it approved princes and elected high officials, approved taxes, etc. Adult free men took part in veche meetings.

There is much that is unclear about the activities of this body. It was believed that the veche met at the ringing of a bell at the Yaroslavl court. However, excavations have shown that several hundred people could fit in the courtyard, but not all the inhabitants. Probably, some elite part of the inhabitants gathered there, and it is difficult to separate its relations with the rest of the mass of free participants in the veche. V. O. Klyuchevsky believed that there was a lot of anarchy, strife, noise and shouting in the work of the veche meeting. There were no clear ways to vote. Nevertheless, the speeches were held from a special place - a degree (tribune), the veche was led by a sedate posadnik, office work was carried out and there was an archive of documents. But the decisions of veche meetings were often “prepared” by the city administration and did not express the interests of citizens.

O. V. Martyshin, on the basis of an analysis of a large historical material, managed to identify the main most important and frequently found powers of the veche:

conclusion and termination of the contract with the prince;

· election and dismissal of posadniks, thousands, lords;

Appointment of Novgorod governors, posadniks and governors in the provinces;

control over the activities of the prince, posadniks, thousand, lords and other officials;

· Legislation, an example of which is the Novgorod Judicial Charter;

· foreign relations, solution of issues of war and peace, trade relations with the West;

· Disposal of the landed property of Novgorod in economic and legal terms, granting land;

Establishment of trade rules and benefits;

Establishment of duties of the population, control over their serving;

control over court deadlines and execution of decisions; in cases that worried the whole city, the direct trial of cases; provision of judicial benefits.

O. V. Martyshin, presenting convincing arguments that the veche has legislative functions (the adoption of a judicial letter), proves that the veche not only performed legislative functions, but also acted as an organ of executive and judicial power. Thus, we can conclude that Novgorod in the period under review was an analogue of the parliamentary republic of the West.

According to modern studies, the veche area was relatively small - no more than 1500 m 2. In addition, the participants of the veche, most likely, did not stand, but sat on the benches, and only 400-500 people could fit in the square at that time. This figure is close to the message of the German sources of the XIV century that the supreme body of the Novgorod administration was called "300 golden belts". Just the same (400-500) was the number of boyar estates located in Novgorod. From this we can conclude that only large boyars took part in the veche - estate owners, to whom a certain number of the richest merchants were added in the 13th century. However, in this matter, the results of archaeological research do not coincide with the information of the chronicles, and therefore, most likely, the veche in Novgorod is a wide public meeting in which all Novgorodians who wish take part. In the end, if the size of the square was really small, then it can be assumed that people crowded in the adjacent streets and alleys and took part in the veche, moreover, the chronicle repeatedly testifies that the veche was just beginning on the square in front of Yaroslav's yard.

Very often, the development of events was transferred to more spacious streets (squares), and sometimes to the bridge across the Volkhov ... Again, it cannot be assumed that if the entire free male population could participate in the veche, then they participated in it. Very often, the vast majority of the male population was simply busy. It is not for nothing that letters were written “from the boyars, from the living people, from merchants, from black people, from all of Novgorod.” Finally, even V. L. Yanin admits that initially the veche had a more democratic character, and its transformation into the Council of “300 Golden Belts” occurred as a result of the fragmentation of the demos into streets, ends, etc. But just this thesis raises even greater doubts about the concept of “300 golden belts”. There was no point for the boyars themselves to “sit” in the veche, when one could simply acquire supporters who would seek to respect the interests of their masters, while maintaining the democratic spirit and legitimacy of the people’s assembly. Finally, the veche was the most important mechanism for smoothing out social contradictions. The very stay there gave the demos some hope for a “better life”.

Since the veche did not meet constantly, but only when it was convened, a permanent body of power was needed to manage the Novgorod Republic. The Council of Lords became such a body of power. It consisted of old and sedate posadniks, thousand, sotsky and archbishop. The Council had an aristocratic character, the number of its members in the XV century. reached 50. This body developed from the ancient institution of power - the boyar duma of the prince with the participation of city elders. In the XII century. the prince to his council with his boyars invited the city sotsk and elders. As the prince lost organic ties with the local Novgorod society, he and the boyars were gradually ousted from the council. He was replaced by the local bishop, the archbishop, who became the permanent chairman of the Council.

Frequent changes of senior officials of Novgorod became the reason for the rapid growth of the composition of the Council of Lords. All members of the Council, except for the chairman, were called boyars.

The council of gentlemen prepared and introduced legislative questions at the veche, presented ready-made bills, while it did not have its own voice in the adoption of laws. The Council also carried out general supervision over the work of the state apparatus and officials of the republic, controlled the activities of the executive branch. He, together with the prince, the posadnik and the thousandth, decided on the convening of the veche and subsequently directed all its activities.

The council of gentlemen was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. It consisted of representatives of the upper Novgorod class, which had a powerful economic influence on the whole city, this preparatory council often predetermined the questions it raised at the veche, passing among the citizens the answers prepared by itself. Thus, the veche very often became a weapon to give legitimacy to the decisions of the Council in the eyes of citizens.

By its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, completely homogeneous with the gatherings of other older cities of Russia. It could be assumed that the greater political scope allowed the Novgorod vech to take shape in more elaborate forms. However, in the stories of the ancient Novgorod chronicle, due to this spaciousness, the veche is only more noisy and arbitrary than anywhere else. Important gaps remained in its structure until the end of the liberty of the city. The veche was sometimes convened by the prince, more often by one of the main city dignitaries, posadnik or thousand. However, sometimes, especially during the struggle of the parties, the veche was also convened by private individuals. It was not a permanent institution, it was convened and held only when there was a need for it. There has never been a fixed time limit for its convening. Veche gathered at the ringing of the veche bell. The sound of this bell was well distinguished by the Novgorod ear from the ringing of church bells.

Novgorod Veche. Artist K. V. Lebedev

Veche usually took place on the square, called Yaroslav's yard. The usual veche place for the election of the Novgorod lord was the square near St. Sophia Cathedral, on the throne of which the electoral lots were laid. The veche was not a representative institution in its composition, it did not consist of deputies: anyone who considered himself a full-fledged citizen fled to the veche square. Veche usually consisted of citizens of one senior city; but sometimes residents of the younger cities of the earth appeared on it, however, only two, Ladoga and Pskov. These were either suburban deputies who were sent to Novgorod when a question arose at the veche concerning one or another suburb, or random visitors to Novgorod from the suburbs who were invited to the veche. In 1384, the townspeople of Orekhov and Korela arrived in Novgorod to complain about the feeder planted by the Novgorodians, the Lithuanian prince Patricius. Two vechas gathered, one for the prince, the other for the townspeople. It was, obviously, the appeal of the offended provincials for justice to the sovereign capital, and not their participation in the legislative or judicial power of the veche.

Questions to be discussed by the vecha were proposed to him with a degree by the prince or higher dignitaries, a sedate posadnik or a thousand. The Novgorod Veche was in charge of the entire field of legislation, all issues of foreign policy and internal structure, as well as a court for political and other major crimes, combined with the most severe punishments, deprivation of life or confiscation of property and exile (the “flow and plunder” of Russian Truth). The veche decreed new laws, invited the prince or expelled him, elected and judged the main city dignitaries, sorted out their disputes with the prince, decided on the issue of war and peace, etc. The prince also took part in the legislative activity of the veche; but here, in the competence of both authorities, it is difficult to draw a separate line between lawful and actual relations. According to the treaties, the prince could not plot wars "without the Novgorod word"; but we do not meet the conditions for Novgorod not to plot a war without the prince's consent, although the external defense of the country was the main business of the Novgorod prince. According to the agreements, the prince could not distribute profitable positions, volosts and feeding, but in fact it happened that the veche gave feeding without the participation of the prince. In the same way, the prince could not take away positions "without fault", and he was obliged to declare the guilt of an official at a meeting, which then carried out a disciplinary trial over the accused. But sometimes the roles of the accuser and the judge changed: the veche brought to trial before the prince an inconvenient regional feeder. According to the treaties, the prince could not, without a posadnik, issue letters confirming the rights of officials or private individuals; but often such letters came from the veche in addition to the prince and even without his name, and only by the decisive defeat of the Novgorod rati Vasily the Dark forced the Novgorodians in 1456 to abandon the "eternal letters".

Novgorod Veche. Artist S. S. Rubtsov

At the meeting, by its very composition, there could be neither a correct discussion of the issue, nor a correct vote. The decision was drawn up by eye, it is better to say by ear, rather by the strength of the cries than by the majority of votes. When the veche was divided into parties, the verdict was worked out by force, through a fight: the side that prevailed was recognized by the majority. It was a peculiar form of the field, the judgment of God, just as the throwing of those condemned by the veche sentence from the Volkhov bridge was a relic of the ancient ordeal by water. Sometimes the whole city was "torn apart" between the fighting parties, and then two meetings took place simultaneously, one at the usual place, on the Trade side, the other on the Sofia side; but these were already rebellious internecine gatherings, and not normal vechas. It happened more than once, the strife ended with the fact that both vechas, moving against each other, converged on the large Volkhov bridge and started a massacre if the clergy did not manage to separate the opponents in time. This significance of the Volkhov bridge as an eyewitness to urban strife was expressed in poetic form in a legend included in some Russian chronicles and in the notes of a foreigner who visited Russia at the beginning of the 16th century, Baron Herberstein. According to his story, when the Novgorodians under St. Vladimir threw the idol of Perun into the Volkhov, an angry god, having reached the bridge, threw a stick at him with the words: “Here you are, Novgorodians, from me as a keepsake.” Since then, at the appointed time, Novgorodians converge with sticks on the Volkhov bridge and begin to fight like mad.

Based on lectures by V. O. Klyuchevsky

Veliky Novgorod is one of the oldest cities in Russia; it celebrated its 1150th anniversary in 2009. Novgorod did not let the hordes of the Mongol invasion into its walls, although it paid tribute, but it retained unique monuments of ancient Russian architecture of the pre-Mongol period. Novgorod was the only one of the ancient Russian cities that escaped decline and fragmentation in the 11th-12th centuries.
This city is famous for many pages of the past, including the ancient traditions of democratic meetings - the famous Novgorod Veche.
Veliky Novgorod is the center of the origin of Russian statehood, the chronicle Rurik was called to reign there. In the Middle Ages, on the territory of feudal Russia, the city united Novgorod Russia, becoming the ancient capital of the first free Novgorod veche republic. Its symbol, the veche bell, has long called the townspeople to decide and do things "big and small".
The first time the Novgorod Veche was mentioned in written sources was in 1016, when it was convened by Yaroslav the Wise.
How did the veche go in Novgorod?
Scientists in their research on the Novgorod Veche rely on chronicles and archaeological finds. However, the researchers are unable to reliably determine where in Novgorod there was “that very” veche square. One of the reasons is that the veche system was like a ladder. Each district of Novgorod (“the end”), each village near the city walls were its steps, and each such “subject” held its own small assembly on important issues, and then submitted their decisions to the court of the city assembly.

How did the Novgorod Veche work?

To participate in this important event, residents were summoned to the city square by ringing bells. Loud-voiced bells, intended for this solemn purpose, were installed in specially arranged towers - gridnitsa.
On Veche Square, in addition to the gridirons, a special elevation was built. Speakers would go up to this podium so that the rest of the public could see them. The annals describe how the inhabitants, having come to the veche, sat down on benches and benches, which means that the veche squares were specially equipped with seats for the participants. The discussion of city affairs was stormy, but it took place in a comfortable atmosphere.
Initially, all “Novgorod men” participated in the Veche, i.e. citizens are fathers of families. The decisions of the meeting were in the nature of the general "voice of the people." Later, the boyar aristocracy grew stronger and began to pursue its line more strongly, but all the same, the Veche prevented the prince's monopoly on power. In the language of today, the Novgorod Veche was federal in nature.
The Novgorod veche survived until the end of the 15th century. But gradually it lost its features of people's democracy. Economic inequality among the people increased, large boyars-landowners bribed the "voices" of the poor. And in this way, the "old Russian oligarchs" created their own large parties at the veche, and, of course, adopted laws and decisions that were beneficial to them.
Veche turned into a council of representatives of the elite - about three hundred boyar families, which began to dictate their will to the assembly. On such explosive soil as mushrooms, unrest and conflicts grew after the rain. Which were one of the reasons for the fall of the Novgorod Republic. The Moscow principality also did not doze off and actively strengthened its positions, but this is a completely different story ...
And on January 15, 1478, the Novgorod state ended its independent existence. The Moscow boyars of Ivan III entered the city. Self-government was liquidated, and the veche bell was sent to Moscow.

Novgorod veche was a peculiar form of state government in the Novgorod Republic. This form of government existed for more than six centuries, which has never happened in other Russian lands.

Novgorod never fully experienced the princely power characteristic of the rest of Russia. This made it possible to create an opportunity for the development of a democratic form of government, including the forms inherited from the early period of development (meaning pre-state forms). One of them was the Novgorod Veche.

At the ringing of the veche bell, led by their sotskys and elders, the inhabitants grouped along the Novgorod streets near the veche square. Speakers and officials took their places on the platform. Next to the square was a veche hut, in which the clerk wrote down the questions and decisions made at the veche.

At the veche, the main city officials were also elected: thousand, posadnik and archbishop. The first two were selected exclusively from the boyars, and the archbishop from the spiritual environment, calling him "lord" and at the veche his word was often decisive.

By the fifteenth century, due to economic inequality in the population of the state, the Novgorod veche actually lost its democratic features, degenerating into an oligarchy. Influential farmers-boyars, bribing the poorer sections of the population, thus created large parties for themselves at the veche, passing laws more beneficial to themselves. On this basis, unrest and conflicts quite often arose, which, according to many researchers, were the reason for the fall of the Novgorod Republic along with the strengthening of the Moscow principality.

On January 15, 1778, the existence of an independent Novgorod state ended. Moscow clerks and boyars came to Novgorod from Ivan the Third. Veche Novgorod bell was removed and taken to Moscow.

Opinion on the Novgorod Veche

According to authoritative researcher N. A. Rozhkov, The Novgorod veche was unlimited and the only bearer of fair legislative power. in the republic. After all, his duties included the most relevant discussions: legislative power, financial management, political relations with neighboring peoples and European countries, as well as lawsuits. However, the power of the veche was not so indisputable, because its decisions still fell under the influence of the government council, although this council was legally subordinate to the veche.

Video fragment illustration: Novgorod Veche

Context

The first material of the regular RAPSI project on the history of elections in Russia describes all the stages of the republican form of government tested by our ancestors. Alexander Minzhurenko, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Deputy of the State Duma of the first convocation, tells about the important legal details of this type of state structure and little-known entertaining facts about how the voting was organized in Novgorod.

In the pre-state period of the existence of the East Slavic tribes, all the most important issues of the life of society were resolved at public meetings. This was the case with other peoples as well. This time and the form of organization of primitive society were called "military democracy". “Military” - because warrior men took part in such meetings with a decisive vote.

With the creation of states in Russia in the form of principalities, i.e. in the form of monarchies, popular assemblies - veche - did not disappear. They continued to exist under the princes and played a great role. However, in general, it is rather difficult to talk about the role of veche in various Russian principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation. Here the spread of estimates of their political weight, judging by the annals, can be significant.

In some principalities, they continued to retain the functions of the highest authority, without the approval of which the decisions of the prince did not come into force. In many places there was something like a "dual power". Somewhere veche gathered from time to time only to discuss the most important fundamental issues, and in some places they gradually turned into a kind of advisory body under the prince. In some cases, the veche receded into the past as a "relic", but it was suddenly remembered in the event of a confrontation between society and the prince, and then the spontaneously assembled veche became a place and form of protest.

The most important and even decisive role in the administration of states was played by veche in two republics: Novgorod and Pskov (separated from Novgorod in 1348). The word "republic", used in the description of the state formation of the period of feudalism, is unusual, cuts the ear and raises questions from readers. But in fact, these were real republics. And how else to call a state in which all senior officials, including the prince and the archbishop, were democratically elected at a popular assembly - a veche.

Even by the name of its territory and the form of the state, Novgorod differed from other entities. During the period of feudal fragmentation, Russia broke up into dozens of principalities. We know, say, Vladimir, Tver, Moscow, Rostov and other principalities, but when it comes to Novgorod we say: "Novgorod land." That will be more accurate.

Until 1136, governors were sent from the capital of the Old Russian state of Kyiv to Novgorod by the Grand Duke. These governor-princes appointed posadniks and thousandths. However, such an order of administration was objected to by freedom-loving and rather independent Novgorodians.

In 1136 they rebelled and expelled Prince Vsevolod. Since then, republican orders have reigned there. Veche began to choose the posadnik and the thousandth. The posadnik was, as it were, the highest official in the republic, and in the matter of gathering and commanding the Novgorod militia he was assisted by a thousand. At any time, the veche could recall the persons they had chosen for these positions.

But there were princes in Novgorod. Where and in what capacity? Indeed, in the literal sense, local "natural" Novgorod princes did not exist. They were invited by veche from other principalities-monarchies. And the powers of the prince were very limited. With some reservations, such princes can be called mercenary warriors.

Indeed, the Novgorodians hired the prince with his retinue mainly for external defense and the performance of judicial, as well as police functions. They paid him by assigning "feeding". It was the veche that decided which of the princes to invite to the service, concluded an agreement with him - a “row”, determined the size of the “feeding” of the prince and his combatants.

The prince could not even buy land within the republic, and therefore did not settle in Novgorod, and at the end of the contract he left the republic. The veche could also expel the prince without waiting for the expiration of the "row". So, the "holy faithful" prince Alexander Nevsky several times became the prince of Novgorod due to conflicts with the people of Novgorod.

Russian chronicles first mention the Novgorod veche, describing the events of 1016. But, perhaps, it appeared much earlier, since by this period the veche had already acted quite well-established, as an established form of government of the earth. So in 862, it was the veche that decided to invite Rurik to reign, which marked the beginning of Russian statehood.

Usually the gathering of the people's assembly was announced by the posadnik or the thousand. A special veche bell was used for notification. In addition, “birgochs and podveyskys” - heralds who called the people to a veche meeting, went to different parts of the city. Any free adult male could take part in the work of the veche. The meeting took place in the open air, so publicity in its work was ensured.

The veche was primarily the highest legislative body of the republic. So, it was the veche that approved the Novgorod judicial charter. His decisions were binding on the executive branch: the posadnik, the thousand, the prince and the sots. The veche took decisions on war and peace, on the conclusion of treaties with foreign states.

Some specific managerial issues could also be resolved here and justice was administered for the most high-profile crimes against the state. Criminals convicted at the Veche - they were usually sentenced to death - were immediately thrown from the Great Bridge into the Volkhov River.

Thus, we do not observe a clear separation of the branches of power in the Novgorod system: the veche could be engaged in lawmaking, solving administrative issues and administering justice.

For the support of Constantinople during its conflict with Kyiv, the Bishop of Novgorod Nifont received from the Patriarch of Constantinople the title of archbishop and thus autonomy from the Metropolitan of Kyiv. Now the Novgorodians at their veche received the right to elect the archbishop. And in 1156 they elected for the first time Archbishop Arcadius. And, for example, according to the chronicles, in 1228 the Novgorod veche, by its decision, removed Archbishop Arseny, who was objectionable to him.

All decisions of the veche were initially made by consensus. In the event that a minority of those present had a different opinion, further discussions were held on the issue in order to find a compromise. For the sake of this, they could have postponed the issue until the next meeting in order to conduct a second vote.

In this we can see signs of observing a very progressive principle of taking into account the opinion of a minority, to which the advanced democracies then reached for many centuries. True, if unanimity still could not be achieved, then they tried to achieve at least a clear majority of votes in favor of one of the decisions.

Voted in the literal sense, ie. voice. But precisely because a convincing, or rather overwhelming, majority was required to make a decision, those who voted tried to shout with all their might. As a result of active participation in the work of the people's assembly, sometimes men came home with veche hoarse and hoarse.

Later, with the deepening of social and property stratification, it was increasingly difficult to find a consensus between people with different interests. And then in the practice of holding a veche, physical clashes of the parties appeared in cases of an equal distribution of votes. So, in 1218, a veche, accompanied by fist fights, met daily for a week, until finally, "the brothers all came together unanimously."
With the quantitative growth in the number of townspeople, organizational problems arose for holding citywide people's assemblies. And then more and more often they began to resort to convening representatives of the “ends” of the city. The fact is that the all-Novgorod veche arose as a federation of "Konchan" veche meetings. In total, Novgorod was historically divided into five "ends" - parts of the city. In each of the ends, their own veche also gathered, where local problems were discussed and decisions were made, with which the delegates of this meeting went to the general city meeting.

There are reservations in the literature about the "genuine democracy" in the organization of power in the Novgorod Republic. The only reason for supporters of such doubts is that the questions at the veche were brought up by representatives of the oldest families (“council of the lords”), they also prepared the draft decisions of the veche.

In our opinion, such reproaches against the democratic nature of the veche are untenable, since even in developed democracies there have been and still are instances and bodies that do such preparatory work. This is not at all a sign of an undemocratic state, since the final decision on the issue was nevertheless made publicly and far from always projects prepared by the nobility were adopted by vote.
However, in the future, during the "late republic" in the XIV-XV centuries. we really see an increase in the role of the nobility in the government of Novgorod. And in relation to this time, perhaps, we will use the term "aristocratic republic". However, the veche retained its significance until the end of the existence of the Novgorod Republic.

With the formation of the Russian centralized state, the “gathering of Russian lands” began under the authority of the Moscow principality. In 1478, the turn came to the Novgorod land. The independent existence of this republic ended, its territories became part of a rigidly centralized state with a monarchical form of government. The symbol of the republic and democracy - the veche bell was removed and taken to Moscow. Veche ceased to gather.