The birth of European civilization in the Middle Ages. Rise of Medieval Europe

After reading this paragraph, you will learn: how the barbarian and Roman worlds differed; on what heritage medieval Europe grew up; how the Frankish Empire arose and why it collapsed; What is the role of Charlemagne in the formation of medieval Europe.

1. Roman and barbarian worlds in the middle of the 1st millennium. The birth of medieval Europe was preceded by the decline of the Roman Empire (from the 3rd century), the Great Migration of Nations (4th-7th centuries), the settlement of barbarians on the territory of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of barbarian kingdoms by them. Two opposite and dissimilar worlds stood at the cradle of Medieval Europe: the ancient (Greco-Roman), in which active Christianization took place from the beginning of our era, and the barbarian.

The extremely difficult path of unification of these worlds continued for several centuries (from the 5th to the 9th centuries).

By the middle of the 1st millennium, the Roman Empire was only a faint shadow of its former power. The crisis and decline that began in the 3rd century did not allow the state to resist the invasion of the barbarians. The cessation of the wars of conquest led to a reduction in the number of slaves, which adversely affected the state of agriculture and crafts. In order to somehow compensate for the lack of workers, servants and free peasants began to be turned into people semi-dependent on the landowners - columns.

The Great Migration of Peoples - movements in the IV-VII centuries. Germanic, Slavic, Sarmatian and other tribes on the territory of the Roman Empire.

Barbarians - this is how the Greeks and Romans disparagingly called all foreigners who did not receive a Greek or Roman education, who had nothing to do with their culture, who did not know their language.

Battle of the Romans with the Germans around 252. Scene on a marble sarcophagus found in Rome

"Long" house of the Germans. Reconstruction

Family of ancient Germans. Reconstruction

However, despite the decline, the Roman Empire retained its attractiveness for the conquerors.

It so happened that in the Roman perception, first of all, the peoples living in the expanses of Europe became barbarians: the Celts, the Germans, the Slavs. The Germans had the most tangible influence on the further fate of the Western Roman Empire.

Preacher Salvian about the flight of the Romans to the barbarians (V century)

Poor, destitute widows groan, orphans without patronage, so much so that many of them, even of noble birth and education, flee to the barbarians. In order not to perish under the weight of the state burden, they go to seek Roman humanity from the barbarians, because they can no longer endure the barbaric inhumanity of the Romans.

1. What is this document about? 2. What caused the flight of the Romans to the barbarians?

The vast majority of the Germanic tribes in the I-IV centuries. settled in the lands bordering the empire. The Germans grew rye, barley, wheat, oats, raised cattle, hunted, gathered berries, mushrooms, etc. The Germans smelted iron from swamp ores to make tools and weapons.

The tribal structure of the Germans

Restored Roman watchtower, part of the Limes

The power system of the barbarian tribes

German families were large. Dozens of close relatives lived under one roof. Several families formed a clan. Tribes arose from several clans, which in the III-IV centuries. began to unite in tribal unions.

Rome, after unsuccessful attempts to conquer the world of the barbarians, fenced itself off from it with a limes - a line of fortifications on the borders, consisting of ditches, towers, military camps. However, the border did not separate the two worlds, but rather connected them. Trade flourished in the border cities, more and more Germans went to serve in the Roman army, the German nobility adopted the way of life and customs of the Romans.

In the IV century. events began, about which a contemporary wrote: “The Huns attacked the Alans, the Alans attacked the Goths, the Goths, who were expelled from their homeland, took Illyria from us. And it's not over yet..." The world of barbarians began to move, called the Great Migration of Nations (IV-VII centuries). A huge number of barbarians rushed into the limits of the Western Roman Empire. The Great Migration of Nations resulted in the death of the Western Roman Empire (476) and the creation of barbarian kingdoms.

2. Barbarian kingdoms. The first barbarian state on the territory of the Western Roman Empire - the Kingdom of Toulouse - was formed by the Visigoths in 418 with the consent of Emperor Honorius. The kingdom was actually independent, and the city of Toulouse became its capital.

Around the same time, the Vandal kingdom arose in North Africa with its capital on the site of ancient Carthage.

In the Rhone basin in the middle of the 5th century. The Kingdom of Burgundy was formed with Lyon as its capital. Small in size, it had a significant impact on the life of the Western Roman Empire.

The Cathedral of Saint Trophime in Arles is the place where the kings of Burgundy (France) were crowned. Modern look

After the removal from power of the Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus, the kingdom of Odoacer arose with its capital in Ravenna. However, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Zeno, and the young leader of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, plotted against the new ruler. In 493, Theodoric invaded Italy and killed Odoacer, after which he proclaimed himself "King of the Goths and Italics." Theodoric's state was the largest of the kingdoms founded by the Germans on the territory of the Roman Empire.

From the middle of the 5th c. began a massive invasion of the territory of the former Roman province of Britain by the northwestern Germanic tribes of the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. As a result of the Anglo-Saxon conquest, seven kingdoms were formed on the lands of Britain. The country conquered by these tribes subsequently became known as England. At the same time, the Frankish kingdom arose in Northern Gaul.

All barbarian kingdoms proved short-lived. Only the Frankish kingdom retained its power for a long time. It played an important role in the further development of Europe.

3. The Frankish state of the Merovingians. The name "Franks" (translated as "free", "brave") began to be used from the middle of the 3rd century. in relation to the Germanic tribes who lived along the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine River. In the 5th century The Franks captured northeastern Gaul. One of the most famous leaders of the Franks at that time was Merovei. It was he who founded the first royal dynasty of the Franks - the Merovingian dynasty. The grandson of Merovei, King Clovis (481-511), became an outstanding representative of the dynasty.

In 486, Clovis made an alliance with the leaders of other tribes and led them to conquer the Roman possessions. Near the city of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Roman troops and captured Northern Gaul, where the Frankish kingdom was formed.

Theodoric I. Artist F. Castello

Battle of Clovis with the Visigoths. Miniature of the 14th century.

Clovis I. Image on a bronze medal

Having conquered Gaul, Clovis destroyed most of the leaders with whom he fought against the Romans, and became king - the sole ruler of the state. Clovis made all decisions himself or in consultation with his associates.

At the disposal of the king was a permanent military squad, for the maintenance of which they began to collect taxes. To collect taxes and maintain order in the state, Clovis appointed rulers from the people entrusted to him - counts. The king himself became the highest judge in the Frankish kingdom.

Barbarian kingdoms - states created by barbarian peoples on the territory of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century BC.

The system of administration of the Franks under Clovis

The inhabitants of Northern Gaul were Christians. In order to strengthen power and authority among them, Clovis, together with his retinue, in 496 adopted Christianity according to the Western Roman model. Through this move, Clovis and his successors secured the support of the Christian clergy. This facilitated the further conquest of southern Gaul.

Before the conquest of Gaul, the Franks had no written laws, but only customs that were orally passed down from generation to generation. Such rules of conduct are called customary law. Clovis ordered to write down the ancient judicial customs of the Franks, which he sought to emphasize that the king judges according to the ancient customs of his people. Thus, one of the most important monuments of customary law in Europe appeared. It was called "Salic Truth" (after the name of the tribe of the Salic Franks, from which Clovis descended) and became the first collection of written laws among the Franks.

Clotilde of Burgundy divides the kingdom of the Franks among the four sons of Clovis I

Battle of Poitiers. Artist Ch. de Stuben

After the death of Clovis, the Frankish kingdom was divided among his four sons, who continued their father's conquests. At the same time, the brothers sought to destroy each other and seize foreign lands.

At the end of the VI century. there were important changes in the system of land tenure of the Franks. The land plots received by the Franks after the conquest of Gaul became their private property - an allod that could be freely sold or bequeathed. The emergence of private ownership of land testified to the disintegration of ancient tribal traditions and the formation of the foundations of a new society.

In the second half of the 7th c. The Frankish kingdom finally fell into decline. Contemporaries called this time the era of "lazy kings." The kings from the Merovingian dynasty remained in power, but in reality all matters were decided by the royal stewards - the mayors.

4. Carolingians. Frankish Empire. At the end of the 7th century a single Frankish state did not actually exist, besides, it was threatened by new conquerors - the Arabs. The struggle against the Arabs was led by Major Karl Martell (715-741). He understood that without a well-armed cavalry he would not be able to stop the Arabs, whose troops were based on light cavalry. But the horseman's armament was very expensive (equal to the cost of 18-20 cows), and a simple Frankish warrior could not buy it.

To purchase weapons and horses, Charles began to take land from the church and transfer it to a warrior for life on the basis of military service.

This form of land ownership was called benefices (from Latin beneficium - good deed). With the creation of heavy cavalry, medieval chivalry arose.

Relying on the cavalry, Karl Martell in 732 defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Poitiers, stopping the advance of the Arab-Muslim world on Europe.

Charles Martell was succeeded by his son Pepin the Short (741-768), who at first also received the title of mayor.

Having removed the last king from the Merovingian dynasty, in 751 Pepin the Short became king. To emphasize the sacred nature of his power, he performed the rite of anointing to the kingdom.

A beneficiary is a land allotment, which the king or other large feudal lord provided for life use to a vassal on the terms of military or administrative service.

The rite of anointing to the kingdom was mentioned in the books of the Old Testament. During this rite, the high clergy smeared the forehead, hands and back of the king with myrrh (special sacred oil). It was believed that in this way the highest grace granted by God passed to the monarch and he was under God's protection. Over time, the rite of anointing to the kingdom from the Franks was borrowed by other European rulers.

Pepin the Short transferred his power to his son Charles, who would later be called the Great. Thus was founded a new dynasty, called the Pipinids, or Carolingians.

Charlemagne (742-814) is considered not only an outstanding representative of the Carolingian dynasty, but also one of the greatest monarchs of the entire Middle Ages. This is not surprising. The King of the Franks and "Emperor of the West" brilliantly united most of Western Europe within the empire he had created. He put an end to the era of the "dark ages" that reigned after the death of the Western Roman Empire.

At that time, in the north and northeast, the state of Charlemagne bordered on the lands of the Germanic tribes, primarily the Saxons; in the south was Spain, captured by Muslim Arabs; Avars and Slavs lived in the east.

Charlemagne

Becoming king, Charlemagne in 773-774. finally defeated the Lombard kingdom and annexed its lands to his state. Long and difficult were the wars with the Saxons, which were fought during 772-804. In 788 Charles captured the Duchy of Bavaria. He fought against the Slavic peoples, and subsequently concluded an alliance with them against the Avars and started a war with the Avar Khaganate. This war was fought during 788-803. The army of Charlemagne defeated the Avars, and the Avar Khaganate disappeared from the map of Europe.

As a result of the conquests of Charlemagne, a significant territory was under his rule, which in size resembled the former Western Roman Empire. Among the entourage of Charles, the idea arose to proclaim him emperor, following the example of the ancient Romans. On December 25, 800, Pope Leo III laid the imperial crown on the head of King Charlemagne during a solemn Christmas prayer. In 812, Byzantium recognized Charles as emperor of the West.

Despite the constant wars, the king improved the system of government, took care of the development of culture. This time was later called the "Carolingian Renaissance". It was a period of development of education, a revival of interest in the works of ancient Roman and Greek thinkers, almost forgotten in previous centuries.

The state of Charlemagne was divided into separate districts - counties. The counts appointed by the king collected taxes, carried out legal proceedings, and headed the local militia.

Almost all small free landowners turned into dependent peasants, because they could not acquire the necessary weapons for military service. Therefore, Charles recruited only the owners of four allotments into the army. The rest of the peasants had to either send one equestrian warrior to the army at the expense of common funds, or look for patrons who could free them from service. Large secular or church landowners became the patrons of the peasants. The peasants were exempted from military service, but at the same time they were deprived of their ancient rights: the landowner became their judge and owner.

5. The death of the empire of Charlemagne. Formation of the states of medieval Europe. Charlemagne died in 814 and was buried in Aachen, where he lived for the last years. After the death of the king, the empire he created did not last long. The reasons for the collapse were hidden in the very nature of the state created by Charlemagne. He forcibly united peoples of different levels of development and culture, for whom only the Christian faith was common. The economy had a natural character: all the necessary things and products were produced not for sale, but for their own consumption. The lack of trade relations was the reason for the isolation of certain areas of the state of Charlemagne.

The counts who ruled the lands sought to secure them for themselves in order to pass them on by inheritance. Even the owners of small beneficiaries considered them their property. The counties, as well as small and large landholdings, became the centers of political and economic life. Since there were many such possessions, and there was no solid system of government in the Frankish Empire, it began to quickly disintegrate. Under the grandsons of Charlemagne - Lothair, Louis the German and Charles the Bald - the confrontation escalated.

In 843, at a congress in the city of Verdun, the emperor's grandchildren concluded an agreement on the division of the empire into three parts. The Verdun division of the empire by the grandsons of Charlemagne founded three future Western European states - Germany, Italy and France.

	Formation of the Kingdom of Toulouse
	Fall of the Western Roman Empire
	Formation of the Frankish kingdom. Beginning of the Merovingian Dynasty
	Reign of Theodoric I in Italy
	Battle of Poitiers
	Anointing to the kingdom of Pepin the Short. Beginning of the Carolingian Dynasty
	Existence of Charlemagne's Empire

Questions and tasks

1. What two worlds stood at the origins of medieval Europe? 2. Name the first barbarian state on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. 3. What was the name of the first royal dynasty of the Franks? 4. What is "Salic Truth"? 5. What is a beneficiation? 6. When was the Frankish Empire formed?

7. Describe the Roman and barbarian worlds in the middle of the 1st millennium. 8. Tell us about the formation of the barbarian kingdoms and show them on the map. 9. What are the features of the development of the Frankish state of the Merovingians. 10. How did the collapse of the Frankish Empire occur and what were its consequences?

11. Make an answer plan on the topic "Development of the Frankish Empire" and prepare a story.

12. Using additional literature, make a historical portrait of King Clovis or Emperor Charlemagne (your choice). 13. Explain the statement: “In the final period of the existence of the Roman Empire, the process of barbarization of Rome and the Romanization of barbarians took place.” 14. What, in your opinion, was the influence of the empire of Charlemagne on the formation of medieval Europe?

Lesson number 4. The birth of feudal Europe

The objectives of the lesson along the lines of personality development.

1–2 LR. Picture of the world in facts and concepts.

Based on the facts of medieval history, to form an idea of the changes in the economy, politics, social relations of the early Middle Ages. Learn to use the concepts: feud, lord, vassal, corvée, dues, subsistence farming in solving cognitive problems.

3 LR. historical thinking.

To trace the relationship between the development of society and changes in politics and the economy.

4–5 LR. Moral and civil-patriotic self-determination.

Create conditions for the awareness of positive and negative phenomena in the interaction of various parts of feudal society.

Mandatory minimum content:

Feudalism. Estate system in Western Europe.

Lesson stages

Teacher actions

Student actions

Formation of UUD, assessment technology

I. Creation of a problem situation. Formulation of the problem.

Used document, § 2 on p. 41.

– Read the questions before the help information.

– Imagine the situation: you see that a rich man's car is driving along the road, or a motorcade of cars with "flashing lights" accompanying a high-ranking official. When you see them, do you take off your hat, fall on your knees? 2

– Compare your statement with what could be seen in medieval Europe. Let's read the reference material.

– What is the contradiction?

– What question do we need to solve?

– We will talk about the birth of a new society. It's called feudal.

– Now we cannot explain, because we do not have enough knowledge.

– What are the characteristics of a feudal society?

Students read the questions.

Offer their own answers to the question. 2

The student reads the reference materials, p. 41.1 2

– Medieval people are unequal. 5

Why were people unequal in medieval society?

Regulatory UUD

1. Determine the goal, problem in educational activities.

2. Push versions.

3. Plan activities in a learning situation.

4. Assess the degree and ways of achieving the goal in the learning situation.

Cognitive UUD

1. Find reliable information in different sources (textbook texts, diagrams).

2. Analyze (highlight the main thing).

3. Define concepts.

4. Summarize, draw conclusions.

5. Highlight causes and effects.

6. Present information in different forms (diagram, table).

Communicative UUD

1. Ability to work in pairs.

2. State your opinion and justify it.

3. Create oral and written texts.

4. Use speech means in accordance with the situation of communication.

Personal UUD

1. Evaluate your own and others' actions.

II. Versions.

– What are your suggestions for solving the problem? What are the differences between the new society? 2

Offer their versions. 2

III. Knowledge update.

– To solve the problem of the lesson, what do we need to remember? 3

– The life of any human society can be represented as four interconnected parts. We talked about this division in the first lessons. Open with. 9. In the diagram, find what main parts the life of a primitive society and civilization is divided into (you can refer to the dictionary at the end of the textbook). 6

Remember what you know.

Draw a diagram on the board.

medieval society

–

– We can fill out one part of the scheme right now. Remember what role religion began to play in people's lives after the invasion of the barbarians? Did you manage to preserve literacy and the art of antiquity? Pupils complete task 1, 2 in a notebook, p. 13, one student at the blackboard performs 6.

Based on the results of the tasks, carry out the algorithm self-assessment 4. TOUU

– Power, culture, economy, division of society into parts. 3

– What changes will take place in all four parts of society?

– Religion has become the basis of people's lives. The art of antiquity was forgotten. There are few literate people (a part of the “culture” circle is filled).

Students complete the chart.

IV. Activity planning.

– To explain the reasons for the emergence of feudal relations, what do we need to do? 2 3

– If we are talking about the birth of a new society in the Middle Ages, then what do we need to know in order to find a solution to the problem?

We will continue to fill in the chart. There we will enter the changes that have occurred in society.

Suggest versions. 2 3

V. Search for a solution to the problem (discovery of new knowledge).

– Let's read an excerpt from a conversation in a medieval manor. Determine how free people became dependent peasants in the Middle Ages.

Text on p. 41–42 (first paragraph) are read under the guidance of a teacher, using the method of productive reading, dividing the material among several students. The text is read on behalf of contemporaries of medieval events.4 1 2 4 5

– What division occurred in medieval society?

How did they become dependent peasants?

– There was also a division within the group of large landowners. Historians call it the feudal staircase.

According to paragraph 2 “I swear to serve you!” fill in the task diagram 4 R.T., p. fourteen.

The students complete the task.

– Having drawn up the feudal staircase, enter in the diagram on p. 13 missing concepts. What parts of it can we complete?

– How are relations in society changing?

We fix on the board on the diagram.

In the section "The division of society" - the feudal ladder and dependent peasants.

– Can we say that power was completely concentrated in the hands of the king?

– So who held the power?

We continue to fill in the diagram on the board and in

workbook.

We fix on the board on the diagram.

In the section "Politics, power" - the power of large landowners.

– Consider the illustration on p. 46 "The fief of the knight of the XI century." What changes have taken place since ancient Rome?

– Tell me, what did the knight live on?

– Yes, the drawing shows that everything that was necessary for life was produced in every household - feudal or peasant. This type of farming is called natural.

– What part of the diagram can we fill in now?

We fix on the board on the diagram.

In the section "Economy" - subsistence farming, corvée and dues.

– All parts of the “Feudal Society” scheme turned out to be filled in with us. 4 6

– There was a division of the population of Western Europe into large landowners and dependent peasants.

– Wealthy Roman inhabitants are ruined due to the invasion of the barbarians, they are hired by new owners for the land they have received. The slaves received the land, but for it they must work for the master for 5 days. Poverty, need drive people to get into debt dependence.

feudal stairs

King

dukes and counts

barons and knights

Vassal must:

– appear with weapons at the call of the master;

– give money to ransom the master (in case of captivity).

The senior must:

– protect the vassal from enemies;

– take care of the widow and children.

Feud -

Senior -

Vassal -

Division into groups.

– The feudal ladder and dependent peasants appear in society ( enter in the section "Division of society").

– It is impossible to say so, because large feudal lords tried to act independently of the king in their possessions.

– landowning nobility ( fits into the "Policy" section).

New duties appeared: dues and corvee, there is no trade, everything is produced on the spot.

– The knight lived at the expense of dues and corvee. Quit - part of the harvest and other income of the peasant economy, which the peasant had to constantly pay the owner of the land for the right to live on it.

– Corvee – free forced labor of dependent peasants on the landowner's farm.

– In the "Economy" section on the diagram on p. 13 of the workbook fits - subsistence farming, corvée, dues.

VI. Problem solving expression.

– Do you have versions, assumptions for answering our main educational question? 2

Offer different versions.

VII. Application of new knowledge.

– On page 15 in the workbook lesson number 4: connect the concepts and their definitions with arrows. 1 3

– Discuss in pairs. What, in your opinion, is bad and what is good about feudal relations between lords and vassals? Give arguments "for" and "against", supporting each of them with arguments. 1 3 1 2

Carry out the task. 1 3

Discussion in pairs and summarizing information to present a ready answer.

VIII. Homework.

– The landowning nobility will more and more go out of the control of the king. A new stage in the development of civilization will begin. About what will happen and why, you will read at home in § 3, answer the questions before §. Learn definitions: feud, seigneur, vassal, corvée, dues, subsistence economy, feudal relations.

The beginning of medieval Europe falls at the end of the 5th century. In 476, the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown, and the Roman Empire fell. This act was already purely symbolic (the leader of the Skir tribe, Odoacer, sent signs of imperial power to Constantinople), because by that time German states already existed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. This is the kingdom of the Visigoths on the Iberian Peninsula (418), the Alemans (420) in Northern Gaul, the Vandals (429) in North Africa.

Ten years after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the dominance of the Franks (486-843) was established in northern Gaul, and in 493 the state of the Ostrogoths was formed in Italy.

Thus, the death of the Western Roman Empire, and with it the ancient world, was a foregone conclusion. Causes:

1 The crisis of Roman society: difficulties with the reproduction of slaves, the problems of managing a huge empire, the growing role of the army, the militarization of political life, increased apathy, craving for luxury.

2 The onslaught of the Germanic tribes, which began in the IV - VII centuries. "Great Migration of Nations"

Two worlds stood at the origins of the Middle Ages: the Greco-Roman civilization, as well as the tribal-communal system and the genetic type of the barbarian peoples (Germanic, Celtic, Slavic). The formation of Europe was of a synthesis nature. The church played a big role in its development. It was, in essence, the only and well-organized social institution and began to successfully solve the problem of the Christianization of the barbarian peoples. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, with the imperial crown. The state of the Franks was proclaimed an empire. This fact was of great importance in the sense that, firstly, it was the success of the synthesis of Roman and Germanic elements, which had been completed by this time; secondly, the crowned king Charlemagne became a symbol of the unity of the Christian world. Medieval Europe stands on the shoulders of the empire of Charlemagne, which was formed by the beginning of the 9th century.

Along with the Germanic tribes, the Slavs also showed great activity in Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic region, and the Balkans. In the VI century, Byzantium was subjected to the onslaught of the Slavic tribes, who, like other barbarian peoples, from simple predatory raids, began the systematic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. With rare exceptions, the Slavs failed to create their own states on the territory of the Byzantine Empire in the 6th-7th centuries, but many of the interior regions of the Balkans, inhabited by settlers, practically got out of the power of the emperor and were independent.

In the 7th century, the European peoples and subjects of Byzantium clashed with the Arabs. In the middle of the 7th - beginning of the 9th centuries. as a result of the Arab conquests, the Caliphate was created - the largest state in the world, whose possessions stretched from India to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Such a powerful impetus to the Arab expansion was given by a new religion - Islam, the founder of which was the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 - 632). Islam is the third world religion in time of origin, which soon became a serious competitor to Christianity. Adherents of the new religion saw one of the main tasks in the conversion of all non-believers to their faith, this explains the energy with which the Arabs waged their conquests. The offensive of the Arabs was stopped only in France, in the battle of Poitiers by Charles Martel (732).

In the X-XIII centuries, the process of formation of the main European states is completed. The history of the Middle Ages ends, according to one point of view, in the middle of the 17th century, with the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution. Today, another point of view prevails that the geographical discoveries (1492 - America), the fall of Constantinople (1453), the beginning of the Reformation (1517) testify to the transition of Europe to the New Age, to the era of modernization, renewal of traditional society.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

There is no HTML version of the work yet.
You can download the archive of the work by clicking on the link below.

The birth of European civilization in the Middle Ages. Rise of Medieval Europe

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents