Paths lexical and syntactic means table. Basic language tools in Russian

You have probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Expressive means make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without using special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.

Let's figure out what means of expressiveness of the Russian language are and where to find them.

Perhaps at school you did not write essays well: the text “didn’t go", the words were selected with a scratch, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a intelligible thought. The point is that the necessary syntactic means are laid in the head with reading books. However, they alone are not enough to write interesting, colorful and easy. You need to develop your skill in practice.

Just compare the next two columns. On the left - text without expressive means or with their minimum amount. On the right is a text full of expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.

It would seem that there are three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! Expressive language helps the viewer to see the picture you are trying to describe. Using them is a whole art, but it is not difficult to master it. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.

For example, in the paragraph of the text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the object instantly appears bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat cat-commander? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. Yes, and there will not be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly turn white, but the reader has long imagined him gray!

So syntactic tools are special tricks artistic expressionthat prove, substantiate, draw information and engage the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for writing, but also for speaking. Especially if the speech or text is compiled in. However, both there and there the means of expressiveness in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of wading through such a "jungle".

Existing expressive means

There are a lot of such special techniques, and you hardly know everything about them. To begin with, you don't need to use all means of expression right away - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not stint. Then you will achieve the desired effect.

Traditionally, they are divided into several groups:

• phonetic - most often found in poems;
• lexical (paths);
• stylistic figures.

Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after explaining everything expressive means languages \u200b\u200bare presented in convenient plates - you can print and hang on the wall to re-read from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.

Phonetic techniques

Among the phonetic devices, two are most often encountered - alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case consonants are repeated, in the second - vowels.

This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. And poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to "see" the picture.

Suppose we want to describe a swamp. There are reeds that rustle in the swamp. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but it is not enough for a complete picture.

Do you hear how the reeds rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonants are repeated.

Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. By this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. The table will help in explaining what assonance is.

Lexical devices (paths)

Lexical techniques are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that often people use them unconsciously. For example, we might say that our heart is lonely. But the heart actually cannot be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize deep meaning said.

The main lexical techniques include the following paths:

• epithet;
• comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech;
• metaphor;
• metonymy;
• irony;
• hyperbole and litota.

Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into the speech of everyone - this means of expressiveness has firmly entered daily life, so you need to use it wisely.

Metaphor - more interesting shape comparisons, because we do not compare slow death to cigarettes using the word "as if". We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression "dry clouds". Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. The epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text, it is important not to confuse them.

Hyperbole and litota are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred bonfires” is an obvious hyperbole. And "quietly, quieter than a brook" - litota. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.

Metonymy and periphrase - interesting phenomena... Metonymy is an abbreviation for what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as "books written by Chekhov." You can use the expression "Chekhov's books", and it will be metonymy.

And paraphrase is a deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.

Although, with the proper skill, tautology can also be a means of expressiveness!

Also, lexical means of expressiveness in speech include:

• archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
• historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
• neologisms (new vocabulary);
• phraseological units;
• dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Epithet	A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively.	Bloody sky. (It is said about the sunrise).
Comparison as a means of expressiveness	Matching items to each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa.	Expressive means, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech.
Metaphor	"Hidden comparison" or figurative. More complex than simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used.	Boiling anger. (The man is angry.) Sleepy city. (Morning city that has not yet woken up).
Metonymy	Replacing words in order to shorten an understandable sentence or avoid tautology.	I read Chekhov's books (not “I read books by Chekhov's authorship”).
Irony	An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery.	You are a genius, of course! (Ironically, "genius" is used here to mean "stupid").
Hyperbola	Deliberate exaggeration of what was said.	Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning. (Dazzling, bright show).
Litotes	Deliberate reduction of what was said.	Weak as a mosquito.
Periphrase	Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word.	The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of beasts, etc.
Allegory	An abstract concept that helps to reveal the image. Most often, it is an established designation.	A fox in the meaning of cunning, a wolf in the meaning of strength and rudeness, a turtle in the meaning of slowness or wisdom.
Impersonation	Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one.	The lantern seemed to swing on a long, thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack.

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures often contain specific grammatical constructions. The most commonly used are:

• anaphora and epiphora;
• compositional joint;
• antithesis;
• oxymoron or paradox;
• inversion;
• parceling;
• ellipsis;
• rhetorical questions, exclamations, addresses;
• asyndeton.

Anaphora and epiphora are often referred to as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora - the same beginning of several lines, epiphora - the same endings. Most often used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize the drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.

The compositional joint is a deliberate "escalation" of the conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The word helped me become who I am. Such a technique is called a compositional joint.

Antithesis is the opposition of two concepts-antipodes: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Of the interesting tricks, one can note parceling, which is used to build up conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - skipping a sentence member. It is often used in exclamations, calls.

Expression tool	Definition	Example and explanation
Anaphora	Same beginning of multiple lines.	Let's join hands, brothers. Let's join hands and connect our hearts. Let us take up the swords to end the war.
Epiphora	The same ending of several lines.	I erase it wrong! I'm ironing wrong! All wrong!
Composite joint	One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it.	I didn't know what to do. To do in order to survive this storm.
Antithesis	Contrast	I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama).
Oxymoron	Using concepts that contradict each other.	Hot ice, peace war.
Paradox	An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning.	The dead man's hot hands were livelier than all others. Hurry up as slowly as possible.
Inversion	Deliberately rearranging words in a sentence.	I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in the world.
Parcelling	Breakdown of words into separate sentences.	He waited. Again. Stooping, crying.
Ellipsis	Deliberate omission of a word.	Go ahead, get down to business! (the word "let's take it" is missing).
Gradation	Increasing expression, the use of synonyms by the degree of increase.	His eyes, cold, unfeeling, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama).

Features of the use of expressive means

It should not be forgotten that gestures are also used in oral Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than the usual means of expression, but - in the skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.

Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many jewelry, which is why you become uninteresting. Means of expression are like a skillfully chosen accessory. Sometimes you don't even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.

Expression of speech

Anaphora

synth.

Same start of several adjacent sentences

Take care of each other,
Warm you with kindness.
Take care of each other,
Let’s not offend. (O. Vysotskaya)

synth.

Comparison of sharply contrasting or opposing concepts and images to enhance the impression

"Sleep and Death" by AA Fet, "Crime and Punishment" by FM Dostoevsky.

Assonance

sound.

One of the types of sound writing, repetition of the same vowel sounds in the text

Me lo, me lo on sune th se mle
On sune etce de ly.
Ste cha mountainse la on the tablee ,
Ste cha mountainse la ... (B. Pasternak)

lex.

Artistic exaggeration

wide trousers with the width of the Black Sea (N. Gogol)

Gradation

synth.

The arrangement of words, expressions in ascending (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance

Howl, sang, took off under the sky a stone
And the whole quarry was covered with smoke. (N. Zabolotsky)

Nominative themes

synth.

A special type of nominative sentences, calls the topic of the statement, which is revealed in subsequent sentences

Bread!.. What could be more important than bread ?!

Inversion

synth.

Violation of direct word order

Drops the forest your scarlet dress,
Rip up the frost withered field ... (A. Pushkin)

Irony

lex.

Subtle mockery, use in the opposite sense of the direct

Count Khvostov,
A poet loved by heaven
I was already singingimmortals verses
The misfortune of the Neva banks ... (A. Pushkin)

Composite joint

synth.

Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it

At dawn, the zoryanka began to sing. She sang and miraculously combined all the rustles, rustles in her song ... (N. Sladkov)

Lexical repetition

lex.

Repetition in the text of the same word, phrase

Around the city on low hills stretchedthe woods , mighty, untouched. INforests came across large meadows and deaf lakes with hugepine trees along the banks.Pines they made a quiet noise all the time. (Yuri Kazakov)

Litotes

lex.

Artistic understatement

"Tom Thumb"

lex.

Similarity-based figurative meaning

Sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok). Snowdrifts white calves (B. Akhmadulina)

lex.

Replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts

Here on new waves
All flags will visit us. (A.S. Pushkin)

Multi-Union

synth.

Intentionally using a repeating union

There is coal, uranium, rye, and grapes.
(V. Inber)

Occasionalisms

lex.

Some stunning absurdities began to take root in our midst, the fruits of the New Russianeducation ... (G. Smirnov)

synth.

A combination of opposite words

Tourists in hometown... (Teffi)

lex.

Transfer of human properties to inanimate objects

Silent sorrow will be comforted
And joyfulness will ponder ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Parcelling

synth.

Deliberate division of a sentence into meaningfully meaningful segments

He loved everything beautiful. And he understood a lot about this. A beautiful song, poetry, beautiful people... And smart.

lex.

Replacing a word (phrase) with a descriptive turnover

"people in white coats" (doctors), "red cheat" (fox)

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

synth.

Statement expression in interrogative form;
to attract attention;
increased emotional impact

Oh Volga! My cradle!
Did anyone love you as I do? (N. Nekrasov)

Rows, paired connection of homogeneous members

synth.

Using homogeneous members for more artistic expressiveness of the text

Amazing combinationyou just anddifficulties , transparency anddepths in Pushkinpoetry andprose ... (S. Marshak)

Sarcasm

lex.

Caustic, stinging mockery, one of the techniques of satire

The works of Swift, Voltaire, Saltykov-Shchedrin are saturated with sarcasm.

lex.

Replacing quantitative relations, using the singular instead of the plural

Swedish, Russian pricks, chops, cuts ... (A. Pushkin)

Syntactic parallelism

synth.

Similar, parallel construction of phrases, lines

To be able to speak is an art. Listening is culture. (D. Likhachev)

Comparison

lex.

Comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have common feature

Yes, there are words that burnlike a flame. (A. Tvardovsky)

Default

synth.

An interrupted utterance, which makes it possible to conjecture, reflect

This fable could be explained more - Yes, so as not to tease the geese ... (I.A. Krylov)

Ellipsis

synth.

Abbreviation, "skipping" of words that are easily reconstructed by meaning, which contributes to the dynamism and conciseness of speech

We sat down - in ashes, hails - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows. (V.A. Zhukovsky)

lex.

A figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon

But I love springgold ,
Your solidwonderfully mixed noise...
(N. Nekrasov)

synth.

Same ending of several sentences

Spell the springsee off the winter .
Early, earlysee off the winter.

Means of speech expression - these are speech turns, the main function of which is to give the language beauty and expressiveness, versatility and emotionality.
Phonetic (sound), lexical (associated with a word), syntactic (associated with a phrase and a sentence) means are distinguished.
Phonetic means of expression
1. Alliteration - repetition of consonant or identical consonant sounds in the text.
For instance: Dabout rod g rabil, g rfuck, g rabastal.
2. Assonance - repetition of vowels. For instance:
M elo, m elo on sun eth s emle
On sun e limits.
St echa mountains ela on the table e,
St echa was burning ... (B. Pasternak)

3. Onomatopoeia - Reproduction of natural sound, sound simulation. For instance:
How drops carry the news of the ride
And all night long they clatter and ride,
Horseshoe knocking on one nail
Here and there, then in that entrance, then in this one.

Lexical means of expressiveness (tropes)
1. Epithet - A figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon
For instance: golden grove, cheerful wind
2. Comparison - Comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have a common feature.
For instance: And the birches stand like big candles.
3. Metaphor - a figurative meaning of a word based on similarity.
For instance: Chintz sky blue.
4. Impersonation - transfer of human properties to inanimate objects.
For instance: The bird cherry is sleeping in a white cape.
5. Metonymy - replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts.
For instance: I ate three plates.
6. Synecdoche - replacement plural the only one, using the whole instead of the part (and vice versa).
For instance: Swede, Russian pricks, chops, cuts ...

7. Allegory - allegory; the image of a specific concept in artistic images (in fairy tales, fables, proverbs, epics).
For instance: Fox - an allegory of cunning, hare - cowardice
8. Hyperbola - exaggeration.
For instance: Haven't seen you for two hundred years.
9. Litota - an understatement.
For example: Wait 5 seconds.
10. Periphrase - retelling, a descriptive turn containing an assessment.
For instance: King of beasts (lion).
11. Pun - play on words, humorous use of ambiguity or homonymy.
For instance:
Sitting in a taxi, she asked TAXA:
"What kind of taxi fare?"
And the driver: "Money with TAX
We do not take at all. That's SO-S! "
12. Oxymoron - a combination of words opposite in meaning.
For instance: ringing silence, hot snow
13. Phraseologisms - stable combinations of words.
For instance: bury talent in the ground.
14. Irony - a subtle mockery, use in the opposite sense to the direct one.
For instance: Did you sing everything? This is the case: go on and dance.
Syntactic means of expressiveness (stylistic figures)
1. Inversion - violation of the direct word order
For instance: We have been waiting for you for a long time.
2. Ellipsis - skipping of any member of the sentence, more often the predicate.
For instance: We sat down - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, In swords - sickles and plows.
3. Silence - an interrupted utterance, which makes it possible to speculate, reflect.
For instance: I suffered ... I wanted an answer ... I didn't wait ... I left ...
4. Interrogative sentence - syntactic organization of speech, which creates a manner of conversation.
For instance: How to make a million?
5. Rhetorical question - the question that contains the statement.
For instance: Who can't catch up with him?

6. Rhetorical address - highlighting important semantic positions.
For instance: About the Sea! How I missed you!
7. Syntactic parallelism - a similar, parallel construction of phrases, lines.
For instance: Being able to ask for forgiveness is an indicator of strength. To be able to forgive is an indicator of nobility.
8. Gradation - the location of synonyms according to the degree of increase or decrease of the sign.
For instance: Silence covered, poured, swallowed.
9. Antithesis - stylistic figure of contrast, juxtaposition, opposition of opposing concepts.
For instance: Long hair - short mind.
10. Anaphora - consonance.
For instance:
Take care of each other,
Warm you with kindness.
Take care of each other,
Let’s not offend.

11. Epiphora - repetition of final words.
For instance:
The forest is not the same!
The bush is not the same!
The thrush is not the same!

12. Parceling - division of the proposal into parts.
For instance: A man came in. IN leather jacket... Dirty. He smiled.

Task 25 suggests finding in the text and determining the means of linguistic expression.

For the successful completion of the 25 USE assignment in the Russian language, we recommend:

1. Read the assignment carefully. There are hints in the wording of the assignment.

2. Often in the task it is written, lexical or syntactic means you need to find. Lexical means are synonyms, antonyms, etc. Syntactic means are associated with the members of the sentence, word order. Phonetic means are assonance, alliteration or onomatopoeia, and tropes are words or expressions used in a figurative sense.

3. If in a phrase one word is italicized, then in most cases it is an epithet. In case of parceling and parallelism, the numbers of sentences in the task are written with "-". Homogeneous members - through ",". Conversational, vernacular, bookish, obsolete words are given in brackets.

4. Learn the theory. If you do not know what a particular term means, you cannot solve this problem by elimination.

List of terms:

Anaphora (\u003d monotony) - the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of one or more sentences:

August - asters
August - the stars
August - bunches
Grapes and rowan ...
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Antithesis - matching the opposite:

I'm stupid and you're smart
Alive, and I am dumbfounded.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Question-answer form of presentation - presentation in the form of a sequence: question-answer:

My phone rang.
- Who's talking?
- Elephant.
- Where from?
- From a camel.
(K.I. Chukovsky)

Exclamatory sentence - a sentence that expresses the expressiveness, emotionality, evaluativeness of the speaker's speech. An exclamation mark is placed on the letter in exclamation sentences. How many apples! Apples!

Hyperbola- exaggeration, for example: We haven't seen each other for a hundred years!

Gradation - arrangement of homogeneous members in ascending order of intensity of a feature, action, state, quantity, etc., which enhances the effect of enumeration

In the corner stood a basket with fragrant, large, ripe apples filled with sweet juice.

Dialecticism - a dialectal word, the use of which is limited geographically, and therefore is not included in the general layer literary language... Examples: veksha (squirrel), beetroot (beet), zakut (barn), kochet (rooster), cats (bast shoes), novina (stern canvas).

Inversion - changing the order of words in order to draw attention to a phrase or word:

On a seemingly cut rope
I'm a little dancer.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

And in this bewildered indignation of the "pop star" her civil immaturity, her human " under-education».

Irony- the use of words, statements with the embedding of the opposite meaning in them: How clever!(in meaning: stupid, fool).

Contextual antonyms, contextual synonyms - words that serve as antonyms or synonyms only in this context, and in other contexts they are not.

The hut was not cold, but chilled to such an extent that it seemed to be even colder in it than on the street.

Cold - chilled- are not antonyms, but in this sentence, due to opposition, they are used as antonyms.

Lexical repetition - word repeat:

Wind, wind -
All over the world!
(A. Blok)

Litotes - understatement: a little man with a fingernail, a boy with a finger .

Metaphor - value transfer by similarity: gold autumn, gloomy sky, cold look .

august - bunches
grapes and rowan
rusty - August!
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Metonymy- transfer by adjacency: win gold, the audience applauded, put Chekhov .

Nominal sentences - sentences with one main member - subject: Noon. The heat is terrible .

Incomplete sentences- Frequent sentences in colloquial and artistic speech, in which one of the main members, clear from the context, is omitted.

She came to me yesterday (1). She came and said ... (2).

Subject omitted in the second sentence sheto avoid repetition and make the story more dynamic. But the subject is easy to recover from the context.

Impersonation- endowing inanimate objects with human traits and qualities: the sky above him shuddered. The sky was frowning .

Parallelism (\u003d use of parallel constructs) - similar syntactic design of adjacent sentences:

It's not the wind that tends the branch,
not the oak tree makes noise.
My heart is groaning
Trembling like an autumn leaf.
(Russian folk song)

I like that you are not sick of me
I like that I'm not sick with you.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Parcelling- division of the phrase into parts, possibly into words, designed as independent incomplete sentences. Often used to create the effect of dynamic unfolding of events or their drama

She turned away sharply. She went to the window. She began to cry.

Periphrase - replacement of a word with a descriptive expression: the capital of our Motherland, a city on the Neva.

Proverb - a figurative complete utterance that has an edifying meaning. Typically, proverbs are characterized by a special rhythm and intonation design, can have a poetic meter, sound repetitions, rhyme, and other features, as well as parallelism of construction. Examples: There are no comrades for taste and color. To be afraid of wolves - do not go to the forest. Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.

Vernacular- words, word combinations, forms of word formation and inflection that go beyond the literary norm and give speech features of simplification, debility, rudeness. Widely used in fiction as expressive elements: this time, always, tama, here, a bum, dead, born, smile, theirs, does not interfere.

Contrast- comparison, juxtaposition of something in order to draw attention to the dissimilarity, opposition of signs, states, actions, etc. Opposition is at the core antitheses... Example (from the FIPI job bank):

When the army of the Swedish king Charles XII, who had held the whole of Europe in check, was utterly defeated near Poltava, the army of the Swedish king Charles XII, who had never been defeated, seemed to many that now nothing was impossible for Russian weapons, that miracle heroes only whistle - and the Turks will immediately throw out the white flag.

Spoken words- stylistically colored words used in colloquial speech: electric train, rash, tedious . Many of these words are expressively colored.

A rhetorical question- a statement that aims not to receive an answer, to clarify information, but to express emotions, feelings, assessments, expression: When will this all end? Where to get patience?

Rhetorical appeal often precedes a rhetorical question or exclamation:

It's boring to live in this world, gentlemen! (N.V. Gogol)

Dear companions who shared the night with us! (M. Tsvetaeva)

Rows of homogeneous members

Who knows what glory is!
At what price did he buy the right,
Opportunity or grace
Everything is so wise and cunning
To joke, to be mysteriously silent
And call a leg a leg? ..
(A. Akhmatova)

Comparison - comparison of an object, feature, state, etc. with another who has a common feature or a similarity: showcases, like mirrors, falling in love flashed like lightning (\u003d lightning fast, would line).

Comparative turnover - a detailed comparison, introduced by comparative unions as if, as if, as if, as it were (simple), as it were.

Poems grow like stars and like roses
How beauty ...
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Both right and left hand,
Your soul is close to my soul.
(M. Tsvetaeva)

Term - a word denoting the concept of a professional field of activity or science and therefore has limited use: epithet, paraphrase, anaphora, epiphora .

Citation- using someone else's text as a quote. Examples (from the FIPI database of tasks):

The poet said: “ We all support the firmament a little bit". It is about the dignity of a person, his place on earth, his responsibility for himself, for everyone and for everything.

And more correct words: “ Each person is worth exactly what he really created, minus his vanity».

Emotional evaluative words: my daughter, my little one, my sun, the enemy.

Epithet - definition:

And he, rebelliouslooking for the storm

As if there is peace in the storm.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)

Epiphora - (common ending), repetition of a word or phrase at the end of adjacent sentences in order to draw special attention to them:

Because the stars were bigger
After all, the herbs smelled differently,
Autumn herbs.
(A. Akhmatova. "Love conquers deceitfully")

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When we talk about art, literary creation, we are focused on the impressions that are created when reading. They are largely determined by the imagery of the work. In fiction and poetry, special techniques for enhancing expressiveness are distinguished. Good presentation, public speaking - they also need ways to build expressive speech.

For the first time, the concept of rhetorical figures, figures of speech, appeared among speakers ancient greece... In particular, Aristotle and his followers were engaged in their research and classification. Going into detail, scientists identified up to 200 varieties that enrich the language.

The means of expressiveness of speech are divided by language level into:

• phonetic;
• lexical;
• syntactic.

The use of phonetics is traditional for poetry. The poem is often dominated by musical sounds, giving the poetic speech a special melodiousness. In the drawing of a verse, stress, rhythm and rhyme, combinations of sounds are used for amplification.

Anaphora - repetition of sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, lines of poetry or stanzas. "The golden stars have dozed off ..." - a repetition of the initial sounds, Yesenin used a phonetic anaphora.

And here is an example of the lexical anaphora in Pushkin's poems:

Alone you rush across the clear azure
You alone cast a dull shadow
You alone sadden a joyous day.

Epiphora - a similar technique, but much less common, with words or phrases repeated at the end of lines or sentences.

The use of lexical devices associated with a word, a lexeme, as well as phrases and sentences, syntax is considered a tradition of literary creativity, although it is widely found in poetry too.

Conventionally, all means of expressiveness of the Russian language can be divided into tropes and stylistic figures.

Trails

Trails are the use of words and phrases in a figurative sense. Paths make speech more imaginative, enliven and enrich it. Some tropes and their examples in literary creation are listed below.

Epithet - artistic definition. Using it, the author gives the word an additional emotional coloring, his own assessment. To understand how an epithet differs from an ordinary definition, you need to catch when reading whether the definition gives a new shade to the word? Here's a simple test. Compare: late autumn - golden autumn, early spring - young spring, a quiet breeze - a gentle breeze.

Impersonation - transferring the signs of living beings to inanimate objects, nature: "Gloomy rocks looked sternly ...".

Comparison - direct comparison of one object, phenomenon with another. "The night is gloomy as an animal ..." (Tyutchev).

Metaphor - transferring the meaning of one word, object, phenomenon to another. Revealing similarities, implicit comparison.

“A fire of red mountain ash is burning in the garden…” (Yesenin). Rowan brushes remind the poet of a bonfire.

Metonymy - renaming. Transfer of properties, values \u200b\u200bfrom one subject to another according to the principle of contiguity. "Who is in felts, let's go for a bet" (Vysotsky). In felt (material) - in a felt hat.

Synecdoche - a kind of metonymy. Transferring the meaning of one word to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship: the only one is plural, the part is the whole. “We all look at Napoleons” (Pushkin).

Irony - the use of a word or expression in an inverted sense, mocking. For example, an appeal to Donkey in Krylov's fable: "Split, smart, are you delirious, head?"

Hyperbola - a figurative expression containing exaggerated exaggeration. It can relate to size, meaning, strength, other qualities. Litota, on the other hand, is an exorbitant understatement. Hyperbole is often used by writers, journalists, and litota is much less common. Examples. Hyperbole: “At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed” (VV Mayakovsky). Litota: "a little man with a fingernail."

Allegory - a specific image, scene, image, object that graphically represents an abstract idea. The role of the allegory is to bring to the subtext, to force to look for the hidden meaning when reading. It is widely used in fable.

Alogism - deliberate violation of logical connections for the sake of irony. "There was that stupid landowner, he read the newspaper" Vest "and his body was soft, white and crumbly." (Saltykov-Shchedrin). The author deliberately mixes up logically dissimilar concepts in the enumeration.

Grotesque - a special technique, a combination of hyperbole and metaphor, a fantastic surreal description. N. Gogol was an outstanding master of Russian grotesque. His story "The Nose" is based on the use of this technique. A special impression when reading this work is made by the combination of the absurd with the ordinary.

Figures of speech

Stylistic figures are also used in literature. Their main types are displayed in the table:

Repeat	At the beginning, at the end, at the junction of sentences	This scream and strings These flocks, these birds
Antithesis	Contrast. Antonyms are often used.	Hair is long - mind is short
Gradation	Arrangement of synonyms in increasing or decreasing order	Smolder, burn, blaze, explode
Oxymoron	Combining contradictions	A living corpse, an honest thief.
Inversion	Word order changes	He came late (He came late).
Parallelism	Comparison in the form of collation	The wind stirred the dark branches. Fear stirred in him again.
Ellipsis	Skipping an implied word	By the hat and through the door (grabbed, went out).
Parcelling	Dividing a single sentence into separate ones	And I think again. About you.
Multi-Union	Connecting through repeated unions	And me, and you, and we all together
Asyndeton	Eliminating unions	You, me, he, she - together the whole country.
Rhetorical exclamation, question, appeal.	Used to heighten the senses	What a summer! Who if not we? Listen, country!
Default	Interruption of speech based on guesswork to reproduce intense excitement	My poor brother ... execution ... Tomorrow at dawn!
Emotional evaluative vocabulary	Attitude words as well as direct assessment by the author	A henchman, a dove, a boob, a sycophant.

Test "Means of artistic expression"

To test yourself on the assimilation of the material, take a short test.

Read the following passage:

"There the war smelled of gasoline and soot, burnt iron and gunpowder, it gnashed at caterpillars, scribbled from machine guns and fell into the snow, and again rose under fire ..."

What means of artistic expression are used in an excerpt from K. Simonov's novel?

Swede, Russian - pricks, chops, cuts.

Drum beat, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of the guns, the stomp, the neigh, the groan,

And death and hell on all sides.

A. Pushkin

The answer to the test is given at the end of the article.

Expressive language is above all inner imagethat arises when reading a book, listening to an oral presentation, presentation. Managing images requires visual techniques. There are enough of them in the great and mighty Russian. Use them, and the listener or reader will find their image in your speech pattern.

Learn expressive language, its laws. Determine for yourself what is missing in your performances, in your drawing. Think, write, experiment, and your tongue will become an obedient instrument and your weapon.

Test Answer

K. Simonov. The personification of war in the passage. Metonymy: howling soldiers, equipment, battlefield - the author ideologically combines them into a generalized image of war. Techniques used expressive language - multi-union, syntactic repetition, parallelism. Through such a combination of stylistic devices, when reading, a revived, saturated image of war is created.

A. Pushkin. The poem lacks conjunctions in the first lines. In this way, the tension, the intensity of the battle is conveyed. In the phonetic drawing of the scene, the sound "r" plays a special role in different combinations... When reading, a roaring, growling background appears, ideologically conveying the noise of a battle.

If answering the test, you could not give the correct answers, do not be upset. Just re-read the article.