Means of syntactic communication and the construction of syntactic units

To build syntactic units, lexical, phonetic, morphological, syntactic means are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic relationships and relationships.

Morphological agents  - these are word forms and their elements, endings and prepositions. The main function of the ending is the expression of syntactic connections and relations between word forms in phrases and sentences. The role of endings is especially important in the design of the subordinate connection: in coordination and management:

Was reading a book  - ending in. p. - subordinate communication.

The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement, enhance, concretize the semantics of word forms, which include: at home– near the house, opposite the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the houseetc.

An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by lexical means  language that got the name typed.  These include pronouns: interrogative and relative ( who, what, who, where, whereetc.), indicative ( this, such  and others in various forms; there, there, therefore  and under.); lexical and semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as synonymic or antonymical connections). So, interrogative pronoun words are one of the means of filling out interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it gets light, it freezes  and under.) forms the structural center of one-component impersonal sentences; a thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech (speak, say, etc.) is a component of sentences with direct speech, etc. For example, verbs of speech, thoughts - said that  - this is a signal to an explanatory structure; a group of state category words, for example, constitutes a group of impersonal sentences.

One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), the rhythm, pace and timbre of speech, as well as the logical stress highlighting the informative center in the sentence.

Intonation is included in the number of essential features of a sentence, since it is one of the indicators of completeness, integrity of a sentence in oral speech; intonation draws up the types of simple sentences that are distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them emotional coloring, expresses syntactic relations and relations between the members of sentences, etc. Intonation is very important in expressing the speech sense of a sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. The intonational characteristic of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) is often given using lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of the circumstances of the mode of action with verbs of speech: with reproach, with reproach ...; angrily, joyfully ...; fast slow...; quietly, loudly ...; with emphasis on ...  etc.

Syntax Tools:

1) service words;

2) word order.

I. Unions , interconnecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinate unions when before, after  and others express the value of time, therefore that since, for  and others - the meaning of the cause, so that  - the value of the investigation.

Particles  and their combinations can form:

a) indistinguishable sentences ( Yes. No. But what about! So what! Still would!  etc.),

b) act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of communication means of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc. Thats all that I see in front of me.

II. For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components, which is determined by semantic and structural factors, is very important. The word order in a sentence performs the following functions:

a) communicative - highlights an important message;

b) grammar - delimits hl. and secondary. members of the proposal: Life is harmony. Harmony is life.

c) the semantic function - a change in the shades of meaning: About thirty boys and girls sat in the classroom. -  expressed approximate number.

d) stylistic function: I take yellowing locks.

Syntax Linking Tools

Syntactic communications have certain means of expression: formal and informal.

Formal tools include:

• 1) endings (since the Russian language is inflective), prepositions, conjunctions and conjunctive words;
• 2) the word order in a simple sentence coupled with syntagmatic division, which combines syntactically related word forms in a single rhythmic-intonation group in a speech stream:

I visited my birthplace

That villager

Where he lived as a boy

Where is the sea otter with a birch tower

A bell tower shot up without a cross.

(S. Yesenin)

Only the location of the prepositional-substantive combination without a cross  next to the noun bell tower  allows you to combine them in one syntagma. In meaning, this combination could also stand with other nouns: kalancha  (without cross) tower  (without a cross), but then the syntagmatic division of the sentence and the syntactic relations between its members would be different. Wed: kalancha with a birch tower  and kalancha without a cross.

An informal means of syntactic communication is intonation. Of course, this only takes place in spoken language. In the Pushkin lines:

And we will all perish, since we don’t have time soon

Gain shelter; And where? Oh woe, woe!

depending on whether you combine the intonationally distinguished dialect with the verb have time  or gain, the meaning of the statement is changing.

... "Can't you see tell meanything, "-

The young man told me, pointing away with a finger.

When reading these lines in accordance with punctuation marks, it is intonationally distinguished as an introductory word say it.  But in the absence of commas in the first line, it can be read and understood differently: "Don't you see, say something".

As part of the text, most of the sentences and parts of the text are also related in meaning and formally. There are special means of their communication, especially in book styles (scientific, journalistic).

1. Noun repeat  (without definition or with definition). There are two cases of repetition:

• a) the repetition of the noun that ends the sentence at the beginning of another sentence. For example: Matter is in continuous movement. Movement is an integral property matter. Matter  exists and moves in space and in time. Space and time  are forms of being of matter; In the Russian Federation it is recognized and guaranteed local government. Local government  within their authority independently  (Constitution of the Russian Federation) ;
• b) a repetition of the same noun at the beginning of each sentence. For example:   are used and protected in Russia as the basis of the life and work of peoples, living in the respective territory. Land and other natural resources  may be in private and other forms of municipal ownership (Constitution of the Russian Federation).

2. Personal pronouns 3 l., Used when it comes to specific objects and persons, and a demonstrative pronoun this is, commonly used when talking about generalized facts, events. For example: International treaties of the Russian Federation  are part of its legal system. They define the rules of certain federal laws; The main thing in marketing is a thorough and comprehensive market research, demand, taste and needs, orientation of the organization to meet these requirements, active impact on the market and existing demand, on the formation of needs and consumer preferences. it , as well as constancy, purposeful actions bring marketing and public relations closer together.

3. Type words then, here, from here, so, there, above, below.  For example: We observe movements everyday in everyday life. From here  follows the clarity of mechanical representations; The movement takes place not only in space, but also in time. Above , examining the subject of physics, we wrote, that space and time are an integral property of matter.

4. Type words said, last, mentioned; both, the first, second.  For example: The movement takes place in space, so in time. From the foregoing  should, that to describe the movement it is necessary to decompose into two main types - translational and rotational. First  - this is such a movement, in which any line, associated with a moving body, remains parallel to itself.

5. Words and phrases of type proceed to, dwell on, firstly, primarily, indicating a transition to a new issue.  For example: It was said above, that the point refers to the basic concepts of geometry. Let’s go  to consider the projection of a point; First of all, let's turn  To a question, which is of great importance in solving physical problems; Let's set , - seriously spoke the candidate, - What are we talking about? What is the subject of our conversation?  (V. Shukshin).

6. Words and phrases of type then (further), besides, simultaneously, at the same time, firstly, secondly, used to continue the conversation on any issue.  For example: At the end of the XIX century. the concept of quantum was introduced. Then  an electron was discovered; Further  we turn to the consideration of two elementary concepts of geometry - a point and a straight line; Besides , social propaganda is prohibited, racial, national, religious and linguistic inequality; A small historical reference, i say. But, firstly , not you, and you. And secondly , Vladimir Mikhailovich Bastrygin is me  (G. Nemchenko).

7. Words and phrases ( and) finally, finally, all this, so, used at the end of the final sentence.  For example: Automation is characterized by the use of technical means and the use of mathematical methods of calculation. Finally , automation is characterized by the use of control systems, which exempt a person from direct participation in production; so , management as an activity carries out communications management, organization communications and social environment.

8. Words and phrases of type so, eg, set an example, give an example; as claimed, he speaks, writes; let be, let's say, imagine.  For example: Vibrational processes lie at the very core of various branches of technology. So , all radio engineering is based on oscillatory processes; According to (they say ) witnesses, the accident occurred due to the fault of the victim; Let be (let's say ) the body has moved from point A to point B; But the phenomenon is recently discovered, that's why I ask. Natural philosophy, let's say, will determine so, strategic philosophy is completely different ...  (V. Shukshin).

Subject of syntax. Units of syntax of the Russian language. Means of expression synt. Values \u200b\u200bin Russ. concept of syntactic form.

syntax is a section of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the syntactic structure of the language, i.e. its syntactic units and relations and relations between them. The syntax units are collocations, syntactic sentences. The means of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase, in comparison with a sentence, are rather limited: 1) forms of words; 2) prepositions; 3) a stable word order. We can speak very narrowly about intonation as a means of transmitting syntactic relations with respect to a phrase: only as a means of detecting a core word and a dependent.

The means of expressing syntactic relations in a sentence are as follows: 1) forms of words; 2) service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles); 3) word order; 4) intonation. A sentence is a minimal unit of the upper level of the syntactic system having communicative significance; units of a lower level — phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or being converted into sentences — are distinguished from a sentence; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate from themselves syntactic units of an even lower level — syntactic forms of words. The latter also, under appropriate conditions, are able to acquire independent communicative significance or be included in the proposal as its structural element. Thus, sentences can consist of phrases, whole or transformed, and of individual word forms. So, in a sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are singled out; I bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence On the street it is dark there are no phrases, the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence On a deserted street, the dark word form on the street is distributed in a coordinated part of the speech, as a result of which the phrase “deserted street” appears, however this combination does not depend on a single word (cf .: On a deserted street it is dark. - To be on a deserted street).

Phrase as a syntactic unit. The form and meaning of the phrase. Types of syntactic relations between collocation components. Phrase and other combinations of words in a sentence.

A phrase is a semantic and grammatical combination of two (or several) significant words or forms of words, showing their subordinate properties: civilized society, flying a rocket, a desire to work, fly an airplane, love sports, go to a city, stay in an apartment, lie on the ground, read aloud, a person of strong character, ready for battle, free from prejudice, economically viable. The phrase serves as a means of nomination and is built on a specific model: a noun and a coordinated adjective, a verb and a controlled word form, etc. The components of the phrase are: 1) the main word (or core) and 2) the dependent word. The main word is a grammatically independent word. A dependent word is a word that formally submits to the requirements emanating from the main word. Word forms that make up phrases are in certain syntactic relations, which are based on the interaction of the lexical meanings of these words and their grammatical forms. The whole variety of these relations is generally reduced to the main ones: attributive, object, subjective, circumstantial and complexive. Attributive relations arise in the semantic-grammatical interaction of nouns: 1) with adjectives: a beautiful girl, a milestone, a bear’s den, useful work, active participation; 2) with consistent pronouns: my book, our child, some subject, every person; 3) with ordinal numbers: first trip, sixth house, thirtieth round; 4) with full forms of participles: a loving woman, green fields, a cooked lunch, a solved problem, an edited manuscript. The attributivity of such phrases primarily relies on the general lexical meaning of the noun - on its subjectivity (it is natural for an object to have attributes that define it) and on the general lexical meaning of the parts of speech combined with it that are able to indicate signs. On this basis is built and the formal consistency of the components of the phrase. However, attributive relationships arise when nouns are combined with some other parts of speech; 5) with prepositional and non-prepositional forms of nouns: a letter from Volgograd, a habit from childhood, a cream bottle, fatigue from stress, hair to the shoulders, a can’t cap, a house near a river, love without hope, striped pants, a man with a gun , arbor under the mountain, books in bindings, jam on molasses; hotel gates, father’s house, grief of separation, wedge; 6) with adverbs: riding in steps, the house opposite, barbecue in a Caucasian way; 7) with the infinitive: the desire to learn, the decision to go, the need to relax, the ability to hear, the ability to leave. Object relations arise during the semantic-grammatical interaction of verbs, including participles and participles, with nouns and less often with the infinitive. Such relationships are peculiar primarily to phrases with a verb that requires the accusative to spread a direct object: buy a book, put on a dress, invite a friend, think over a solution, write a letter. These phrases are semantically limited: the main word in them means action, state, perception, feeling, and the dependent is the object of this action, perception, feeling: to fish, catch a hare, love a friend, wait for a brother; the verb can also mean movement, and the noun has an object-spatial meaning: cross the road, cross the street. Object relations also arise with the combination of verbs of different semantic classes with other cases without pretexts: with the genitive part - drink water, buy milk; with the dative of the person or object to which the action is directed - to object to the speaker, trust a friend, worship beauty; with instrumental tools - write with a pencil, chop with an ax, etc. Nouns with prepositions also enter into object relationships with verbs: to study with a friend, to be treated by a doctor, to sing for listeners, to attach to a house, touch a hand, knock on a door, wrap oneself in a shawl, give thanks for the good, hit the ground, talk about life quarrel with a friend, send for a doctor, take pity on a man, work on a machine. Other parts of speech can also serve as dependent words in verbal phrases - pronouns, numerals, quantitative-nominal combinations and, of course, substantive adjectives and participles: wait for him, invite a lot of friends, see two, interview students, visit a patient. phrases whose occurrence is associated with a special type of verb sentences, as well as with passive turns. Such phrases are based on the lexical and grammatical nature of the verbs of the passive voice and passive participles. The dependent form of the noun in them denotes the actor or object (instrumental). For example: given by people, planted by father, returned by brother, occupied by the enemy (district), spoiled by life, overturned by the wind, inspired by memories, drowned by a siren, liberated by the army.

By analogy with verbs, some substantive phrases with subjective relationships can also be formed: release by a medical commission, discussion by the government. Subjective relations are also characteristic of some phrases with a dependent word in the form of the genitive case, for example: the arrival of the father, the departure of the commander, the appearance of the car. In such cases, the relationship “action and actor or subject” is also established.

Circumstances are peculiar to verbal phrases, since various circumstantial meanings always accompany certain actions and conditions and are based on lexical processuality. Circumstances are specified as definitive circumstances: to run fast, to speak excitedly, to love passionately, to look menacingly, to remember often, to watch affectionately; temporary: come in the evening, return in a year, wait a minute, meet in the morning, happen at night; spatial: walking in the woods, being nearby, living in a hotel, leaving the table, walking around the house, settling in three kilometers from the city; causal: to make mistakes by ignorance, to say by mistake, to forget by absent-mindedness, to liquidate as unnecessary, to be delighted with foolishness, to say in a rash way; target: fall on purpose, say a joke, go on a date, go on a vacation, go on a vacation, give as a keepsake, save for reserve, keep it in case. Comprehensive (replenishing) relationships arise from the need for some words to make sense. The dependent word form makes up for the informative insufficiency of the core word. For example: four corners, call yourself a guest, be considered a simpleton. A sentence is a minimal unit of the upper level of the syntactic system having communicative significance; units of a lower level — phrases that carry a communicative load only as part of a sentence or being converted into sentences — are distinguished from a sentence; phrases based on a weak syntactic connection, in turn, are able to isolate from themselves syntactic units of an even lower level - syntactic forms of words. The latter also, in appropriate conditions, are able to acquire independent communicative significance or be included in the proposal as its structural element. Thus, sentences can consist of phrases, whole or transformed, and of individual word forms. So, in a sentence I bought an interesting book, two phrases are singled out; I bought a book and an interesting book; in the sentence On the street it is dark there are no phrases, the word form on the street acts as an independent syntactic element of the sentence; in the sentence On a deserted street, the dark word form on the street is distributed in an agreed part of the speech, as a result of which the phrase “deserted street” appears, however this combination itself does not depend on a single word (cf.: On a deserted street it is dark. - To be on a deserted street).

Types of subordination of words in a phrase.

The subordinate syntactic relationship at the level of a phrase always has a subordinate character. Subordinate communication is a direct and one-way communication, the communication of the subordinate and the subordinate. Such a connection is realized in three main ways: coordination, control and adjacency. Coordination is a type of subordinate connection in which the forms of gender, number and case of a dependent word are predetermined by the forms of gender, number and case of the word subordinate. Reconciliation can be complete: green grass, a little boy, a wooden product (coordination in gender, number and case) or incomplete: our doctor, former secretary (coordination in number and case); Lake Baikal, on Lake Baikal (coordination in number); on seven winds, by nine boys (agreement in the case). Management is a type of subordinate connection in which the subordinate word takes the form of a particular case depending on the grammatical capabilities of the dominant word and its meaning. When managing, relations are established object (to write a letter, love for the motherland), subjective (the arrival of a brother), komplektivny (four sons, leg of a chair). Phrases constructed according to the type of control always express a correlation with the subject. The noun or its equivalent always acts as a controlled word form: went up to a neighbor, went up to a departing one. As a dominant word in management, a verb, a name and an adverb can be used; on this basis, the verbal management is different - buy a book, drive up to the house; adopted - a glass of milk, five brothers, a sport, hatred of the enemy, humble fate; unpaid - stealthily from parents, alone with his brother, upside down. Depending on the presence or absence of a pretext, in a controlled form there can be a propositional management - love of the motherland, homeland and unlimited - send a letter that everyone understands, full of hope, a loaf of bread. Management can be strong and weak. In strong management, the dominant word with its lexico-grammatical properties determines the obligatory appearance of a certain controlled case form with it, i.e. Communication is necessary. Such a connection requires transitional verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, numerals, for example: send a letter, break the silence, buy a book; nine days, a lot of time; full of hope, faithful to duty.

With poor management, the distribution of the dominant word by this case form is not predetermined by its lexical and grammatical properties, i.e. managed forms optional; Wed: watering flowers - strong management; watering from a watering can - poor management; liberation of the city - strong governance, liberation of the army - weak governance. Examples of poor governance: knocking on the table, thanking for a gift, smiling at a friend, interruptions in supplies, interruptions in supplies, poor in spirit, deep in thought. Adjacency is a type of subordinate connection in which a subordinate word, being an unchanging part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning. In collocations with an adjacency relationship, informative completion relationships are expressed, circumstantial and - less often - definitive.

Adverbs (or word forms functionally close to them), adverbial participles, and infinitive adjoin. Such words do not have grammatically variable forms of expression of syntactic relations, and immutability is a formal sign of adjacency. For example: read aloud, arrive late, walk during the day, work together, be nearby; sit bent over; drive faster; want to learn, offer to come; very good, unusually funny; very close, this afternoon; opportunity to relax, reason to come.

Classification of phrases by the nature of the main word. Simple and complex phrases.

By morphological  properties of the main word collocation classified  in the following way:

Verb  Examples: make a little plan, stand by the board, ask to go in, read to yourself.

Registered

1. Substantive   (with a noun as the main word) Examples: essay plan, city trip, third grade, eggs in the fridge.

   Adjective   (with an adjective as the main word) Examples: worthy of an award, ready for a feat, very diligent, ready to help.

   Quantitative   (with a numeral as the main word) Examples: two pencils, the second of the applicants.

   Pronouns   (with a pronoun in the role of the main word) Examples: one of the students, something new.

Adverbial  Examples: crucial away from the road.

Simple   phrases, as a rule, consist of two significant words.

Examples: new home, man with gray hair (\u003d gray-haired man).

Difficult   phrases are formed on the basis of simple phrases.

Examples: funny walks in the evenings, relax in the summer in the south.

Besides simple  and difficult  phrases also distinguish: combined. The main criterion for this classification is the method of linking words in the phrase.

Phrases are free and syntactically related

Free phrases consist of words that retain their independent lexical meaning. The components of a free phrase can be replaced by words of the corresponding category, for example: late autumn, early autumn, cold autumn; love work, love science, love children; speak quietly, speak excitedly, speak affectionately. Matching word forms are free in the sense that they can be replaced when used in a sentence in accordance with a specific communicative task. However, loose phrases can be lexically limited. Unlike lexically unlimited, the place of one or another component in them can be filled not with any word of this category, but only with some - those that form a certain semantic group. For example: the phrase to listen to sounds is not lexically limited (to listen to the radio, listen to the child, listen to the broadcast, listen to noise, etc.), while the phrase to eavesdrop on the conversation is lexically limited, since the verb semantics to overhear does not allow wide compatibility (you cannot: listen to the lecture) . Syntactically non-free phrases are phrases that are lexically related and indivisible in this context: for example, in a sentence a tall girl came up to me a phrase of high growth is not free, it performs one a definitive function, cf .: a tall girl. The phrase high growth is indistinguishable, since the noun in its composition is lexically impoverished (you can not say a girl of growth). However, the same phrase in other contextual conditions may appear to be quite freely constructed, for example: High growth distinguished this girl in the group (cf .: Growth distinguished this girl in the group). Both words in such a phrase are lexically complete. The phrase two boys also, depending on the contextual conditions of their use, can be either free or not free, cf .: I admired the play of these two boys (both words are lexically full and in the sentence take an independent position: I admired the play of these boys). In the sentence, Two boys came to the table, both words are lexically connected, and the division of the phrase is impossible, it performs the function of one member of the sentence. This means that syntactically non-free phrases are found only when functioning in specific sentences, where they lose the separability of their components.

Sentence as the main syntactic unit. Signs of the proposal: predicativeness, intonational isolation.

A sentence is a grammatically and intonationally designed minimal unit of speech that conveys the attitude of the speaker to reality. In the judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and the so-called predication (prediction) finds its expression in this, i.e. disclosure of the contents of a logical subject by a logical predicate. The relations between the subject and the predicate in judgment find their parallel in the predicative relations between the subject and the predicate in the sentence, which expresses the connection between the subject of thought, the designated subject, and its attribute, the designated predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting. Predictive relations can only be in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativity to be such a common, basic feature of a sentence, meaning by it the relevance of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of time, face, mood, and various types of intonation (intonation of a message, question, motivation, etc.). Since, expressing his thoughts, feelings, wills, the speaker expresses his attitude to the content of the expressed (his desirability or objectionability, duty or conditionality, etc.), modality is also an essential sign of the sentence. Means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, are the category of mood (indicative, imperative, conditionally desirable) and special lexical and grammatical means (the so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles). Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predictivity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonations of the message, the question, the motivation, etc. are distinguished. Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the relation of the speaker to the expressed), predicativity (the ratio of the content of the sentence to reality), intonation, and relative semantic completeness.

Classification of sentences according to the purpose of utterance: Narrative, motivational, interrogative. Types of sentences for emotional coloring: exclamation and non-exclamation. Suggestions affirmative and negative.

Narratives are sentences that contain a message about a fact of reality, a phenomenon, an event, etc. (affirmed or denied). Narrative sentences are the most common type of sentences, they are very diverse in their content and structure and differ in the relative completeness of thought conveyed by a specific narrative intonation: an increase in tone on a logically distinguished word (or two or more, but one of the enhancements will be the greatest) and calm lowering the tone at the end of the sentence: The kibitka drove up to the porch of the curfew. The people recognized the bell of Pugachev and the crowd ran after him. Schwabrin met the impostor on the porch. He was dressed as a Cossack and grew a beard (P.).

Interrogative are sentences with the aim of inducing the interlocutor to express an idea that interests the speaker, i.e. their cognitive purpose. For example: Why do you need to go to Petersburg? (P.); What do you now say to yourself as an excuse? (P.).

The grammatical means of filling out interrogative sentences are as follows:

1) interrogative intonation - an increase in tone on a word with which the meaning of the question is associated, for example: were you on the Western Front? (Sim.) (Compare: Have you been on the Western Front ?; Have you been on the Western Front?);

2) an arrangement of words (usually the word with which the question is connected) is put at the beginning of the sentence, for example: Is the hostile city burning? (L.); But will he soon return with a rich tribute? (L.);

3) interrogative words - interrogative particles, adverbs, pronouns, for example: Isn't it better for you to keep up with them yourself? (P.); Is there really no woman in the world whom you would like to leave something for memory? (L.); Why are we standing here? (Ch.); Where does the glow shine? (L.); What did you do in my garden? (P.); What do you want to do? (P.).

Motivating sentences are those expressing the will of the speaker, their goal is the incitement to action.

They can express: 1) an order, a request, a prayer, for example: - Be silent! .. you! - Snapped exclaimed in an evil whisper, jumping to his feet (M. G.); - Come on, Peter! - the student commanded (M. G.); Uncle Gregory ... lean over your ear (M. G.); And you, darling, do not break it ... (M. G.); 2.) advice, suggestion, warning, protest, threat, for example: The original woman is Arina; You will notice, Nikolai Petrovich (M. G.); Pets of windy Destiny, tyrants of the world! Tremble! And you, take heart and heed, rise up, fallen slaves! (P.); Look, often my hands - beware! (M. G.); 3) consent, permission, for example: As you want, so do; You can go where your eyes look; 4) a call, an invitation to joint action, for example: Well, here let us try our best to defeat the disease (M. G.); My friend, we will devote wonderful impulses to our motherland! (P.); 5) desire, for example: Give him Dutch soot with rum (M. G.) Exclamations are sentences that are emotionally colored, which is conveyed by special exclamatory intonation. According to the correlation of the components of a thought (an object of thought and its attribute), sentences are divided into affirmative (affirming what is being said about the subject of thought) and negative (negating what is being expressed about the subject of thought).

Structural types of sentences: articulated and indivisible, simple and complex, one-part and two-part, common and uncommon, complicated and uncomplicated, complete and incomplete.

A proposal that has only the positions of the main members — the subject and the predicate, for example, is called non-widespread, for example: Several years have passed (P.); It was noon (Shol.); It began to grow light (Prishv.); Silence. Hum (Cat.). Such sentences represent a structural minimum and include only a predicative basis.

Proposals having, along with the main ones, the positions of minor members are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun rose quite high. Again, a clear, as if swept, cloudless sky shone with a pale blue (B. Paul.); At noon, Razmetnov came home for lunch and through the wicket door he saw a hut of pigeons near the threshold (Shol.); In every spiritually developed person, the outlines of his homeland are repeated and live (Rasp.).

A proposal is considered to be two-part if its predicative core is represented by two positions - subject and predicate, and one-part, if the structure of the proposal involves only one position of the main member.

in complete sentences, all necessary formal links of a given structure are verbally presented, and in incomplete sentences, certain positions of this structure are unsubstituted. The latter can be caused by various reasons: context, speech situation, general experience of speakers. Incomplete sentences in their communicative significance do not differ from complete ones, they are quite understandable. However, they are characterized by a formal expression of certain components. Ahead is a deserted September day

A simple sentence has one predicative center organizing it and, therefore, contains one predicative unit. For example: Morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); From the station to the pier, I had to go through the whole town (Paust.); From a distance, Lopatin saw the black pea jackets of sailors (Sim.).

Syntactic communications have certain means of expression: formal and informal.

Formal tools include:

• 1) endings (since the Russian language is inflective), prepositions, conjunctions and conjunctive words;
• 2) the word order in a simple sentence coupled with syntagmatic division, which combines syntactically related word forms in a single rhythmic-intonation group in a speech stream:

I visited my birthplace

That villager

Where he lived as a boy

Where is the sea otter with a birch tower

A bell tower shot up without a cross.

(S. Yesenin)

Only the location of the prepositional-substantive combination without a cross  next to the noun bell tower  allows you to combine them in one syntagma. In meaning, this combination could also stand with other nouns: kalancha  (without cross) tower  (without a cross), but then the syntagmatic division of the sentence and the syntactic relations between its members would be different. Wed: kalancha with a birch tower  and kalancha without a cross.

An informal means of syntactic communication is intonation. Of course, this only takes place in spoken language. In the Pushkin lines:

And we will all perish, since we don’t have time soon

Gain shelter; And where? Oh woe, woe!

depending on whether you combine the intonationally distinguished dialect with the verb have time  or gain, the meaning of the statement is changing.

... "Can't you see tell meanything, "-

The young man told me, pointing away with a finger.

When reading these lines in accordance with punctuation marks, it is intonationally distinguished as an introductory word say it.  But in the absence of commas in the first line, it can be read and understood differently: "Don't you see, say something".

As part of the text, most of the sentences and parts of the text are also related in meaning and formally. There are special means of their communication, especially in book styles (scientific, journalistic).

• 1. Noun repeat  (without definition or with definition). There are two cases of repetition:
  • a) the repetition of the noun that ends the sentence at the beginning of another sentence. For example: Matter is in continuous movement. Movement is an integral property matter. Matter  exists and moves in space and in time. Space and time  are forms of being of matter; In the Russian Federation it is recognized and guaranteed local government. Local government  within their authority independently  (Constitution of the Russian Federation) ;
  • b) a repetition of the same noun at the beginning of each sentence. For example:   are used and protected in Russia as the basis of the life and work of peoples, living in the respective territory. Land and other natural resources  may be in private and other forms of municipal ownership (Constitution of the Russian Federation).
• 2. Personal pronouns 3 l., Used when it comes to specific objects and persons, and a demonstrative pronoun this is, commonly used when talking about generalized facts, events. For example: International treaties of the Russian Federation  are part of its legal system. They define the rules of certain federal laws; The main thing in marketing is a thorough and comprehensive market research, demand, taste and needs, orientation of the organization to meet these requirements, active impact on the market and existing demand, on the formation of needs and consumer preferences. it , as well as constancy, purposeful actions bring marketing and public relations closer together.
• 3. Type words then, here, from here, so, there, above, below.  For example: We observe movements everyday in everyday life. From here  follows the clarity of mechanical representations; The movement takes place not only in space, but also in time. Above , examining the subject of physics, we wrote, that space and time are an integral property of matter.
• 4. Type words said, last, mentioned; both, the first, second.  For example: The movement takes place in space, so in time. From the foregoing  should, that to describe the movement it is necessary to decompose into two main types - translational and rotational. First  - this is such a movement, in which any line, associated with a moving body, remains parallel to itself.
• 5. Words and phrases of type proceed to, dwell on, firstly, primarily, indicating a transition to a new issue.  For example: It was said above, that the point refers to the basic concepts of geometry. Let’s go  to consider the projection of a point; First of all, let's turn  To a question, which is of great importance in solving physical problems; Let's set , - seriously spoke the candidate, - What are we talking about? What is the subject of our conversation?  (V. Shukshin).
• 6. Words and phrases of type then (further), besides, simultaneously, at the same time, firstly, secondly, used to continue the conversation on any issue.  For example: At the end of the XIX century. the concept of quantum was introduced. Then  an electron was discovered; Further  we turn to the consideration of two elementary concepts of geometry - a point and a straight line; Besides , social propaganda is prohibited, racial, national, religious and linguistic inequality; A small historical reference, i say. But, firstly , not you, and you. And secondly , Vladimir Mikhailovich Bastrygin - it's me  (G. Nemchenko).
• 7. Words and phrases ( and) finally, finally, all this, so, used at the end of the final sentence.  For example: Automation is characterized by the use of technical means and the use of mathematical methods of calculation. Finally , automation is characterized by the use of control systems, which exempt a person from direct participation in production; so , management as an activity carries out communications management, organization communications and social environment.
• 8. Words and phrases of type so, eg, set an example, give an example; as claimed, he speaks, writes; let be, let's say, imagine.  For example: Vibrational processes lie at the very core of various branches of technology. So , all radio engineering is based on oscillatory processes; According to (they say ) witnesses, the accident occurred due to the fault of the victim; Let be (let's say ) the body has moved from point A to point B; But the phenomenon is recently discovered, that's why I ask. Natural philosophy, let's say, will determine so, strategic philosophy is completely different ...  (V. Shukshin).

To express syntactic relations, the language has a variety of means, different at the level of relations in the phrase and simple sentence and at the level of relations in the complex sentence.

1. Word forms as minimal elements of syntactic constructions serve with their lexical and grammatical properties to the semantic side of syntactic constructions, and ending elements and prepositions are the elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning.

2. The main function of the ending is the expression of syntactic connections and relations between word forms in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called the office morpheme. Especially important is the role of endings in the design of the subordinate connection: in coordination and management.

3. The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement and enhance the official role of endings. Prepositions serve to express syntactic relationships of forms of indirect cases of nouns: believe in victory, enter the house, alone with yourself.

4. Syntactic relations at the level of communication in a complex sentence, as well as some types of communication between the forms of words in a phrase and a simple sentence, are expressed by conjunctions, as well as their functional deputies from other categories of words, in particular relative pronouns (union words).

Unions, interconnecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinate unions when before, afterand others express the value of time, because, because, forand others - the meaning of the cause, so that  - the value of the investigation.

Compositional unions are less vivid signaling devices of grammatical meanings, but they also express semantic relations between composing components.

5. Particles and their combinations can form indistinguishable sentences ( Yes. No. But what about! So what! Still would!Etc.), to make out the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of communication means of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of sentences, etc.

6. An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by the lexical means of the language, which are called typed ones. These include pronouns: interrogative and relative ( who, what, who, where, whereetc.), indicative ( this, suchand others in various forms; there, there, thereforeand under.); lexical-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as synonymic or antonymical connections, etc.).

Typical lexical means take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. So, interrogative pronoun words are one of the means of filling out interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it gets light, it freezes) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; Thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech ( talk say) Is a component of direct speech sentences.

7. For the structure of syntactic units, the word order, which is determined by semantic and structural factors, is very important. In German, the order of the components of the syntactic units is of direct type, in Russian there are two types of word order: direct (fixed) and inverse (free). With direct order, each component of syntactic constructions takes a certain place, with free order - components can change their place.

8. One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is intonation, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), the rhythm, pace and timbre of speech, as well as the logical stress highlighting in the sentence informative center.

Intonation tools divide the syntactic constructions of sounding speech into syntagms, usually in accordance with syntactic relationships. Sometimes this division becomes the only indicator of communication.

Intonation is one of the indicators of completeness, integrity of sentences in oral speech; intonation draws up the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic relations and relations between the sentence members.

Types of syntactic relationships.

The main types of syntactic communication are composition and submission. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, when subordinating, they are syntactically unequal: one acts as the main, the other as the dependent. A joint connection combines homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.

Types of syntactic communication in a phrase.

The subordinate syntactic relationship at the collocation level is subordinate. Subordinate communication is a direct and one-way communication, the connection of the subordinate and the subordinate. Such a connection is realized in three main ways: coordination, control, and adjacency.

1. Coordination is a type of subordinate connection in which the forms of the gender, number and case of the dependent word are predetermined by the forms of the gender, number and case of the word subordinate. In coordination, certain relationships are always established.

Alignment can be complete and incomplete. Full agreement is a connection in which the influence of the main component on the dependent extends to all their grammatical forms of the same name. Example: green grass, little boy, woodwork(coordination in gender, number and case). Incomplete coordination is such a relationship in which the dependent component does not correlate with the main component in all forms of the same name.

There are two cases of incompatibility. The first case is the lack of correlation in the case (if we compare the dependent component to the main one in number and kind). In a sentence Anya could not eat and got up from the table hungry(Chekhov) word form hungry  depends on the word form got up, which is expressed by the form of the case, and from the word form Anya, which is expressed by the correlation of forms of number and gender.

The second case is the lack of assimilation in the gens. This is observed in combinations of adjectives with masculine nouns that name professions or positions, when such nouns are used with reference to women: our doctor, new secretary.

2. Management is a type of subordinate connection in which the subordinate word takes the form of a case depending on the grammatical capabilities of the dominant word and the meaning it expresses. During management, object relationships are established ( write a letter), subjective ( brother's arrival), complementary ( chair leg) Phrases constructed by the type of control express the relationship with the subject. As a managed word, there is always a noun or its equivalent: went to the neighbor, went to the departing. As a dominant word in management, a verb, a name and an adverb can be used; verb management is distinguished by this sign - buy a bookadopted - a glass of milk, respectable - alone with brother. Depending on the presence or absence of a preposition in a controlled form, there may be a propositional control - love to motherlandand unlimited - send a letter.

Management can be strong and weak. Strong control is such a dependence of a noun or preposition with a noun on a verb, in which there is a necessary connection between a given case or a given preposition with a given case, on the one hand, and the vocabulary or grammatical side of the verb. Such a connection requires transitional verbs, as well as some nouns, adjectives, numerals, for example: send a letter, nine days, loyal to duty.

Weak control is defined as a connection not necessary, that is, one in which the dependent indirect case is not mandatory and is not predicted by the vocabulary (lexical) or grammatical properties of the control word. Compare: water the flowers  - strong management water from a watering can  - poor governance.

3. Adjacency is a type of subordinate connection in which a subordinate word, being an unchanging part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word lexically. In phrases with an adjacency relationship, adverbial and less often attributive relationships are expressed.

The adjacency is heterogeneous in the grammatical properties of the dependent form. On this basis, the following adjacency types are distinguished: adjunction of the infinitive, adjunction of the participle, adjunction of the adverb, adjunction of the immutable adjective, adjunction of the inconsistent form of the noun.

Types of syntax in a sentence.

The types of syntactic connection in a sentence, compared with the types of syntactic connection in a phrase, are much wider and more diverse.

1. Verbal communication. An adverbial subclause is a mandatory or optional distributor of a reference word, usually located in an alternative position with a similar distributor - the form of the word.

The nature of the notional subordinate part is determined by the properties of the reference word. In the formation of complex sentences with notional subordinate clauses, the following properties of support words are essential: 1) belonging to a certain grammatical class - a part of speech that has the ability to spread the subordinate part of a certain structure, and 2) belonging to a certain lexical class - a semantic group that is also characterized by the ability to spread the subordinate part of a certain structure. Compare: The thought expressed by the interlocutor fascinated me; The thought that we were leaving tomorrow carried me away. In the first sentence, the distribution of the reference word thinkdetermined by the fact that it is a noun, which is why it is able to attach to itself the sub-substantive subordinate part; in the second, by the fact that it is included in the semantic-syntactic group of words acting as supporting ones in explanatory sentences.

Asemantic alliances and allied words, that is, such means, the allied role of which is to express dependence on the reference word, serve as means of expressing a subordinate subordinate connection.

2. Determinant connection. The connection of the determinant, a minor member of a sentence, expressed by a word form associated not with a word, but with the whole sentence. This relevance to the sentence is indicated by the word order: the determinant is located at the beginning of the sentence. For example: In youth  all people are dreamers, In this country  speak spanish.

3. The correlation relationship. The basis of this connection is the coincidence of the elements of semantic organization of predicative units combined into a complex sentence, therefore anaphoric elements always participate in the expression of this connection. Anaphoric elements of the main part are correlative words (demonstrative pronouns and their deputies), the content of which is correlated with the content of the subordinate part and with which they interact, expressing this type of connection, conjunctive words and those unions that are used for this type of connection ( what to).

4. Gravity is a connection in which the nominal part of the predicate corresponds to the subject through the third component. For example: He was considered a hero.

5. Composing connection. Word forms can occupy the same syntactic positions in a sentence, that is, line up in homogeneous rows.

6. A predicative connection is a connection of word forms representing components that are in a predicative relation, that is, subject and predicate. The peculiarity of this connection is that the two components (subject and predicate) mutually determine and subordinate to each other. For example: The wind died down, the storm died down, the voices died down.On the one hand, the harmonization of the predicate form with the form of the subject in number and kind is manifested here. On the other hand, the predicate determines the form of the subject - only the nominative case. A particular kind of predicative connection is the so-called coordination (the term of V.V. Vinogradov), this is the connection between the subject - a personal pronoun in the form of 1 and 2 persons and the predicate - a verb in the corresponding form: I read, you read.In this case, it is impossible to establish what depends on what, since both the personal pronoun and the verb have an independent face shape.

The connection of syntax with other levels of the language.

In modern studies, language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. The lowest tier (level) is phonology, the highest is syntax.

Consider this connection of syntax with other levels of the language based on the hierarchy of language levels: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, morphology.