Battle on the Ice
	Lake Peipsi
	Novgorod's victory
Novgorod, Vladimir	Teutonic Order, Danish knights, Derpt militia
Commanders
Alexander Nevsky, Andrey Yaroslavich	Andreas von Velven
Side forces
15-17 thousand people	10-12 thousand people
Significant	400 Germans (including 20 "brothers" of the Teutonic Order) killed, 50 Germans (including 6 "brothers") captured

Battle on the Ice(German Schlachtaufdemeise), same Battle on Lake Peipsi(German SchlachtaufdemPeipussee) - a battle that took place on April 5 (in terms of the Gregorian calendar ( A new style) - April 12) 1242 (Saturday) between Novgorodians and Vladimirians led by Alexander Nevsky and the knights of the Livonian Order, which by that time included the Order of the Sword (after the defeat at Saul in 1236), on the ice of Lake Peipus. General battle of the unsuccessful conquest campaign of the Order of 1240-1242.

Preparing for war

The war began with the campaign of Bishop German, Master of the Teutonic Order and their allies against Rus'. According to the Rhymed Chronicle, when Izborsk was taken, “not a single Russian was allowed to escape unharmed”, “great lamentation began everywhere in that land.” Pskov was captured without a fight, a small garrison remained in it, most of the troops returned. Arriving in Novgorod in 1241, Alexander found Pskov and Koporye in the hands of the Order and immediately began retaliatory actions. Alexander Nevsky marched on Koporye, took it by storm and killed most of the garrison. Some of the knights and mercenaries from the local population were taken prisoner, but released, and the traitors from among the Chud were executed.

By the beginning of 1242, Alexander waited for his brother Andrei Yaroslavich with "grassroots" troops Suzdal Principality. When the "grassroots" army was still on the way, Alexander with the Novgorod forces marched near Pskov. The city was surrounded by them. The order did not have time to quickly gather reinforcements and send them to the besieged. Pskov was taken, the garrison was killed, and the order's governors (2 knight brothers) in chains were sent to Novgorod. According to the Novgorod First Chronicle of the senior edition (reached us as part of the parchment Synodal list of the XIV century, containing records of the events of 1016-1272 and 1299-1333) “In the summer of 6750 (1242/1243). Prince Oleksandr went with the people of Novgorod and with his brother Andrey and from Nizov to the Chud land to Nemtsi and Chud and Zaya all the way to Plskov; and drive out the prince of Plskov, seizing Nemtsi and Chud, and fettering the streams to Novgorod, and he himself went to Chud.

All these events took place in March 1242. The knights were only able to concentrate their forces in the Derpt bishopric. The Novgorodians outplayed them in time. Alexander then led troops to Izborsk, his intelligence crossed the border of the Order. One of the reconnaissance detachments was defeated in a collision with the Germans, but in general, Alexander was able to determine that the knights moved with their main forces much further north, to the junction between Pskov and Peipus Lakes. Thus, they went to Novgorod by a short road and cut off the Russian troops in the Pskov region.

The same chronicle says that “And as if bysh on the earth (chud), let the whole regiment live; and Domash Tverdislavichi Kerbet was in dispersal, and I killed Nemtsi and Chud at the bridge and bisha that; and kill that Domash, the brother of the posadnik, the husband is honest, and beat him with him, and take him with his hands, and run to the prince in the regiment; the prince is back on the lake"

Position of Novgorod

The troops that opposed the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi had a heterogeneous composition, but a single command in the person of Alexander.

"Grassroots regiments" consisted of princely squads, squads of boyars, city regiments. The army sent by Novgorod had a fundamentally different composition. It included the squad of the prince invited to Novgorod (that is, Alexander Nevsky), the squad of the bishop (“lord”), the garrison of Novgorod, who served for a salary (gridi) and was subordinate to the posadnik (however, the garrison could remain in the city itself and not participate in the battle) , Konchansky regiments, militia of settlements and squads of "freemen", private military organizations of boyars and wealthy merchants.

On the whole, the army deployed by Novgorod and the "grassroots" lands was a rather powerful force, distinguished by a high fighting spirit. The total number of Russian troops was 15-17 thousand people, similar numbers were indicated by Henry of Latvia when describing Russian campaigns in the Baltic states in the 1210-1220s.

Position of the Order

According to the Livonian chronicle, for the campaign it was necessary to collect "many brave heroes, brave and excellent" led by the master, plus Danish vassals "with a significant detachment." The militia from Dorpat also participated in the battle. The latter included a large number of Estonians, but there were few knights. The Livonian rhymed chronicle reports that at the time of the encirclement of the knights by the Russian squad, “the Russians had such an army that perhaps sixty people attacked each German”; even if the number "sixty" is a strong exaggeration, the numerical superiority of the Russians over the Germans, most likely, really took place. The number of troops of the Order in the battle on Lake Peipsi is estimated at 10-12 thousand people.

The question of who commanded the troops of the Order in battle is also unresolved. Given the heterogeneous composition of the troops, it is possible that there were several commanders. Despite the recognition of the defeat of the Order, the Livonian sources do not contain information that any of the Order's chiefs was killed or captured

Battle

The opposing armies met on the morning of April 5, 1242. The details of the battle are poorly known, and much can only be guessed at. The German column, pursuing the retreating Russian detachments, apparently received some information from the patrols sent ahead, and already entered the ice of Lake Peipus in battle order, the bollards walked ahead, followed by a discordant column of "chudins", after which there was a line knights and sergeants of the Derpt bishop. Apparently, even before the collision with the Russian troops, a small gap formed between the head of the column and the Chud.

The Rhymed Chronicle describes the moment of the beginning of the battle as follows:

Apparently, the archers did not inflict serious losses. Having fired at the Germans, the archers had no choice but to withdraw to the flanks of a large regiment. However, as the Chronicle continues,

In Russian chronicles, this is displayed as follows:

Then the troops of the Teutonic Order were surrounded by Russians and destroyed, other German units retreated to avoid the same fate:

There is a persistent myth, reflected in the cinema, that the ice of Lake Peipsi could not withstand the weight of the armor of the Teutonic Knights and cracked, as a result of which most of the knights simply drowned. Meanwhile, if the battle really took place on the ice of the lake, then it was more profitable for the Order, since the flat surface made it possible to maintain formation during a massive horse attack, which the sources describe. The weight of the full armor of a Russian warrior and an order knight of that time were approximately comparable to each other, and the Russian cavalry could not gain an advantage due to lighter equipment.

Losses

The question of the losses of the parties in the battle is controversial. About Russian losses, it is said vaguely: "many brave soldiers fell." Apparently, the losses of the Novgorodians were really heavy. The losses of the "Germans" are indicated by specific numbers, which cause controversy. Russian chronicles say: “and pade Chyudi beschisla, and Nѣmets 400, and 50 with the hands of Yash and brought to Novgorod ".

The Rhymed Chronicle specifically says that twenty knights died and six were taken prisoner. The discrepancy in estimates can be explained by the fact that the "Chronicle" refers only to the "brothers" - knights, not taking into account their squads, in this case, out of 400 Germans who fell on the ice of Lake Peipsi, twenty were real "brothers" - knights, and from 50 captured "brothers" were 6.

According to the conclusions of the expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR under the leadership of Karaev, the site of the Warm Lake, located 400 meters west of the modern shore of Cape Sigovets, between its northern tip and the latitude of the village of Ostrov, can be considered the immediate place of the battle. It should be noted that the battle on a flat surface of ice was more beneficial for the heavy cavalry of the Order, however, it is traditionally believed that Alexander Yaroslavich chose the place to meet the enemy.

Consequences

According to the point of view traditional in Russian historiography, this battle, together with the victories of Prince Alexander over the Swedes (July 15, 1240 on the Neva) and over the Lithuanians (in 1245 near Toropets, near Lake Zhiztsa and near Usvyat), was of great importance for Pskov and Novgorod , delaying the pressure of three serious enemies from the west - at the very time when the rest of Rus' was greatly weakened by the Mongol invasion. In Novgorod, the Battle on the Ice, together with the Neva victory over the Swedes, was recalled at litanies in all Novgorod churches back in the 16th century.

The English researcher J. Fannel believes that the significance of the Battle of the Ice (and the Battle of the Neva) is greatly exaggerated: “Alexander did only what the numerous defenders of Novgorod and Pskov did before him and what many did after him - namely, they rushed to protect the extended and vulnerable borders from invaders. The Russian professor I. N. Danilevsky agrees with this opinion. He notes, in particular, that the battle was inferior in scale to the battles of Saul (1236), in which the master of the order and 48 knights were killed by the Lithuanians (20 knights died on Lake Peipsi), and the battle of Rakovor in 1268; contemporary sources even describe the Battle of the Neva in more detail and attach more importance to it. However, even in the Rhymed Chronicle, the Battle of the Ice is unequivocally described as a defeat for the Germans, in contrast to Rakovor.

The memory of the battle

Movies

In 1938, Sergei Eisenstein filmed the feature film Alexander Nevsky, in which the Battle on the Ice was filmed. The film is considered one of the most prominent representatives of historical films. It was he who largely shaped the modern viewer's idea of ​​​​the battle.

In 1992, a documentary film "In memory of the past and in the name of the future" was filmed. The film tells about the creation of a monument to Alexander Nevsky on the occasion of the 750th anniversary of the Battle on the Ice.

In 2009, Russian, Canadian and Japanese studios jointly filmed the animated film "First Squad", where the Battle on the Ice plays a key role in the plot.

Music

The musical accompaniment to the Eisenstein film, written by Sergei Prokofiev, is a symphonic suite dedicated to the events of the battle.

Rock band Aria on the album "Hero of Asphalt" released the song " Ballad of an Old Russian Warrior”, telling about the Battle of the Ice. This song has gone through many different adaptations and re-releases.

monuments

Monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on Sokolikha

The monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky was erected in 1993, on Mount Sokolikha in Pskov, almost 100 km away from the real battlefield. Initially, it was planned to create a monument on the island of Voronie, which geographically would be a more accurate solution.

Monument to Alexander Nevsky and Poklonny Cross

In 1992, on the territory of the village of Kobylye Gorodishche, Gdovsky District, in a place as close as possible to the alleged site of the Battle on the Ice, near the Church of the Archangel Michael, a bronze monument to Alexander Nevsky and a wooden bow cross were erected. The Church of the Archangel Michael was founded by the people of Pskov in 1462. In the annals, the last mention of the legendary "Raven Stone" is associated with this church (Pskov chronicle of 1463). The wooden cross gradually collapsed under the influence of adverse weather conditions. In July 2006, on the occasion of the 600th anniversary of the first mention of the village. Mare Gorodishche in the Pskov Chronicles, it was replaced by a bronze one.

The bronze worship cross was cast in St. Petersburg at the expense of patrons of the Baltic Steel Group (A. V. Ostapenko). The prototype was the Novgorod Alekseevsky cross. The author of the project is A. A. Seleznev. A bronze sign was cast under the direction of D. Gochiyaev by the foundry workers of ZAO NTTsKT, architects B. Kostygov and S. Kryukov. When implementing the project, fragments from the lost wooden cross sculptor V. Reshchikov.

Cultural and sports educational raid expedition

Since 1997, an annual raid expedition has been conducted to the places of feats of arms of Alexander Nevsky's squads. During these trips, the participants of the race help to improve the territories related to the monuments of cultural and historical heritage. Thanks to them, in many places in the North-West, memorial signs were erected in memory of the exploits of Russian soldiers, and the village of Kobylye Gorodishche became known throughout the country.

Due to the variability of the hydrography of Lake Peipsi, historians for a long time could not accurately determine the place where the Battle of the Ice took place. Only thanks to long-term research carried out by the expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the place of the battle was established. The battle site is submerged in summer and is located approximately 400 meters from the island of Sigovets.

The battle on the ice on Lake Peipus took place on April 5, 1242. It became known as one of the most important victories in the history of the country. The date of this battle put an end to the claims of the Livonian Order to Russian lands. But, as often happens, many facts related to an event that occurred in the distant past are controversial for modern scientists. And the reliability of most sources can be called into question. As a result, modern historians do not know the exact number of troops involved in the battle. This information is not found either in the Life of Alexander Nevsky or in the annals. Presumably, the number of Russian soldiers who took part in the battle is 15 thousand, the Livonian knights brought with them about 12 thousand soldiers, mostly militias.

Alexander's choice of the ice of Lake Peipsi (not far from the Raven Stone) as a place for the battle was of great importance. First of all, the position occupied by the soldiers of the young prince made it possible to block the approaches to Novgorod. Surely, Alexander Nevsky also remembered that heavy knights are more vulnerable in winter conditions. So, the Battle on the Ice can be briefly described as follows.

The Livonian knights lined up in a well-known battle wedge. Heavy knights were placed on the flanks, and warriors with light weapons were placed inside this wedge. Russian chronicles call such a formation a "great pig". But, modern historians do not know anything about what construction Alexander Nevsky chose. It could well have been a "regimental row", traditional for Russian squads. On the offensive on open ice the knights decided, even without accurate data on either the number or the location of the enemy troops.

The scheme of the Battle on the Ice is absent in the chronicle sources that have come down to us. But, it is quite possible to reconstruct it. The knight's wedge attacked the guard regiment and moved on, breaking through its resistance quite easily. However, the attackers met on their further path many quite unexpected obstacles. It can be assumed that this success of the knights was prepared in advance by Alexander Nevsky.

The wedge was caught in pincers and almost completely lost its maneuverability. The attack of the ambush regiment finally tipped the scales in favor of Alexander. The knights, clad in heavy armor, were completely helpless, dragged from their horses. Those who were able to escape after the battle were pursued by the Novgorodians, according to the chronicles "to the Falcon Coast."

Alexander won the Battle of the Ice, which forced the Livonian Order to conclude peace and renounce all territorial claims. Warriors captured in battle were returned by both sides.

It is worth noting that the battle on Lake Peipsi is unique in its own way. For the first time in history, a foot army was able to defeat a heavily armed cavalry. Undoubtedly, important role played by weather conditions, terrain, and surprise.

Thanks to the victory of Alexander Nevsky, the threat of the seizure of the northwestern Russian territories by the Order was eliminated. Also, it allowed the Novgorodians to keep trade relations with Europe.

September 4th, 2015

Original taken from mihalchuk_1974 in Ice Battle. Tactical features, construction and number of troops.

Your attention, dear friends, is offered an article by the luminary of Russian medieval studies and weapons science A.N. Kirpichnikov.

The battle of April 5, 1242 on the ice of Lake Peipus is one of the glorious episodes of Russian history. Naturally, it constantly attracted the attention of researchers and popularizers of science. But ideological tendencies often affected the assessment of this event. The description of the battle was overgrown with speculation and myths. It is claimed that from 10 to 17 thousand people participated in this battle on each side. This equates the battle to an exceptionally crowded one. According to official military historians, the Battle on the Ice is the first major event in the history of military art, when heavy knightly cavalry was defeated in the field by an army consisting mainly of infantry,1 and evidence of the unconditional superiority of Russian military art over Western. The exaggeration of the role of the battle now goes to the other extreme: it tends to be regarded as episodic and insignificant.2

For the sake of objectivity, it should be noted that positive results have also been achieved in the study of the Battle on the Ice. They are connected with the clarification of the place of the battle, bringing into the system all the surviving Russian and foreign sources3.

The main reliable information about the battle of 1242 is contained in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the Senior Edition. Her record is contemporary to the event. The chronicler reported general data on the war between Novgorod and the Livonian Order in 1242. He also made a few brief comments on the battle itself. The next Russian source is The Life of Alexander Nevsky, created in the 1280s. largely based on the stories of witnesses who knew and observed Prince Alexander Yaroslavich as a commander, slightly supplements the chronicle. Only the testimony of an “eye-witness” is cited, who allegedly saw a favorable sign in heaven - “God's army”4.

Map of Livonia. It indicates the territories controlled by various rulers. Order lands are at a fair distance from Derpt. The map was published in Turbull S.Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights. The stone castles of Latvia and Estonia 1185-1560. Fortress 19. Osprey Publiching, 2004 P. 6. In turn, it is based on data from Soviet historical works.

The data of the two named sources were reflected in many later chronicles. The latter rarely contain new factual additions,5 but add a number of decorative details. Summing up chronicle and hagiographic reports, we can state that they are rather concise. We learn about the campaign of 1242, the failure of the reconnaissance detachment, the withdrawal of Russian troops to the ice of Lake Peipus, the formation of the German detachment, its defeat and flight. The details of the battle are not given. There is no usual data on the alignment of their regiments, the exploits of combatants, the behavior of the commander. The chiefs of the German army are not mentioned either. There are no names of the dead Novgorodians, which was usually noted if their number was significant. Apparently, a certain etiquette of the chronicler had an effect here, who often bypassed many details of military clashes, taking them for granted and not necessary for weather records.

The conciseness of Russian sources is partly compensated by the presentation of the “Senior Livonian Rhymed Chronicle”, written in the last decade of the 13th century. about the military side of things.

The Battle of the Neva in 1240 marked the beginning of the successful struggle of the Novgorodians to protect their northwestern borders. In 1241, the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich managed to clear the Vodsk land and liberate Koporye, captured by the Livonian Order. This operation showed that the forces of the united troops of the Novgorodians and some Finnish tribes could be successful. In 1242, the Novgorodians, who had quarreled with Prince Alexander, again invited him to continue the war with the Livonian Order. The moment of the new campaign was well chosen. The Germans, who captured Pskov and its regions, did not have time to fortify there. Part of their forces fought against the Curonians and Lithuanians. The march of the Russian troops came as a surprise to the Order. As a result, the knights were expelled from Pskov without a fight, and Alexander's army, after achieving this important goal, invaded the Livonian borders. By this time, the rati included Novgorodians (black people - townspeople, as well as boyars and city foremen), the princely squad of Alexander himself, and finally, the Nizovites from the Vladimir-Suzdal land - a detachment of Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodich, detached under the leadership of brother Alexander, Andrei Yaroslavich (in this detachment, according to the Rhymed Chronicle, there were Suzdalians). In addition, according to the Pskov First Chronicle, there were Pskovians7 in the army, who apparently joined after the liberation of the city. The total number of Russian troops is not known, but for its time it seemed significant. According to the Life, the regiments marched "in great strength." The German source generally testifies to a 60-fold superiority of Russian forces, which is clearly exaggerated.

The invasion of the Livonian land pursued limited, "probing" goals. However, the Novgorodians were ready to accept a field battle. In anticipation of the enemy, reconnaissance was carried out, food supplies were replenished, full was captured. The regiments reached the Derpt bishopric, but they did not begin to besiege castles and cities, but stayed in the coastal part of Lake Peipus. The brother-knights of the Livonian Order and the Derptians (the chronicle calls them a miracle), perhaps with the support of the Danes who owned Northern Estonia, hastily set out to meet the Russian rati.

The Novgorodians carried out an unusual maneuver: they retreated to the ice of Lake Peipsi “on Uzmeni near Voronei Kameni.”9 The Order army also approached there in battle order. Thus, the place of the battle was proposed by the Russian side with a clear expectation to carry out a maneuver battle against the German formation, called the "pig", at the same time by several detachments. The battle order of the Russians is not described in the sources, however, according to indirect data, it can be interpreted. In the center was the princely regiment of the commander-in-chief, next to it were the regiments of the right and left hands. Ahead of the main regiment, according to the Rhymed Chronicle, were archers. Before us is a three-part division of the main army, typical for its time, which could, however, be more complex.

The Russian army, built in battle formation on the ice of Lake Peipus, judging by its mobility, significant marching movements across Estonian soil, the desire to measure strength with mounted knights, and finally, the choice of a battle bridge, which created freedom of maneuver on a significant open space, was, for the most part, equestrian.

In the chronicle description of the Battle of the Ice, main feature Livonian army. It entered the battle built in the form of a "pig". Historians considered the "pig" to be a kind of wedge-shaped army formation - a sharp column. The Russian term in this respect was an exact translation of the German Schweinkopfn of the Latin caput porci. In turn, the mentioned term is related to the concept of wedge, point, cuneus, acies. The last two terms have been used in sources since Roman times.11 But they cannot always be interpreted figuratively. So often separate military detachments were called, regardless of the method of their formation. For all that, the very name of such detachments hints at their peculiar configuration. Indeed, the wedge-shaped system is not the fruit of the theoretical fantasy of ancient writers. Such a construction was actually used in the combat practice of the XIII-XV centuries. in Central Europe, and went out of use only at the end of the 16th century.

Scheme of the Battle on the Ice as it was presented to G. N. Karaev, the leader of the complex expedition

On the basis of the surviving written sources, which have not yet attracted the attention of Russian historians, the wedge formation (in the annalistic text - “pig”) lends itself to reconstruction in the form of a deep column with a triangular crown. This construction is confirmed by a unique document - a military instruction - "Preparation for a campaign", written in 1477 for one of the Brandenburg military leaders12. It lists three divisions - gonfalons (Banner). Their names are typical - "Hound", "St. George" and "Great". Banners numbered 400, 500 and 700 cavalry soldiers, respectively. At the head of each detachment, a standard-bearer and selected knights were concentrated, located in 5 ranks. In the first rank, depending on the number of banners, from 3 to 7-9 mounted knights lined up, in the last - from 11 to 17. The total number of wedge warriors ranged from 35 to 65 people. The ranks were lined up in such a way that each subsequent one on its flanks increased by two knights. Thus, the extreme warriors in relation to each other were placed, as it were, in a ledge and guarded the one riding in front from one of the sides. This was the tactical feature of the wedge - it was adapted for a concentrated frontal strike and at the same time was difficult to vulnerable from the flanks.

The second, columnar part of the gonfalon, according to the "Preparation for the Campaign", consisted of a quadrangular construction, which included bollards. The number of knechts in each of the three detachments mentioned above was 365, 442 and 629 (or 645) respectively. They were located in depth from 33 to 43 lines, each of which contained from 11 to 17 horsemen. Among the knechts were servants who were part of the knight's retinue: usually an archer or crossbowman and a squire. All together they formed the lowest military unit - "spear" - numbering 35 people, rarely more. During the battle, these warriors, equipped no worse than a knight, came to the aid of their master, changed his horse.13 The advantages of the column-wedge banner include its cohesion, flank cover of the wedge, ramming power of the first strike, and precise controllability. The formation of such a banner was convenient both for movement and for starting a battle. The tightly closed ranks of the head part of the detachment, when in contact with the enemy, did not have to turn around to protect their flanks. The wedge of the advancing army made a frightening impression, could cause confusion in the ranks of the enemy at the first onslaught. The wedge detachment was designed to break the formation of the opposing side and an early victory.

The described system also had disadvantages. During the battle, if it dragged on, the best forces - the knights - could be the first to be put out of action. As for the bollards, during the battle of the knights they were in an expectant-passive state and had little effect on the outcome of the battle. A wedge-shaped column, judging by one of the battles of the XV century. (1450 under Pillenreith), the last line of knights,14 because the bollards, apparently, were not very reliable. However, it is difficult to judge the strengths and weaknesses of a pointed column by the lack of material. AT different regions Europe, it obviously differed in its features and weapons.

Let us also touch upon the issue of the number of wedge-shaped columns. According to the "Preparation for the Campaign" of 1477, such a column ranged from 400 to 700 horsemen. But the number of tactical units of that time, as you know, was not constant, and in combat practice even the 1st floor. 15th century was of great variety. For example, according to J. Dlugosh, in seven Teutonic banners that fought at Grunwald in 1410, there were 570 spears,15 i.e., each banner had 82 spears, which, taking into account the knight and his retinue, corresponded to 246 combatants. According to other data, in five banners of the Order in 1410, when paying salaries, there were from 157 to 359 spears and from 4 to 30 shooters. units in three lines stood 3, 5 and 7 knights each. Under Pillenreith (1450), the wedge column numbered 400 mounted knights and bollards. could reach one thousand horsemen, but more often included several hundred combatants. In military episodes of the XIV century. the number of knights of the detachment, compared with later times, was even smaller - from 20 to 80 (excluding knechts). For example, in 1331 there were 350 equestrian soldiers in five Prussian banners, that is, 70 in each banner (or about 20 copies).

We also have the opportunity to more specifically determine the size of the Livonian combat detachment of the 13th century. In 1268, in the battle of Rakovor, as the chronicle mentions, the German "iron regiment of the great pig" acted. According to the Rhymed Chronicle, 34 knights and the militia participated in the battle.19 This number of knights, if supplemented by the commander, will be 35 people, which exactly corresponds to the composition of the knightly wedge of one of the detachments noted in the above-mentioned "Preparation for the Campaign" of 1477. (true for the "Hound" banners, and not the "Great"). In the same "Preparation for the Campaign" the number of knights of such a banner is given - 365 people. Taking into account the fact that the figures of the warheads of the detachments according to 1477 and 1268. almost coincided, it can be assumed without the risk of a major error that, in terms of their overall quantitative composition, these units also approached each other. In this case, we can to a certain extent judge the usual size of the German wedge-shaped banners that took part in the Livonian-Russian wars of the 13th century.

As for the German detachment in the battle of 1242, it was unlikely to surpass the Rakovor "great pig" in its composition. During the period under review, the Livonian Order, distracted by the struggle in Courland, could not field a large army.20

On the morning of April 5, 1242, the Russian and Livonian rati met in battle. The first blow of the German formation was received by archers: “And piercing like a pig through the regiment.”21 Archers, as you know, were used at the beginning of the battle: they showered the enemy with a hail of arrows from a distance, but did not engage in hand-to-hand combat. In this case, according to the Rhymed Chronicle, “the Russians had many shooters who courageously accepted the first onslaught, (being) in front of the prince’s squad. It was seen how the detachment (banner) of the brothers-knights defeated the shooters.22 At this stage of the confrontation, the initiative was in the hands of the Germans. Following the rapprochement and the outset of the battle, the main forces were included in the battle and hand-to-hand combat ensued. Here, horse spearmen converged on both sides, who, after a ramming collision, switched to using bladed weapons. The author of the “Life” conveys the bitterness of the struggle in rather accurate, however, habitual expressions: “There is a slash of evil, and a crack from a copy of breaking, and a sound from a cut of a sword, as if a frozen lake would move. And you can’t see the ice: for fear, cover yourself with blood.”23

How the battle unfolded in detail, one can only guess. However, his turning point is known. According to the Rhyming Chronicle, “those who were in the army of the knight brothers were surrounded ... The knight brothers resisted quite stubbornly, but they were defeated there.”24 From this we can conclude that the German unit was drawn into battle with the central opposing regiment, while the side regiments managed to cover the flanks of the German rati. The Rhymed Chronicle writes that “part of the Derptians (“Chuds” of the Russian chronicle) left the battle, this was their salvation, they were forced to retreat.”25 It's about about the knechts who covered the knights from the rear. Thus, the striking force of the German army - the knights - was left without cover. Surrounded, they apparently could not maintain formation, reorganize for new attacks, and, moreover, were left without reinforcements. This predetermined the complete defeat of the German army, in the first place - its most organized and combat-ready force.

Reconstruction of the possible equipment of the troops of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich and his allies during the Battle of Lake Peipsi
1. Governor (prince).
2. Standard bearer.
3. Heavy spearman (representative of the senior squad) of the 1st line
4. Mounted heavy archer
5. Prussian cavalry warrior (immigrants in the service of Novgorod)
6. Foot heavy spearman (Novgorod militia)
7. Foot crossbowman (Novgorod militia)

Reconstruction of the possible equipment of the troops of the Livonian Order, the Derpt episcopate and their allies during the Battle of Lake Peipsi

1. Heavy "knight of the first line (komtur) of the Livonian Order.
2. Order knight-standard-bearer.
3. A vassal knight who has a fief under the Derpt episcopate.
4. Equestrian "sergeant" or squire.
5. Mounted crossbowman or squire
6. Foot squire of the Livonian Order.
7. Chud militia (order vassal ally).

The battle ended with the pursuit of the fleeing enemy in a panic. At the same time, some of the enemies died in the battle, some were captured, and some, finding themselves in the place of thin ice - “sigovice”, fell through the ice. The Russians also suffered losses: “This victory cost him (Prince Alexander—A.K.) many brave men.”26 The Novgorod First Chronicle reports that 400 Germans fell as a result of the battle, 90 were taken prisoner, and “the people were devastated.”27 losses seem to be exaggerated. According to the Rhymed Chronicle, 20 knights died and 6 were taken prisoner. Taking into account the composition of an ordinary knight's spear (3 combatants), the number of killed and captured knights and bollards could reach 78 people. An unexpectedly close figure - 70 dead order knights - is given by German sources of the second half of the 15th-16th centuries.28 It is not known where such an exact figure of "damage" came from. Didn't the "late" German chronicler triple the losses indicated in the "Rhymed Chronicle" (20 + 6 x 3 = 78)?

The figures given by the "Rhymed Chronicle" of the disabled fighters may be close to the true ones. As mentioned, there were 26 knights killed and captured. Probably, almost all of them were part of the wedge: these people were the first to enter the battle and were in the greatest danger. Taking into account the five-rank formation, it can be assumed that the number of the wedge was no more than 30-35 knights. Not surprisingly, most of them laid down their lives on the battlefield. This composition of the wedge assumes its maximum width in the form of a line of 11 fighters. The number of knights in this kind of columns was somewhat more than 300 people. As a result, with all the calculations and assumptions, the total number of the German-Chudian army that took part in the battle of 1242 was unlikely to exceed three or four hundred people, and most likely was even smaller.

The Livonians were opposed by perhaps somewhat larger Russian forces. In general, there is no reason to consider the Battle of the Ice crowded, which, however, does not reduce it. historical significance. The vast majority of the military operations of the Middle Ages, both in our country and in the west of Europe, were carried out by small forces, not much larger than the scale of the battle on Lake Peipsi.

Great commanders and their battles Venkov Andrey Vadimovich

BATTLE ON LAKE PEOPLE (Battle on the Ice) (April 5, 1242)

BATTLE ON LAKE PEOPLE (Battle on the Ice)

Arriving in Novgorod in 1241, Alexander found Pskov and Koporye in the hands of the Order. Without long gathering, he began retaliatory actions. Taking advantage of the difficulties of the Order, diverted to fight the Mongols, Alexander Nevsky marched on Koporye, took the city by storm and killed most of the garrison. Some of the knights and mercenaries from the local population were taken prisoner, but released (by the Germans), traitors from among the “chud” were hanged.

By 1242, both the Order and Novgorod had accumulated forces for a decisive clash. Alexander waited for his brother Andrei Yaroslavich with the "grassroots" troops (of the Vladimir principality). When the "grassroots" army was still on the way, Alexander with the Novgorod forces marched near Pskov. The city was surrounded. The order did not have time to quickly gather reinforcements and send them to the besieged. Pskov was taken, the garrison was killed, the order's governors in chains were sent to Novgorod.

All these events took place in March 1242. The Knights were only able to concentrate troops in the Derpt bishopric. The Novgorodians outplayed them in time. Alexander led his troops to Izborsk, his intelligence crossed the borders of the Order. One of the reconnaissance detachments was defeated in a collision with the Germans, but in general, reconnaissance determined that the knights moved the main forces much further north, to the junction between Pskov and Peipus Lakes. Thus, they went out to Novgorod by a short road and cut off Alexander in the Pskov region.

Alexander hurried with all his army to the north, ahead of the Germans and blocked their way. Late spring and the remaining ice on the lakes made the surface the most convenient road for movement, and at the same time for mobile warfare. It was on the ice of Lake Peipus that Alexander began to wait for the approach of the order troops. At dawn on April 5, the opponents saw each other.

The troops that opposed the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi had a consolidated character. The squads that came up from the "grassroots lands" had one principle of recruitment. Novgorod regiments - another. The consolidated nature of the troops led to the fact that there was no unified command and control system. Traditionally, in such cases, the council of princes and the governor of the city regiments met. In this situation, the supremacy of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky, based on high authority, was undeniable.

"Grassroots regiments" consisted of princely squads, squads of boyars, city regiments. The army sent by Veliky Novgorod had a fundamentally different composition. It included the squad of the prince invited to Novgorod (i.e. Alexander Nevsky), the squad of the bishop (“lord”), the garrison of Novgorod, who served for a salary (gridi) and was subordinate to the posadnik (however, the garrison could remain in the city itself and not participate in battle), Konchansky regiments, militia of settlements and squads of "freemen", private military organizations of boyars and wealthy merchants.

The Konchansky regiments were named after the five "ends" of the city of Novgorod. Each regiment represented a certain “end”, was divided into two hundred, a hundred was completed with several streets. Posad regiments were formed according to the same principle.

The principle of recruiting a regiment along the “ends” was carried out as follows: two residents gathered a third, a foot soldier, on a campaign. Wealthy exhibited equestrian warrior. The owners of a certain amount of land had to put up a certain number of horsemen. The unit of measurement was "plow" - the amount of land that could be plowed on three horses with two assistants (the owner himself was the third). Usually ten sokhs gave one equestrian warrior. AT extreme situations cavalry exhibited four plows.

The armament of the Novgorod warriors was traditional for the Russian lands, but with one exception - the Novgorodians did not have special archers. Every warrior had a bow. Any attack was preceded by a volley of bows, then the same warriors went to hand-to-hand approach. In addition to bows, Novgorod warriors had ordinary swords, spears (since the foot army often encountered equestrian princely squads, spears with hooks at the end were widespread for pulling enemy soldiers from a horse), shoe-knives, which were widely used in close combat, especially when the infantry capsized cavalry; the fallen slaughtered the enemy's horses (veins, belly).

The command staff was represented by centurions and governors, who commanded one or two regiments; governors were subordinate to the prince, who, in addition, directly commanded his squad.

Tactically, these units made up a guard regiment, "brow" and "wings" on the battlefield. Each regiment had its own banner - banner and military music. In total, there were 13 banners in the Novgorod army.

The supply system was primitive. When going on a campaign, each warrior had a supply of food with him. Stocks, together with tents, wall-beating machines, etc., were carried in the convoy (“in goods”). When the stocks ran out, special detachments of "foragers" (foragers) went to collect them.

Traditionally, the battle was started by the guard regiment, then by the foot army, then by the Novgorod cavalry army and the squads of princes. The system of ambushes, tracking down the enemy, etc. was widely used.

In general, the army deployed by Veliky Novgorod and the "grassroots" lands was a fairly powerful force, distinguished by high fighting spirit, aware of the importance of the moment, the significance of the fight against the invasion of the crusading chivalry. Numerically, the army reached 15-17 thousand. In this, the researchers are united. Most of it was made up of Novgorod and Vladimir foot militia.

The Order, advancing on the Slavic lands, was a powerful military organization. The Master was at the head of the Order. In his submission were commanders, commandants of strongholds in the conquered lands, managing these areas. Knights - "brothers" were subordinate to the Komtur. The number of "brothers" was limited. Three centuries after the events described, when the Order was firmly established in the Baltic states, there were 120-150 full members, “brothers”. In addition to full members, the Order included "merciful brothers", a kind of sanitary service, and priests. Most of the knights who fought under the banner of the Order were "half-brothers" who did not have the right to booty.

The weapons and armor of European chivalry are described in the chapter on the Battle of Liegnitz.

Unlike the knights, who were not part of the knightly orders, the Teutons and the swordsmen were soldered by discipline and could, to the detriment of their peculiar ideas of knightly honor, form deep battle formations.

Of particular concern is the number of troops of the Order that set foot on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Domestic historians usually cited a figure of 10-12 thousand people. Later researchers, referring to the German "Rhymed Chronicle", generally name 300-400 people. Some offer a “compromise option”: up to ten 10 thousand soldiers could put up Livs and Ests, the Germans themselves could be no more than 2 thousand, mostly they were hired squads of noble knights, most likely - on foot, there were only a few hundred horsemen, of there are only thirty or forty people - directly order knights, "brothers".

Taking into account the recent terrible defeat of the Teutons near Liegnitz and nine bags of cut off ears collected by the Mongols on the battlefield, one can agree with the proposed alignment of forces in the army put up by the Order against Alexander Nevsky.

On Lake Peipsi, Alexander built his troops in the traditional battle order for Russian troops. In the center was a small Vladimir foot militia, in front of it was an advanced regiment of light cavalry, archers and slingers. Vladimirians were here too. In total, one third of the entire army was in the center of the battle formation. Two-thirds of the troops - the Novgorod foot militia - became regiments of the "right hand" and "left hand" on the flanks. Behind the regiment of the "left hand" an ambush was hidden, consisting of the equestrian squad of the prince.

Behind the whole formation, according to a number of researchers, were located the linked sledges of the convoy. Some believe that the rear of the Russian army simply rested on the high, steep shore of the lake.

The troops of the Order lined up in a wedge, "boar's head." The Russians called such a battle formation a “pig”. The tip, the sides, and even the last ranks of the formation were the knights themselves. Inside the wedge densely stood infantry. Some researchers consider such a formation to be the most acceptable for the troops of the Order at that time - otherwise it would be impossible to keep the numerous “chud” in the ranks.

Such a wedge could move only at a step or a “loaf” (i.e., a “trunk”, a quick step), and attack from close range - 70 steps, otherwise the horses that had risen into a gallop would break away from the infantry and the formation would fall apart at the most crucial moment .

The purpose of the formation was a ramming blow that cuts and disperses the enemy.

So, on the morning of April 5, the wedge attacked the immobile Russian army. The attackers were fired upon by archers and slingers, but the arrows and stones did not cause much damage to the knights covered by shields.

As stated in the Rhyming Chronicle, “the Russians had many shooters who courageously accepted the first onslaught, being in front of the prince’s squad. It was evident how a detachment of brother-knights defeated the shooters. Breaking through the archers and the advanced regiment, the knights cut into the Big Regiment. It is clear that the Bolshoi Regiment was dissected, and part of the soldiers of the Russian army rolled back behind the coupled wagons and sledges. Here, naturally, a "third line of defense" was formed. The knight's horses did not have enough speed and space to accelerate to overcome the linked and lined up Russian sledges. And since the rear ranks of the unwieldy wedge continued to push, the front ranks, for sure, made a bunch of small things in front of the Russian sledge train, falling down along with the horses. The Vladimir militias, who retreated behind the sleigh, mixed with the knights who had lost their formation, the regiments of the "right" and "left" hands, slightly changing the front, hit the flanks of the Germans, who also mixed with the Russians. As the author, who wrote The Life of Alexander Nevsky, reports, “there was a slash of evil, and a crack from spears of breaking, and a sound from a sword cut, as if a frozen lake would move. And it is impossible to see the ice: for fear of being covered with blood.

The final blow that surrounded the Germans was delivered from an ambush personally by the prince, formed and trained by the squad.

The “Rhyming Chronicle” admits: “... those who were in the army of the knight brothers were surrounded ... The knight brothers resisted quite stubbornly, but they were defeated there.”

Several ranks of knights covering the wedge from the rear were crushed by the blow of the Russian heavy cavalry. "Chud", which made up the bulk of the infantry, seeing its army surrounded, ran to its native shore. It was easiest to break through in this direction, since there was a horse battle here and the Russians did not have a united front. The Rhymed Chronicle reports that "part of the Derptians (Chuds) left the battle, this was their salvation, they were forced to retreat."

Left without the support of the bulk of the infantry, breaking the line, the knights and, possibly, their warriors - the Germans were forced to fight back in all directions.

The balance of power has changed dramatically. It is known that the master himself with some of the knights broke through. Another part of them perished on the battlefield. The Russians pursued the fleeing enemy for 7 miles, to the opposite shore of Lake Peipus.

Apparently, already at the western shore of the lake, the runners began to fall through the ice (the ice is always thinner near the shores, especially if streams flow into the lake in this place). This completed the defeat.

No less controversial is the question of the losses of the parties in the battle. It is vague about Russian losses - "many brave warriors fell." The losses of the knights are indicated by specific numbers, which cause controversy. Russian chronicles, and after them domestic historians, say that 500 knights were killed, and the Chudi were “pade beschisla”, 50 knights, “deliberate governors”, were taken prisoner. 500 killed knights - the figure is completely unrealistic, there were not such a number in the entire Order, moreover, much fewer of them participated in the entire First Crusade. The Rhymed Chronicle believes that 20 knights died and 6 were taken prisoner. Perhaps the "Chronicle" has in mind only brother-knights, omitting their squads and the "chud" recruited into the army. In this "Chronicle" there is no reason not to trust. On the other hand, the Novgorod First Chronicle says that 400 "Germans" fell in the battle, 90 were taken prisoner, and the "chud" is also discounted - "beschisla". Apparently, 400 German soldiers really fell on the ice of Lake Peipus, of which 20 were knight brothers, 90 Germans (of which 6 were “real” knights) were captured.

Be that as it may, the death of so many professional soldiers (even if the Rhymed Chronicle is true, half of the knights who participated in the battle died) greatly undermined the power of the Order in the Baltic States and for a long time, almost for several centuries, stopped the further advance of the Germans to the East .

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1242 Armstrong, John. Op. cit. P. 134.

The tenth century in densely populated - by medieval standards, of course - Western Europe was marked by the beginning of expansion. In the future, from century to century, this expansion expanded, taking the most diverse forms.

The European peasant, bent under the burden of obligations to the seigneur, dared to invade the unruly forests. He cut down trees, cleared the land of bushes, and drained the swamps to produce additional arable land.

The Europeans pressed the Saracens (the Arabs who captured Spain), there was a reconquista ("reconquest" of Spain).

Inspired by the lofty idea of ​​the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher and overwhelmed by a thirst for wealth and new lands, the crusaders stepped into the Levant - that was the name in the Middle Ages of the territories located along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

The European "onslaught to the east" began; villagers, skilled urban craftsmen, experienced merchants, knights en masse appeared in the Slavic countries, for example, in Poland and the Czech Republic, began to settle and settle down there. This contributed to the rise of the economy, social and cultural life of the Eastern European countries, but at the same time created problems, creating rivalry and confrontation between the newcomer and the indigenous population. Especially a big wave settlers poured in from the German lands, where the rulers of the German Empire (following Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) supported the "onslaught on the East."

Soon the eyes of Europeans were riveted to the Baltic states. It was perceived as a forest desert, slightly populated by wild Letto-Lithuanian and Finno-Ugric pagan tribes who did not know state power. Rus' and the Scandinavian countries have been expanding here since ancient times. They colonized the border regions. Tribute was imposed on the local tribes. Back in the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the Russians built their fortress Yuryev behind Lake Peipus in the land of the Finno-Ests (named after the given Yaroslav the Wise at the baptism of the name George). The Swedes advanced into the possessions of the Finns until they reached the borders of the Karelian land controlled by Novgorod.

At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, people from the west of Europe appeared in the Baltic states. First came bearing the word Christ Catholic missionaries. In 1184, the monk Meinard unsuccessfully tried to convert the Livs (ancestors of modern Latvians) to Catholicism. The monk Berthold in 1198 preached Christianity already with the help of the swords of the crusader knights. Bremen canon Albert, sent by the Pope, seized the mouth of the Dvina and founded Riga in 1201. A year later, on the Livonian lands conquered around Riga, an order of monk-knights was created. He called Order of the Sword in the form of a long cross, more like a sword. In 1215-1216 the swordsmen captured Estonia. This was preceded by their struggle with the Russian and Lithuanian princes, as well as enmity with Denmark, which had laid claim to Estonia since the beginning of the 12th century.

In 1212, the sword-bearers came close to the borders of the Pskov and Novgorod lands. Mstislav Udaloy, who reigned in Novgorod, successfully resisted them. Then, during the reign of father Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in Novgorod, the swordsmen were defeated near Yuryev (modern Tartu). The city remained with the crusaders, provided that tribute was paid to Novgorod (Yuriev tribute). By 1219, Denmark had conquered Northern Estonia, but after 5 years the swordsmen regained it.

The activity of the Crusaders pushed the Lithuanian tribes (Lithuania, Zhmud) to unite. They, the only of the Baltic peoples, began to form their own state.

In the land of the Baltic tribe of the Prussians, which was located near the Polish border, another order of the crusaders, the Teutonic Order, was founded. Previously, he was in Palestine, but the Polish king invited the Teutons to the Baltic states, hoping for their help in the fight against the pagan Prussians. The Teutons soon began to seize Polish possessions. As for the Prussians, they were exterminated.

But the defeat in 1234 from the father of Alexander Nevsky Yaroslav, and in 1236 from the Lithuanians led to the reform of the Order of the Sword. In 1237 it became a branch of the Teutonic Order, and it became known as Livonian.

The Batu invasion gave rise to the hope among the crusaders that expansion could be expanded to the northern lands of the Orthodox, who in the West had long been considered heretics after the split of the churches in 1054. Lord Veliky Novgorod was especially attractive. But not only the crusaders were seduced by the Novgorod land. She was also interested in the Swedes.

Mr. Veliky Novgorod and Sweden fought more than once when their interests in the Baltics clashed. In the late 1230s, news was received in Novgorod that the son-in-law of the Swedish king, Jarl (the title of the Swedish nobility), Birger, was preparing a raid on Novgorod possessions. Alexander, the 19-year-old son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, was then the prince in Novgorod. He ordered the Izhorian elder Pelgusius to watch the coast and report the invasion of the Swedes. As a result, when the Scandinavian boats entered the Neva and stopped at the place where the Izhora River flows into it, Prince Novgorodsky was notified in time. July 15, 1240 Alexander arrived at the Neva and, with the forces of a small Novgorod detachment and his squad, unexpectedly attacked the enemy.

Against the backdrop of the devastation of northeastern Rus' by the Mongol Khan Batu, this battle opened a circle that was difficult for contemporaries: Alexander brought victory to Rus' and, along with it, hope, faith in one's own strength! This victory brought him the honorary title of Nevsky.

Confidence that the Russians are capable of winning victories helped to survive in the difficult days of 1240, when a more dangerous enemy, the Livonian Order, invaded Novgorod. The ancient Izborsk fell. The Pskov traitors opened the gates to the enemy. The crusaders scattered over the Novgorod land and plundered in the vicinity of Novgorod. Not far from Novgorod, the crusaders built a fortified outpost, carried out raids near Luga and the Saber Pogost, which was located 40 versts from Novgorod.

Alexander was not in Novgorod. He quarreled with independent Novgorodians and left for Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Under the pressure of circumstances, the Novgorodians began to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav for help. The Novgorodians wanted to see Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Suzdal regiments. Grand Duke Yaroslav sent another son, Andrei, with a cavalry detachment, but the Novgorodians stood their ground. In the end, Alexander arrived, brought his Pereyaslav squad and the Vladimir-Suzdal militia, which consisted mainly of peasants. Gathered regiments and Novgorodians.

In 1241, the Russians launched an offensive, recapturing Koporye from the crusaders. The fortress erected by the knights in Koporye was destroyed. In the winter of 1242, Alexander Nevsky unexpectedly appeared near Pskov and liberated the city.

Russian troops entered the Order, but soon their vanguard was defeated by the knights. Alexander led the regiments to the eastern shore of Lake Peipus and decided to give battle.

April 5, 1242 of the year there was a great battle on the melted ice. The Russians stood in the traditional "eagle": in the center a regiment consisting of Vladimir-Suzdal militia, on the sides - regiments of the right and left hands - heavily armed Novgorod infantry and princely cavalry squads. The peculiarity was that a significant mass of troops was located precisely on the flanks, usually the center was the strongest. Behind the militia was a steep bank covered with boulders. On the ice in front of the shore they put the sleigh of the convoy, fastened with chains. This made the coast completely impassable for knightly horses and was supposed to keep the cowardly in the Russian camp from fleeing. At the islet of Voronii Kamen, an equestrian squad stood in ambush.

The knights moved on the Russians "boar head". It was a special system, more than once bringing success to the crusaders. In the center of the "boar's head" walked, closing ranks, foot soldiers-bollards. On the sides of them and behind them in 2-3 rows rode riders clad in armor, their horses also had shells. Ahead, tapering to a point, moved the ranks of the most experienced knights. "Boar's head", nicknamed by the Russians "pig", rammed the enemy, broke through the defense. Knights with spears, battle axes, swords destroyed the enemy. When he was defeated, infantry bollards were released, finishing off the wounded and fleeing.

The chronicle story about the battle on the ice reports "the speed of the cutting of evil, and the crackling from the spears, and the breaking, and the sound from the sword cut."

The knights crushed the Russian center and spun on the spot, breaking their own formation. They had nowhere to move. From the flanks, the “regiments of the right and left hands” pressed on the knights. As if they were squeezing the “pig” with ticks. There were many casualties on both sides of the fighting. The ice turned red with blood. The enemy suffered mainly infantry. It was difficult to kill a knight. But if he was pulled off his horse, he became defenseless - the weight of the armor did not allow him to stand up and move.

Suddenly the April ice cracked. The knights mingled. Those who fell into the water went like a stone to the bottom. The troops of Alexander Nevsky struck with redoubled energy. The crusaders ran. Russian horsemen pursued them for several kilometers.

The ice slash was won. The Crusaders' plan to establish themselves in Northern Rus' failed.

In 1243, ambassadors of the Order arrived in Novgorod. Peace was signed. The crusaders recognized the borders of the Lord Veliky Novgorod as inviolable, promised to regularly pay tribute to St. George. The conditions for the ransom of several dozen knights who were captured were agreed. Alexander led these noble captives from Pskov to Novgorod near their horses, bare-shod, bare-headed, with a rope around their necks. It was impossible to think of a greater insult to knightly honor.

In the future, between Novgorod, Pskov and the Livonian Order there were more than once military skirmishes, but the border of the possessions of both sides remained stable. For the possession of Yuryev, the Order continued to pay tribute to Novgorod, and from the end of the 15th century - to the Moscow united Russian state.

In political and moral terms, the victory over the Swedes and the knights of the Livonian Order was very important: the scale of the Western European onslaught on the northwestern borders of Rus' decreased. The victories of Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes and the Crusaders interrupted the series of defeats of the Russian troops.

For Orthodox Church especially important was the prevention of Catholic influence in the Russian lands. It is worth remembering that the crusade of 1204 ended with the capture by the crusaders of Constantinople, the capital of the Orthodox empire, which considered itself the Second Rome. For more than half a century, the Latin Empire existed on Byzantine territory. The Orthodox Greeks "huddled" in Nicaea, from where they tried to win back their possessions from the Western crusaders. The Tatars, on the contrary, were allies of the Orthodox Greeks in their struggle against the Islamic and Turkish onslaught on the eastern Byzantine borders. According to the practice that has developed since the tenth century, most of the highest hierarchs of the Russian church were by origin Greeks or southern Slavs who came to Rus' from Byzantium. The head of the Russian church - the metropolitan - was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Naturally, the interests of the universal Orthodox Church were above all for the leadership of the Russian Church. The Catholics seemed much more dangerous than the Tatars. It is no coincidence that before Sergius of Radonezh (second half of the 14th century), not a single prominent church hierarch blessed the fight against the Tatars and did not call for it. The invasion of Batu and the Tatar rati were interpreted by the clergy as the "scourge of God", the punishment of the Orthodox for their sins.

It was church tradition that created around the name of Alexander Nevsky, canonized after death, the halo of an ideal prince, warrior, "sufferer" (fighter) for the Russian land. So he entered the popular mentality. In this case, Prince Alexander is in many ways a "brother" of Richard the Lionheart. The legendary "twins" of both monarchs obscured their real historical images. In both cases, the "legend" is far removed from the original prototype.

Meanwhile, in serious science, disputes about the role of Alexander Nevsky in Russian history do not subside. The position of Alexander in relation to the Golden Horde, his participation in the organization of the Nevryuev rati of 1252 and the spread of the Horde yoke to Novgorod, the cruel reprisals characteristic of Alexander in the fight against his opponents, even for that time, cause conflicting judgments regarding the results of the activities of this undoubtedly bright hero of Russian history .

For Eurasians and L.N. Gumilyov Alexander is a far-sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde, turning his back on the West.

For other historians (for example, I.N. Danilevsky), the role of Alexander in national history rather negative. This role is the actual conductor of the Horde dependence.

Some historians, including S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky, does not at all consider the Horde yoke "a union useful for Rus'", but notes that Rus' did not have the strength to fight. Supporters of continuing the fight against the Horde - Daniil Galitsky and Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat. Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, was aware of the realities and was forced, as a politician, to seek a compromise with the Horde in the name of the survival of the Russian land.