Abstract: Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units
All phraseological units of the Russian language can be divided by origin into 2 groups: phraseological units of Russian origin and borrowed ones.
The overwhelming majority of Russian phraseological units originated in the Russian language itself or were inherited by the Russian language from the language of their ancestors. These are - you can’t spill it with water - “very friendly”, what the mother gave birth to - “without clothes” and much more.
Each craft in Rus' left its mark in Russian phraseology. From carpenters, “clumsy work” originates, from furriers - “heaven in a sheepskin”. New professions gave new phraseological units. From the speech of the railroad workers, Russian phraseology took the expression "green street" and so on.
Phraseology reflects different sides the life of the people. The successes of our country in space contribute to the emergence of the phraseologism "go into orbit".
It is difficult to establish the time and place of occurrence of many phraseological units, therefore, there is only a proposal about where they originated and on what basis.
For example, "leavened patriotism" - false, ostentatious - arose in a letter from the famous Russian poet and critic L.A. Vyazemsky. Even more precisely, it is possible to establish the origin of phraseological units that arose in the work fiction with the same name. Phraseologism " Trishkin caftan» Arose from the fable of I.A. Krylov. Already as part of a fable, this expression has become a phraseological unit with a meaning: a matter when the elimination of some shortcomings entails new shortcomings.
Borrowed phraseological units are divided into borrowed from the Old Slavonic language and borrowed from Western European languages.
Old Slavonic phraseological units were fixed in the Russian language after the introduction of Christianity, they mostly originate from books, scriptures. Most often they are of a bookish nature. For example, “a parable in tongues”, “seek and you will promise”, “throwing pearls before swine” and others.
Phraseologisms borrowed from the Western European language include the oldest borrowings from Latin or Ancient Greek, for example, "terra incognito". More recent are borrowings from phraseology (“have a tooth”), German (“smash on the head”) English (“blue stocking”) languages.
Among borrowed phraseological units, “pure” ones are distinguished, i.e. without translation, and phraseological tracing papers.
Borrowed phraseological units, as well as those that arose in the Russian language, are also created either by individuals or by the people as a whole.
A significant number of phraseological units are borrowed from ancient Greek mythology such as "Pandora's Box", "Augean Stables" and more.
Thus, it is clear that phraseological units have long been used in the speech of people, writers, and therefore to create the imagery and emotionality of their speech.
SUMMARY OF A MULTILEVEL MODULAR LESSON (GRADE 6)
1. Module name: "Phraseologisms. Sources of phraseological units».
2. Integrating didactic goal: to form an idea of students about phraseological units and the sources of their appearance.
3. Target Action Plan for Students:
to give students an idea of phraseological units;
to acquaint students with the sources of the origin of phraseological units;
develop the ability to use a dictionary;
develop the ability to use phraseological units in speech;
educate interest in the Russian language.
4. Bank of information: a) input control.
Level A
What are synonyms, antonyms, homonyms? ( Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech that mean the same thing, but differ from each other in shades lexical meaning and use in speech. Antonyms- words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning. Homonyms are words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in lexical meaning.
Alternative question. What is a word? What is the lexical meaning of a word? ( The word is a significant unit of the language, which serves to name objects, signs, actions, quantities. The lexical meaning is what the word means).
Level B.
1. How do dialectisms differ from professionalisms and jargon? (Dialectisms, professionalisms and jargon - everything refers to non-common vocabulary, that is, their use is limited to a certain area of use. Dialectisms- words used only by residents of a particular area. Professionalisms - words related to the peculiarities of the work of people of a particular profession. jargon - words limited in their use by a certain social or age environment.
Alternative question: Level A task.
Level C.
How are archaisms different from historicisms? (Archaisms and historicisms are atold words words out of active use. Andstoryisms- words that have gone out of active use due to the disappearance of the objects and phenomena they call (for example, caftan, spindle).Archaisms- words that have gone out of active use due to the fact that they were replaced by words more accurate and convenient (for example, brow - forehead, mouth - lips)).
Alternative question: Level B reference.
b) explanation of new material (adapted for all levels).
Phraseology- a branch of the science of language, which studies stable phrases that are integral in their meaning.
Phraseologisms- this is a stable combination of words, equal in meaning to either one word or a whole sentence.
The meaning of phraseological units is explained both in explanatory dictionaries (they are indicated there by ◊), and in special phraseological dictionaries.
Phraseologisms are most often used in colloquial speech and in works of art. They give expression to speech.
Sources of phraseological units
By origin, some phraseological units are actually Russian, others are borrowed.
Actually Russian phraseological units are connected with the history of our Motherland, with the work of our ancestors, with their customs, for example: ask a trepak, like in Christ's bosom, one like a finger. Many originated from proverbs: dog eaten, shot sparrow; works of art: disservice, like a squirrel in a wheel.
Phraseologisms were also borrowed from the Old Slavic language: unbelieving Thomas, manna from heaven; from myths different peoples: Achilles heel, Augean stables.
Note. Theoretical information is also presented in the form of a slide presentation.
c) consolidation of previously studied material.
Level A
Exercise 1.
Target:
: pictures are given, select the appropriate phraseological unit for each of them. In case of difficulty, use the words for reference. Explain the meaning of phraseological units.
1
2 3
4
5
Reference words: lost lamb; do not spill water; like water off a duck's back; crocodile tears; wash bones.
Answer. 1 - like water off a duck's back (do not respond to comments and reproaches); 2 - do not spill water (about inseparable friends); 3 - wash bones (slander, gossip); 4 - a lost lamb (a person who has gone astray life path); 5 - crocodile tears (insincere regrets, feigned sympathy).
Task 2.
Target:
Methodological commentary for students : before you are phraseological units, replace each phraseological unit with one word (phrase). In case of difficulty, use the words for reference. Make up a sentence with one of the phraseological units.
To make mountains out of molehills.
Blood with milk.
As two drops of water.
Beat the buckets.
Seven spans in the forehead.
Nick down.
Chickens don't peck.
Reference words: remember, identical, exaggerate, very smart, very much, healthy, mess around.
Answer. 1. Exaggerate. 2. Healthy. 3. Identical. 4. Sit back. 5. Very smart. 6. Remember. 7. A lot.
Task 3.
Target:
Methodological commentary for students
| 1. Though a dime a dozen. | A. Like a bolt from the blue. |
| 2. Who is what much. | B. Where the eyes look. |
| 3. Like snow on the head. | V. Who is in the forest, who is for firewood. |
| 4. Neither fish nor meat. | G. Two steps away. |
| 5. At your fingertips. | D. Chickens do not peck. |
| 6. Where the legs are. | E. Neither. |
Answer. 1D, 2B, 3A, 4E, 5G, 6B.
Task 4.
Target:
Methodological commentary for students
| 1. At your fingertips. | A. Grosh price. |
| 2. Worth its weight in gold. | B. Like a cat with a dog. |
| 3. A teaspoon per hour. | B. Milk on the lips is not dry. |
| 4. Sand is pouring. | D. Win. |
| 5. Soul to soul. | D. In the middle of nowhere. |
| 6. Fail. | E. Full steam ahead. |
Answer. 1D, 2A, 3E, 4B, 5B, 6D.
Task 5.
Target: develop the ability to determine the meaning of phraseological units; develop Creative skills students.
read the phraseological units, divide them into three groups according to their meaning: 1) “to mess around”; 2) "deceive"; 3) "fast". Compose one sentence from phraseological units from each column (3 sentences in total).
Headlong, sit back, in all shoulder blades, drive by the nose, rub glasses, beat the thumbs, at the top of your lungs, mislead, from all legs, sticking out your tongue.
| "Sit back" | "Deceive" | "Fast" |
Answer.
| "Sit back" | "Deceive" | "Fast" |
| Sit back, beat the buckets. | Lead by the nose, rub glasses, mislead. | Headlong, in all shoulder blades, in full spirit, with all legs, sticking out his tongue. |
Level B.
Exercise 1.
Target: improve the ability to select phraseological units.
Methodological commentary for students : pictures are given, complete phraseological units. Explain the meaning of phraseological units.
1
Language... 2 Easier…. 3 Dance under ...
5 Break ....
Answer. 1 - the tongue is tangled (about who speaks indistinctly); 2 - easier than a steamed turnip (very simple, a couple of trifles); 3 - dance to someone else's tune (unconditionally obey someone); 4 - knight's move (well-thought-out step, unexpected for the opponent); 5 - break spears (fight for something, argue with fervor about something).
Task 2.
Target: improve the skills of explaining phraseological units, develop the skill of making sentences, develop the skill of using phraseological units in speech.
Methodological commentary for students : before you are phraseological units, replace each phraseological unit with one word (phrase). Make up a sentence with one of the phraseological units.
1. Apple of the eye.
2. Chardening the heart.
3. Fool your head.
4. Skin and bones.
5. Beat the key.
6. Like a squirrel in a wheel.
Answer. 1. Most important. 2. Reluctantly, against their will to do something. 3. Distract from the main empty talk. 4. Very thin. 5. Actively, energetically express yourself. 6. Be in constant worries, troubles.
Task 3.
Target: improve the skill of choosing synonyms.
Methodological commentary for students : match phraseological units from the right and left columns. Choose a synonym for each phraseological unit.
| 1. With empty hands. | A. Infuriate. |
| 2. No blood in the face. | B. Tirelessly. |
| 3. Bring to white heat. | V. Not salty slurping. |
| 4. Roll up your sleeves. | G. Hang up your nose. |
| 5. Lose heart. | D. Breathing incense. |
| 6. Barely a soul in the body. | E. Like chalk. |
Answer. 1C, 2E, 3A, 4B, 5D, 6D.
Task 4.
Target: improve the skill of choosing antonyms.
Methodological commentary for students : match phraseological units from the right and left columns. Choose an antonym for each phraseological unit.
| 1. Goal like a falcon. | A. Falls out of hand. |
| 2. Versta Kolomna. | B. Mind chamber. |
| 3. Burns in the hands. | B. Chickens do not peck money. |
| 4. Without a king in my head. | G. One hundred years at lunchtime. |
| 5. Be born. | D. A little man with a fingernail. |
| 6. Week without a year. | E. Go to another world. |
Answer. 1C, 2D, 3A, 4B, 5E, 6D.
Task 5.
Target: develop the ability to find phraseological units in texts; develop students' creativity.
Methodological commentary for students: read the text. Find and write out 10 phraseological units from it. Make sentences with 2 of them.
Sasha, don't knock: it's already late, the neighbors are sleeping, - said my mother.
And Sasha knocks.
Stop knocking! Dad said.
And Sasha knocks.
Like peas on the wall, - says the grandmother. He even has a stake on his head, but he is all his own. I'll take the hammer!
Knocking. No sooner said than done! Grandmother took the hammer from Sasha and took it away.
Tomorrow. And now you can’t see a hammer like your own ears!
Sasha cried.
I'm fixing the car.
And grandma:
Everything has its time.
Why did you take away the hammer?
Him about Yeryoma, and he about Thomas. Yes, you fell off the moon. It is said in Russian, it’s already late, everyone is sleeping.
Not all: we do not sleep.
Well, enough water in a mortar to crush. March to bed.
Dad said: “What a lively speech our grandmother has - all sprinkled with proverbs. Whatever the word, then the proverb or saying. And the grandmother says: "You can't spoil the porridge with butter."
Answer. You can’t spoil porridge with butter; like peas against the wall; at least a stake on your head; no sooner said than done; not see how their ears; everything has its time; him about Yeryoma, and he about Thomas; how it fell from the moon; it is said in Russian; crush water in a mortar.
Level C.
Exercise 1.
Target: improve the ability to select phraseological units.
Methodological commentary for students : pictures are given, select the appropriate phraseological units for them. Explain the meaning of phraseological units. Make suggestions with them.
Answer. 1 - as for stone wall(under reliable protection); 2 - swallow the pill (silently, patiently bear the insult, insult); 3 - keep a stone in your bosom (hold evil against someone); 4 - sleeveless / rolled up sleeves (work somehow, without much diligence and diligence / work well, diligently); 5 - play cat and mouse (expose yourself to unnecessary risk, act imprudently).
Task 2.
Target: improve the skills of explaining phraseological units, develop the skill of making sentences, develop the skill of using phraseological units in speech.
Methodological commentary for students : before you are phraseological units, replace each phraseological unit with one word (phrase). Make up a sentence with two of the phraseological units.
finger o finger will not hit.
Take with bare hands.
To make mountains out of molehills.
Remove to clean water.
Throw words to the wind.
Wait by the sea for the weather.
Answer. 1. Do nothing. 2. Capture, take possession of something without special efforts. 3. Exaggerate. 4. Expose. 5. Talk thoughtlessly. 6. Do nothing, hope in vain for anything.
Task 3.
Target: improve the skill of choosing synonyms, develop the skill of using phraseological units in speech, develop the creative abilities of students.
Methodological commentary for students : select a phraseological unit-synonym for each phraseological unit. Make sentences with two idioms.
Achilles' heel.
In the middle of nowhere.
Once or twice about miscalculated.
What is the spirit.
Hide the ends in the water.
Didn't have time to look back.
Possible answer. 1. Sore spot. 2. Far away. 3. The cat cried. 4. Headlong, in all shoulder blades, only the heels sparkled. 5. Cover your tracks. 6. In an instant, did not have time to blink an eye.
Task 4.
Target: improve the skill of choosing antonyms, develop the skill of using phraseological units in speech, develop the creative abilities of students.
Methodological commentary for students : select an antonym phraseological unit for each phraseological unit. Make sentences with two idioms.
Give a hand.
Boil porridge.
A little light.
Perk.
Don't see it.
Live with your hump.
Possible answer. 1. For seven miles, for distant lands. 2. Disentangle porridge. 3. Looking at the night. 4. Hang your nose. 5. At least collect needles. 6. Sit back, sit on your neck.
Task 5.
Target: develop the ability to use phraseological units in speech; develop students' creativity.
Methodological commentary for students: read phrases. Make up a small connected text with them, title it.
Real jam; hang your ears; lose your head eat the dog one spirit; fool one's head; cry in three streams; have the pip; neither in a fairy tale to tell, nor to describe with a pen.
Possible answer .
Got hooked.
Once the son of a forester invited us to his place. For mushrooms, he says, we'll go, we'll hunt, we'll fish. We cook the ear - you will lick your fingers.
Of course, we were delighted, our ears hung out, we listen. My brother lost his head with happiness. How! We will spend the night in the forest, we will pitch a tent, we will make a fire, we will shoot from a gun. Then he did not give me peace: “Let's go, let's go! They say he is such a master at catching fish, he ate a dog in this case.
I don’t know what kind of dogs he ate, but we fell for the bait. He deceived us.
We agreed to come on Saturday evening. We walked five kilometers in one breath. But our friend was not at home. He left, they say, to his aunt. He invited us to fish, to hunt, we were confused. Here is a chatterbox, - the grandfather was indignant, - all the time he is fooling someone. My brother has tears in three streams. Of course, I'm also not at ease.
Nothing, kids, - grandfather reassured us, you will go with me.
And let's go. And they caught fish, and lit a fire, and there was an ear - neither in a fairy tale to say, nor to describe with a pen. Only grandfather did not give us a gun. Still small.
5. Output control.
Level A
a) set phrases;
.
Set a match.
| 1. Galloping through Europe. | A. Exactly. |
| 2. Tyap-blunder. | B. At random. |
| 3. Get your finger in the sky. | B. Hastily. |
| 4. Tutelka in a tutelka. | G. Not far. |
| 5. From a pure heart. | D. Carelessly. |
| 6. Not far off. | E. Sincerely. |
| A. M urashki run on the skin. |
|
| 2. Talk nonsense. | B.S goofy nose. |
| 3. Frost on the skin tears. | V. N eat nonsense. |
| 4. The cat cried. | D. Keep your mouth shut. |
| 5. Bite your tongue. | D. M hedgehog of two lights. |
| 1. No end. | A. Doesn't close his mouth. |
| 2. Won't hurt a fly. | B. One or two and miscalculated. |
| 3. You can't draw words. | B. Take the bull by the horns. |
| 4. Give a swing. | D. Don't put your finger in your mouth. |
| 5. Beat around the bush. | D. Get to the point. |
Answers. one - b. 2 – 1C, 2D, 3B, 4A, 5E, 6D. 3 – 1D, 2B, 3A, 4B, 5G. 4 – 1B, 2D, 3A, 4D, 5C. 5 – G.
Level B
1. Find the correct definition of phraseological units.
a) set phrases;
b) a stable combination of words, equal in meaning to either one word or a whole sentence;
c) stable sentences equal in meaning to either one word or a phrase;
d) combinations of words equal in meaning to the word .
2. Match.
| 1. Galloping through Europe. | A. Exactly. |
| 2. Tyap-blunder. | B. At random. |
| 3. Get your finger in the sky. | B. Hastily. |
| 4. Tutelka in a tutelka. | G. Not far. |
| 5. From a pure heart. | D. Carelessly. |
| 6. Not far off. | E. Sincerely. |
3. Find synonyms for phraseological units from the right column to the left.
| 1. Between the hammer and the anvil. | A. M urashki run on the skin. |
| 2. Talk nonsense. | B.S goofy nose. |
| 3. Frost on the skin tears. | V. N eat nonsense. |
| 4. The cat cried. | D. Keep your mouth shut. |
| 5. Bite your tongue. | D. M hedgehog of two lights. |
4. Find antonyms for phraseological units from the right column to the left.
| 1. No end. | A. Doesn't close his mouth. |
| 2. Won't hurt a fly. | B. One or two and miscalculated. |
| 3. You can't draw words. | B. Take the bull by the horns. |
| 4. Give a swing. | D. Don't put your finger in your mouth. |
| 5. Beat around the bush. | D. Get to the point. |
5. How are phraseological units indicated in the explanatory dictionary?
a) headlong
b) like snow on the head;
c) what is urine;
d) in full spirit;
e) cast bullets;
e) like a bullet.
Answers. one - b. 2 – 1C, 2D, 3B, 4A, 5E, 6D. 3 – 1D, 2B, 3A, 4B, 5G. 4 – 1B, 2D, 3A, 4D, 5C. 5 – G. 6 – a, c, d, e.
Level C.
1. Find the correct definition of phraseological units.
a) set phrases;
b) a stable combination of words, equal in meaning to either one word or a whole sentence;
c) stable sentences equal in meaning to either one word or a phrase;
d) combinations of words equal in meaning to the word .
2. Match.
| 1. Galloping through Europe. | A. Exactly. |
| 2. Tyap-blunder. | B. At random. |
| 3. Get your finger in the sky. | B. Hastily. |
| 4. Tutelka in a tutelka. | G. Not far. |
| 5. From a pure heart. | D. Carelessly. |
| 6. Not far off. | E. Sincerely. |
3. Find synonyms for phraseological units from the right column to the left.
| 1. Between the hammer and the anvil. | A. M urashki run on the skin. |
| 2. Talk nonsense. | B.S goofy nose. |
| 3. Frost on the skin tears. | V. N eat nonsense. |
| 4. The cat cried. | D. Keep your mouth shut. |
| 5. Bite your tongue. | D. M hedgehog of two lights. |
4. Find antonyms for phraseological units from the right column to the left.
| 1. No end. | A. Doesn't close his mouth. |
| 2. Won't hurt a fly. | B. One or two and miscalculated. |
| 3. You can't draw words. | B. Take the bull by the horns. |
| 4. Give a swing. | D. Don't put your finger in your mouth. |
| 5. Beat around the bush. | D. Get to the point. |
5. How are phraseological units indicated in the explanatory dictionary?
Write out phraseological units with the meaning "quickly".
a) headlong
b) like snow on the head;
c) what is urine;
d) in full spirit;
e) cast bullets;
e) like a bullet.
Count how many phraseological units are in this text?
My closest friend Shurik loved, it turns out, to count crows, beat the buckets and chase the idler.
At home, he did not lift a finger to help his grandmother. As soon as his parents returned from work, he was not ashamed that they didn’t tell him, but he didn’t care. I would have fallen through the ground long ago, and remorse would have tormented me. And he doesn't care. And so, it turns out, he was both when he was only two inches from the pot, and now, having waved from a Kolomna verst. Everything from him is like water off a duck's back, everything to him is peas against the wall.
No, mother, - my father concluded one day, - I no longer intend to throw words to the wind and sit idly by.
And he reached for the strap on the wall to give Shurik the first number...
Answers. one- b. 2 - 1B, 2D, 3B, 4A, 5E, 6G. 3 - 1D, 2B, 3A, 4B, 5G. 4 - 1B, 2G, 3A, 4D, 5V. 5 - G. 6 - a, b, d, f. 7 - in.
Evaluation of results.
Level A Correct 5 answers - "5"; 4 answers - "4"; 3-2 answers - "3".
Level B. Correct 6 answers - "5"; 5-4 answers - "4"; 3-2 answers - "3".
Level C. Correct 7 answers - "5"; 6-5 answers - "4"; 4-2 answers - "3".
The main part of phraseological units of the Russian language is of native Russian origin. Their source is professional speech (to sharpen laces, to beat bucks, without a hitch, to remove chips, to run aground, to play the first violin), some got into the literary language from jargon: rub glasses, a bit card. Go for broke - among gamblers and colloquial speech, some phraseological units came from dialects and are associated with the labor of the peasantry (to turn the shafts, from a bag into a matting, it is written on the water with a pitchfork). Many phraseological units have their source in liturgical books (the holy of holies, the fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, the voice of one crying in the wilderness, the promised land), many phraseological units came from ancient mythological literature (Augean stables, Achilles' heel, Damocles sword, Prometheus fire, tantalum torment ).
All phraseological units can be conditionally divided into three levels of cultural literacy.
Phraseologisms related to the first level are connected by origin with the Bible, with mythology, with the events of world history. For example: Babel, sink into oblivion, Achilles' heel, cross the Rubicon. They reflect historical events, truths that every person must know.
To the second level of national literacy, we will attribute such phraseological units as beat the buckets, put it on the back burner, here's your grandmother and St. George's day ... They reflect in more folk way of life, customs, relations. These phraseological units often contain archaisms (to beat the buckets) and colloquial expressions (across the father in hell).
Phraseologisms of the third level are difficult to name unequivocally, let's call them simply "winged expressions". These are such expressions as “no one is forgotten and nothing is forgotten” (author - Olga Berggolts), “honest pioneer” (a playful exclamation, assuring the veracity of the message), “brain drain (leaving institutions, leaving the country of talented specialists) and the like. . They came into speech from the statements of artists (cinema, literature), from the pages of newspapers and magazines, often there are expressions borrowed from other languages ... Sometimes borrowed phraseological units are used without translation: alma mater (Latin mother-nurse); tabula rasa (lat. clean board; something untouched, absolutely clean).
The largest stylistic layer of phraseology is colloquial phraseology, which is used mainly in oral communication, and in writing - in fiction. A week without a year, throughout Ivanovo, you can’t spill water, a white crow, like cheese in butter, like Christ’s in his bosom, like water off a goose, neither shaky, nor roll, seven spans in the forehead, it’s written in the family, through the sleeves, a hole from a bagel, etc. Their use in speech serves as a counteraction to clichés and clericalism.
Book phraseology forms another stylistic layer. It is used in bookstores. functional styles, mostly in writing.
As part of the book phraseology stands out:
- Scientific, which is a composite terms (center of gravity, thyroid gland, periodic system, matriculation, fulcrum);
- · journalistic (high-level meeting, people of good will, on the brink of war, through peaceful settlement, mission of friendship);
- official business (give evidence, put into operation, solvent demand, presumption of innocence, takes place).
There are fewer book phraseological units in Russian than colloquial ones. Phraseologisms that came into the language from socio-political, journalistic and fiction also have a book coloring: civic duty, to serve the fatherland, the spirit of the times, the cult of personality, on the other side of the barricades, administrative enthusiasm, bureaucratic apparatus, election campaign, reconciliation of political clocks.
The stylistic characteristic of phraseological means from the point of view of emotional and expressive deserves special attention. All phraseology is divided into two groups: neutral and expressively colored. There are few neutral phraseological units: punch a ticket, Railway, open meeting, agenda, New Year, each other and the like. They are part of the commonly used phraseology, which is not functionally fixed. In addition, special phraseological units (scientific, official business), which have a clear function, are also devoid of additional meanings. Punctuation marks, Adam's apple, viral flu, magnetic arrow, seniority, length of service, confrontation.
In stable combinations, in advance, that is, before the act of speech, not only the general grammatical model is given, but also the specific lexical composition of the entire combination. It is not created anew at the moment of speech, in relation to a given thought, but already exists and is retrieved from memory when a need arises for it. Stable combinations are sometimes called "linguistic clichés" (or "stamps"), they are inserted into our speech as a whole.
There are words that have a very narrow, selective compatibility with others.
words - up to a single compatibility. In these cases, the stability of the combination is created by the very fact of the single compatibility of one of the components.
More often. however, the reason for stability lies elsewhere - in more or less
a distinct semantic isolation of the phrase, in that or another shift
values. Stable combinations with a similar shift (it is clearly detected when
compared with the same words outside the scope of this combination) are called phraseological units,
and the science that studies them - phraseology 1 .
In some phraseological units - they are sometimes denoted by the term "phraseme" - the semantic transformation is noted in only one component. Yes, in the
combinations desk, dining table, edged weapon noun
used in its usual meaning: after all, written and dining tables- varieties of the table, and edged weapons - a kind of weapon. Similarly, in set the table, the word table saves
the usual meaning, and to cover means something different than to cover the table with a tablecloth.
In other phraseological units, the so-called idioms, there is a general shift
values affecting all components. Examples are expressions to sit down for
one table "start negotiations", cards on the table! The integral meaning of an idiom (as well as a phraseme, by the way) is irreducible to the sum of the meanings of its components. This irreducibility of an integral value to the sum of values
parts and is called idiomatic.
Sources of phraseological units Russian language are diverse.
The main part of phraseological units of the Russian language is of primordially Russian origin, their source is, for example, professional speech, jargon (rub glasses, a bit card, go for broke - among gamblers) and colloquial speech. Some phraseological units came from dialects and are associated with the labor of the peasantry (to turn the shafts, from a bag into a matting, it is written on the water with a pitchfork). Many phraseological units have liturgical books as their source (the holy of holies, the fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, the voice of one crying in the wilderness, the promised land). A lot of phraseological units came from ancient mythological literature (Augean stables, Achilles' heel, Prometheus fire).
Sometimes borrowed phraseological units are used without translation: alma mater (lat. mother-nurse); tabula rasa (lat. clean board; something untouched, absolutely clean).
The source of the original phraseology is turns from the works of writers: happy hours are not observed (A. Griboyedov); affairs of bygone days (A. Pushkin). Such set expressions from fiction and journalism are usually called popular expressions.
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Literary language, its role in the life of the people
The constitutive and distinctive functions of phonemes distribution of phonemes in the text restriction of the combination of phonemes on the syntagmatic axis .. parts of speech as a lexicon grammatical categories higher order .. practical transcription and transliteration their scope ..
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All topics in this section:
Literary language, its role in the life of the people
Literary language is a variant of the national language, understood as exemplary. It functions in writing (in a book, newspaper, official documents, etc.) and orally (in public
A phoneme is the shortest sound unit of a given language, capable of being in it the only external distinguisher between the exponents of morphemes and words. Functions performed by phonemes
Parts of speech as lexical and grammatical categories of higher order
Speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of the language, i.e., the allocation in the vocabulary of the language of certain groups or categories characterized by those il
Practical transcription and transliteration, their scope
In some cases, individual words and forms or entire texts may need to be written not using the letter accepted for a given language, but using some other, special or foreign language.
The alternation of sounds within the same morpheme. Alternation of living and historical sounds, ways to recognize them
In the language, there are also alternations of sounds, that is, their mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes. It is important to distinguish between the types of alternations, since some of them belong to the region
Elements of social differentiation of speech
In a society divided into antagonistic classes, and even more so into sharply isolated and closed estates, castes, etc., there are elements of even greater social differentiation in language, fuss
Types of scientific transcriptions (phonetic and phonemic), their purpose
Phonetic transcription is a special type of speech recording, which is used to fix the features of its sound in writing. The degree of detail in the transcription of speech depends on the
Shcherba's doctrine of the triple aspect of linguistic phenomena
Shcherba is a famous Russian Soviet linguist. He attached great importance to the study of live colloquial speech. Shcherba was one of the first to suggest that a living language exists mainly in the forms
Homonymy of words, types of lexical homonyms. Homonymy of morphemes
Homonymy of words - the identity of the sound of two or more different words. These different but similar sounding words are called homonyms. Typical example homonyms can serve in Russian words
Grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them (inflections, formative affixes, reduplication, suppletivism, internal inflection, auxiliary words)
The indication contained in a significant word to certain “general categories”, i.e. to certain grammatical categories, is called grammatical meaning ( given word or
The appearance of figurative meanings in words. Metaphor, metonymy, synekedoch as a special case of metonymy
In most cases, one word has several stable meanings that form semantic variants of this word. And potentially any or almost any word is capable of receiving new signs.
word-changing paradigm. Zero morphemes. Paradigm shift as a word-formation tool (conversion)
The set of formative formatives, with the help of which all word forms of a given word are formed, is called the formative (or inflectional) paradigm of this word.
The device of the speech apparatus and the functions of its parts
Each sound can be formed in the vocal cords due to their closing and opening, creating an obstacle to the flow of air from the lungs. In addition to the vocal cords, obstacles can create
The stem of the word, types of stems
The stem of a word (FOS) can be defined as a part of a word that necessarily contains a root (or roots) and is repeated without changing its morphemic composition in all grammatical forms of this word.
Alphabet. Letters and diacritics. Letter diacritics. Graphics and spelling. Spelling principle
Alphabet - a set of letters of a phonographic letter arranged in the order that has developed historically; this is that part of the "inventory" of the graphemes of phonemographic writing, which
Morphemes are word-forming and formative; morphemes that perform both of these functions at the same time
Segment morphemes - parts of words (parts of simple, synthetic word forms) - are divided into two large classes: 1) roots and 2) non-roots, or affixes. These classes are opposed to each other in the first place.
Morpheme. The procedure for dividing word forms into morphemes. Exponential and semantic variation of morphemes
A morpheme is the minimum two-sided unit of a language, i.e., such a unit in which 1) one or another content is assigned to a certain exponent and which 2) is indivisible into more
Neologisms. Ways of their appearance in the language (word formation, change in lexical meaning, borrowing)
The most important process is the emergence of neologisms, i.e. new lexical units and new meanings in connection with the emergence of something new in the life of a given language community. So, during the XX
Obsolescence of words or individual meanings of words. Historicisms and archaisms
The process opposite to the emergence of neologisms is the loss of lexical units and individual meanings of words from normal, everyday use. If dropout is called
Antonyms, their types
Varieties of lexical microsystems are also antonymic pairs. Antonymic pairs unite antons and we, i.e., words that are diametrically opposed
Syntagmatic (phrasal) stress
Performing communicative and excretory functions, intonation simultaneously serves the purposes of constructing, organizing an utterance, dividing the speech flow into utterances and further into syntagmas and implementations.
Local (territorial dialects), their differences
Sometimes, for historical reasons, in one ethnic group, not one language is used, but two (or more) in parallel, and the spheres of their use are usually delimited in one way or another.
Word stress. different ways of highlighting a stressed syllable in different languages. The place of word stress in a word form. Proclitics and enclitics
Stress is called such a phonetic selection of one of the syllables of a non-single word, which is carried out by a greater tension of the articulating organs, creating a b&oacut
Interaction of languages and dialects. Languages of interethnic communication
A dialect is a type of language used by the inhabitants of the same territory in which the given language is spoken. The set of dialects makes up a single whole of the language
Phonemic and non-phonemic sound differences. Differential (distinctive) signs of phonemes
Different phonemes must be heard by native speakers, i.e. should be realized with different sounds. Realizations of the same phoneme are very different in articulation and in sound. These ra
Syllable. Elements of its structure, types of syllables. Different types of syllables in different languages
A syllable is the minimum phonetic unit of division of a speech flow, which includes, as a rule, one vowel with consonants adjacent to it. There are languages in which
Types of syllables
Depending on what sound, vowel or consonant, the syllable ends with, syllables are open, closed and conditionally closed. Open syllables end in a vowel z
Types of philological dictionaries
Dictionary gives an interpretation of the meanings of words (and stable combinations) of any language by means of the same language. The interpretation is given by the logical definition of the concept.
The main ways of connecting words as part of a phrase and sentence
Syntactic link we call any formally expressed semantic connection between lexical units (words, stable phrases) that are connected with each other in
There is a position of N. M. Shansky, expressed in a number of his works: “ Phraseologism, phraseological unit, - the general name of semantically non-free combinations of words that are not produced in speech (as syntactic structures similar to them in form - phrases or sentences), but are reproduced in it in a socially assigned stable ratio of semantic content and a certain lexical and grammatical composition. Semantic shifts in the meanings of lexical components, stability and reproducibility are interconnected universal and distinctive features of a phraseological unit.
Phraseologism has a number of essential signs: stability, reproducibility, integrity of meaning, dismemberment of its composition (separate structure).
Reproducibility is the regular repetition of language units of varying degrees of complexity. Proverbs and sayings are reproduced: The day is boring until the evening, if there is nothing to do, popular expressions: Happy hours are not observed (A.S. Griboyedov); compound terms and names: polar bear, sulfuric acid; actually phraseological units: to take in tow.
Sustainability is a measure, a degree of semantic unity and indecomposability of components. Stability serves as a form of manifestation of idiomaticity. So, phraseological units with a holistic unmotivated meaning like hell in the middle of nowhere (very far) are characterized by greater stability than phraseological units with a holistic motivated meaning like there is nowhere to spit (so many someone that there is no free space at all).
Whole value- this is such a general (single) meaning of a phraseological unit that is difficult or impossible to derive from the meaning of the forming parts. The integrity of the meaning of a phraseological unit is achieved by a complete or partial rethinking of the components, as a result of which they, as a rule, diverge in meaning from the corresponding words of free use. Therefore, the phraseological unit is explained by means of such verbal material, which the interpreted phraseological phrase does not possess. It is impossible, for example, to interpret the phraseologism to sniff gunpowder (to fight, to participate in battle) or to go too far (to go to extremes) by means of the individual words “sniff”, “gunpowder”, “go too far”, “stick”.
An important feature of phraseologism is its dissected structure, "super verbosity". So, the phraseological unit to rub glasses and the free phrase to read a newspaper are built according to the same model “ch. + n. in wine etc., are separate units and do not differ in their external features.
The listed features are complex and mandatory: all of them together determine the phraseological unit. If at least one of these features is not found, then the unit cannot be attributed to phraseology (for example, compound terms specific gravity, soft sign, the word crazy, repetitions of crying-killing, strictly-only). In addition to essential, basic features, phraseological units are characterized by expressive coloring, secondary spelling, etc. In the language system, phraseological units interact with words and phrases, but there is a significant difference between them.
Unlike a word, a phraseological unit has a separate structure. The meaning of a phraseological unit is created by the semantic interaction of all components, while the lexical meaning is generated by the semantic interaction of morphemes.
V. V. Vinogradov identified three main types of phraseological units: phraseological unions (idioms), phraseological units and phraseological combinations. N. M. Shansky also identifies an additional type - phraseological expressions.
Phraseological fusion, or idiom(from the Greek ἴδιος - own, characteristic) - this is a semantically indivisible turnover, the meaning of which is not at all deducible from the meanings of its constituent components. For example, sodom and gomorrah- "turmoil, noise."
Phraseological unity- it sustainable turnover, in which, nevertheless, the signs of the semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved. Phraseological unity is characterized by figurativeness; each word of such a phrase has its own meaning, but in the aggregate they acquire a figurative meaning. Usually phraseological units of this type are tropes with a metaphorical meaning (for example, science granite, go with the flow, cast a line).
Like idioms, phraseological units are semantically indivisible, their grammatical forms and syntactic structure are strictly defined. Replacing a word as part of a phraseological unity, including the substitution of a synonym, leads to the destruction of the metaphor (for example, granite science basalt science) or changing the expressive meaning: fall for the bait and get caught in the net are phraseological synonyms, but express different shades of expression.
However, unlike idioms, unities are motivated by realities modern language and can allow in speech the insertion of other words between their parts: for example, bring (oneself, him, someone) to a white heat, pour water on the mill (something or someone) and pour water (one's own, someone else's, etc.) on the mill. Examples: reach a dead end, beat with a key, go with the flow, keep a stone in your bosom, lead by the nose.
Phraseological combination (collocation)- this is a stable turnover, which includes words both with a free meaning, and with phraseologically related, non-free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turns, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of their individual words.
Unlike phraseological fusions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn down is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.
Phraseological expressions- phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.
Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in the phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then this is a saying or catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. Speech cliches also fall into the category of phraseological expressions - stable formulas like all the best, see you soon etc.
Many linguists do not classify phraseological expressions as phraseological units, since they lack the main features of phraseological units.
Sources of Russian phraseology. The main part of the phraseological resources of the Russian language consists of phraseological units of native Russian origin. Among colloquial phraseological units there are a significant number of those, the source of which is professional speech, for example: sharpen the laces, without a hitch and without a hitch(from the professional speech of carpenters), step off the stage, play first fiddle(from the speech of actors, musicians), goof(associated with the manufacture of ropes, ropes; prosak - a machine for twisting ropes, ropes).
Single phraseological units got into the literary language from jargon, for example, turnover rub glasses- cheating expression (sharpers used special powder cards to literally rub points, i.e. add or remove points during a card game).
In the sphere of everyday and colloquial speech, turns have constantly arisen and arise, in which various historical events and customs of the Russian people are socially evaluated. For example, phraseology put (or postpone) indefinitely associated with the name of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (XVII century), on whose orders a box for petitions was installed in front of the palace in Kolomenskoye, but such an innovation did not eliminate the red tape, and the people reflected this fact accordingly: put on hold means to delay consideration of the issue for an indefinite period. The customs of the Russian people are reflected in such phraseological units, what's up with the hat(by drawing lots to resolve controversial issues), ride on crows(draw black balls when voting), Nick down(the nose is a tablet, a tag on which notes were made for memory), etc.
In addition to phraseological units, the origin of which is connected with colloquial speech, there are a significant number of phraseological units of book origin, both Russian and borrowed. Among them there are very old ones, borrowed from liturgical books, for example: search and search, holy of holies, the fiend of hell, in the image and likeness and etc.
The phraseology of the Russian language is actively replenished with popular expressions of literary origin. For example, Damocles sword, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed- from ancient mythology; expression from a beautiful distance belongs to N.V. Gogol; affairs of bygone days– A.S. Pushkin; happy hours do not watch– A.S. Griboyedov; great initiative- IN AND. Lenin.
In addition to primordially Russian phraseological units, there are phraseological units of foreign origin. These are usually tracing papers from foreign phraseological units, for example: keep silence(from the Latin language), Railway(from French), struggle for existence(from English), straw widow(from the German language).
As part of the modern phraseology of the Russian language, there is a certain number of foreign phraseological units used without translation. For example, alma mater [alma mater], lat. "mother-nurse" - the higher educational institution where the speaker studied; tabula rasa [tabula times], lat. "blank slate" - something clean, untouched; a livre ouvert [a livre ouver], French. “according to an open book” - without preparation (about reading any text).
