There are dangerously few negative ions in the city air.
The phenomenon that made it possible to create batteries is the difference in the properties of metals, and in particular, different electrode potentials associated with the presence of a double electrolayer in the area where the metal and electrolyte come into contact. Some metals have a positive electrode potential, others negative.
APPEARANCE OF ELECTRODE POTENTIAL
Double electrolayer formed after zinc immersion.
When a zinc electrode is immersed in an electrolyte, zinc receives a negative potential. The crystal lattice of zinc is made up of atoms and ions in dynamic equilibrium. Water molecules act on the ions of the zinc surface layer, the ions pass into the electrolyte, and a positive charge is imparted to the electrolyte. Zinc now has an excess amount of electrons, providing a negative charge to the electrode. Positive ions in the electrolyte are attracted to zinc. An increased content of positive ions near the surface of zinc inhibits their release from zinc, but some of the positive ions from the electrolyte, being attracted by electrons, are introduced into it. crystal lattice. When the rates of ion exit from zinc and entry of ions from the electrolyte into zinc are equal, a dynamic balance is established between them. The number of ions leaving zinc is equal to the number of ions entering it. As a result of the established dynamic balance of ions, a stable double electrolayer arises, one half of which is located on zinc, and the other is an adjacent group of ions in the electrolyte.
The distribution of charges at the interface between zinc and electrolyte creates a potential jump.
The ionic layer is partially blurred in the electrolyte due to the thermal motion of the particles. In the area of contact between the metal and the electrolyte, a potential jump occurs, which is the electrode potential. The structure of the double layer and, as a result, the electrode potential are determined not only by the metal itself, but also by the saturation of electrolyte ions and temperature.
SERIES OF ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
Different metals part with ions in the electrolyte in different ways, some faster, others slower. To reflect the property of ionizing the electrolyte, a number of electrode potentials were created. In a series of metals are arranged from the most reactive to the most inert. The magnitude and sign of the electrode potential correspond to the position of the metal in the series. The lowest potential at the beginning of the row for the most active lithium metal is -3.04 V, and the highest for gold is +1.68 V. The metals from the left side of the row are more active and displace the chemical elements to the right from the salts. On contact with water chemical elements from the beginning of the series, including aluminum, hydrogen is displaced.
Li, Rb, K, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Sb, Bi, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au
A number of electrode potentials.
It is impossible to measure the electrode potential of one electrode placed in an electrolyte and establish the charge distribution experimentally in a double electrolayer. The study of the potentials of metals is carried out relative to a standard hydrogen electrode - a platinum plate placed in an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, so a number of potentials contain hydrogen. A stream of hydrogen is passed through the solution, washing the platinum. The electrode is saturated with hydrogen, as a result, the surface of the plate is covered with a layer of hydrogen. An equilibrium occurs between the surface layer of hydrogen on platinum and the solution, and a potential difference is formed, which is taken as zero. If zinc is investigated, then the movement of electrons will be directed towards platinum, therefore, the potential of zinc is less than the reference electrode.
POTENTIALS OF BATTERY POLES
Two electrodes are involved in the operation of the battery, each of them creates its own potential. The farther apart in the series of potentials are the metals from which the electrodes of the battery are made, the greater will be the potential difference between them.
Let's check it out in practice. To do this, you need a copper and aluminum part. As a copper electrode, I used a small piece of foil fiberglass used for the manufacture of printed circuit boards. As an aluminum electrode, you can use a radiator to cool the processor or other components of the PC system unit.
The simplest battery made of two metals and paper impregnated with saline.
It is not difficult to prepare the electrolyte, in our case it will be a weak solution of edible salt. Soak a small piece of paper with the solution. We put a piece of paper soaked in saline solution on one of the plates, on top of it is an aluminum part. With a voltmeter or tester set to a measurement limit of 2 volts, we check the voltage of our battery. To do this, we install the positive probe on copper, and the negative one on aluminum. The voltage generated by the battery will be about 0.65 volts. Let's check the current short circuit- it is about 1 mA. We replace copper with silver, the voltage increased to 0.8 volts, we replace it with gold - the voltage is 0.9 volts, which means that a number of electrode potentials work, in it gold is located to the right of copper. Take a pair of aluminum and iron, we get 0.11 volts. The voltage developed by our battery is lower than the difference in the electrode potentials of the metals used, indicated in the series. This is due to low battery power. The internal resistance of the voltmeter is enough to overload our power supply.
It is easy to see that the difference in electrode potentials is a relative value and the battery is characterized by the potentials of the electrodes only relative to each other, and not by the absolute value of one electrode potential. If the reference electrode potential is placed between sodium and magnesium, then the potential difference, which is of practical interest, will not be affected. As a rule, zinc or lithium is used for the negative electrode material in batteries, and the positive electrode is a pasty mixture of coal powder and various chemical compounds, such as MnO2, in which a graphite rod is inserted, which is a current collector. The reaction proceeds on the surface of the graphite current collector, but it does not take part in the reaction itself. Such a non-consumable electrode is called inert. It has a catalytic effect on the electrode reaction.
The electromotive force (EMF) of the battery is determined by the potential difference of the electrodes with an open external circuit.
The importance of the interaction of an organism with negatively charged particles is evidenced by the fact that back in the 18th century, in the essay "On the Electricity of a Healthy and Sick Man" (Paris, 1780), the French naturalist Abbé Pierre Bertolon argued that
"All diseases, without any exception, are extremely related to the electrical state of the air." He was the first to recommend being in an atmosphere saturated with negatively charged ions, believing that it has a healing effect. He used an electrostatic machine as a source for electrifying the air.
The main contribution to the development of methods for the therapeutic use of negative charges and their experimental substantiation was made by A.P. Sokolov, A.L. Chizhevsky, L.L. Vasiliev, A. A. Minkh, F. G. Portnov and other scientists.
Back in the 30s of the 20th century, L.L. Vasiliev, together with A.L. Chizhevsky, proposed the theory of "tissue electrical exchange", according to which in the lungs, along with gas and water exchange, there is also an exchange of electric charges between the alveolar air and blood. In this case, blood particles are charged, and then carried away through the bloodstream to the organs. There they give off their charge, thereby replenishing the natural electrical resources of various tissues of the body. Along with the above, there is also a reflex mechanism for the impact of negative charges on the body. It is based on irritation of receptors (nerve endings) located on the body. The resulting nerve impulses are then transmitted to the central nervous system, which, in turn, affects other organs and tissues. Both of these mechanisms do not operate in isolation, but in constant interconnection.
Studies have shown that light negative charges have the most beneficial effect on health. Presumably, the flow of electric charges interacts with biological membranes on which there is electric potential. In addition, the negative charges of the microspheres can interfere with the most different types biological oxidation occurring in the body.
Microbiologist and experimental pathologist at the University of California, Berkeley, Dr. Albert Krueger, back in the 1950s, conducted research in the field of microbiology and neuroscience and found that an excess of positive ions causes an overproduction of serotonin, a very active hormone that transmits impulses between human nerve cells. brain, controls appetite, sleep, mood and human emotions. The result of excessive release of serotonin with positive ionization is irritation, tension, exhaustion, deterioration in work cardiovascular systems s, hyperthyroidism, dizziness, headache, depression, anxiety and other troubles. On the other hand, Dr. Krueger has shown that the calming effect of negative ions is associated with a decrease in serotonin production in the midbrain. Dr. Albert Krueger discovered that even small concentrations of negative ions kill airborne bacteria that cause colds, flu, and other respiratory illnesses. Along with other researchers, Dr. Krueger has shown that negative ions stimulate those cells in the body that help us resist disease. One Philadelphia doctor demonstrated that his burn patients experienced much less pain - and recovered faster - when negative ion generators were placed in their rooms. In addition, the risk of blood poisoning has decreased.
But why is this happening? Why does a person feel worse under the influence of positive ions, and better under the influence of negative ions? There is an answer to this. Dr. Kruger and the Russian scientist D. A. Lapitsky proved that in the absence of negative ions, we cannot absorb the oxygen necessary for life.
Obviously, human- this is literally a "bioelectric" creation, the body of which successfully functions under a certain state of atmospheric electricity.
There are so-called "witch winds", in Austria and Switzerland they are called "Fen", mistral - in France, Khamsin - in Israel, Chinook - in the Rocky Mountains, Santa Ana - in California. It seems that there is something incomprehensible and sinister in these winds. Are they not retribution sent down on us by the environment that we have destroyed and betrayed - or a reminder of an angry Lord? Or is there some kind of witchcraft? Or maybe there is some simpler and more meaningful explanation?
All these mysterious winds have some very definite characteristics. They arise on the leeward slope mountain range. At first, the air is a cold mass. But, descending from the mountains, it warms up and eventually appears in the form of a dry hot wind. Santa Ana, the wind that blows across Southern California from Caidoge Pass, dries up the hills with lightning speed. Humidity decreases, and this fire-dangerous dry land really always ends in a fire. Smoke billows from the canyons; Sirens wail in the night. Fire spreads at hundreds of miles per hour! It was Santa Ana that caused the city of Malibu to burn down in 1956, and the city of Santa Barbara in 1964 and 1977. It seems that this wind always portends disaster. And when the wind and the flames get too close in some unimaginable rampage, it seems to many that Los Angeles itself is dying in flames.
But these winds are not only a threat of fire. They also affect people. In Switzerland, suicide rates rise during foehn. In some Swiss courts, this wind is considered as a mitigating circumstance in the commission of a crime. It is said that surgeons are especially vigilant about the influence of these winds, because during the hair dryer the blood coagulates worse.
Wherever these strange winds blow, doctors keep hearing about headaches, nausea, allergies, nervousness, and depression. The mood of a person is also very susceptible to the influence of these winds. North Africans say that when sirocco, that is, a hair dryer, blows from the Sahara, it almost drives people to suicide. Simply put, these winds cause unpleasant, painful sensations in people.
But why? What is it really - mystery, magic or sorcery?
According to scientists, constituent element all these winds are ions. An ion is a particle that, as a result of the addition or loss of an electron by atoms, becomes electrically charged. This process is observed in nature all the time. Ions accumulate positive and negative charges in themselves, depending on the prevailing environmental conditions.
The earth, as you know, is always negatively charged. Therefore, when the air is clean and moist - as in forests, on the banks of rivers, lakes and mountains - the positive ions that are formed when water particles collide are quickly absorbed by the soil. Due to this, the atmosphere remains negatively charged, which is ideal for the life of organisms.
Now you understand why health resorts are always located near waterfalls, on the seashore, in the forest or in the mountains, and why people prefer to spend their holidays in such places? Time spent on vacation has a beneficial effect on you, not only in direct proportion to the contemplation of beautiful views of nature or because you do not work, but also thanks to the air you breathe.
What happens when these dry, hot winds blow?
Studies have shown that positive ions are formed. They cannot be neutralized because there is no moisture for the earth to absorb. That is why such winds contain a high concentration of positive ions.
One Israeli physicist discovered that a high concentration of positive ions is present not only during the wind, but already ten to twelve hours before it occurs. Something similar happens before a thunderstorm. Have you ever noticed that before a thunderstorm you feel overwhelmed, but after it breaks out, you feel some relief? This is because a thundercloud picks up negative ions on its way, leaving the air positively charged. But when a thunderstorm begins and lightning cuts the sky, a significant number of negative ions appear in the air, thanks to which the atmosphere again becomes beneficial.
All studies of the last twenty years unanimously indicate that positive ions make people sick, and negative ones improve health. Significant concentrations of negative ions have mainly a creative effect. There is no sorcery in the dry hot winds. This is due only to the level and type of electrification of the air we breathe.
What conclusion can be drawn?
Let's think again about what is happening to us. In cars, airplanes, public buildings where we work, there is a huge, simply threatening concentration of positive ions. Overcrowded cities are downright exhausted by the high concentration of positive ions. Unfortunately, in our modern life we have created this environment, which effectively eliminates negative ions from the atmosphere. Buildings and vehicles are often supercharged with harmful positive ions, as plastic and metal fans, filters and air conditioning systems, fluorescent lighting, electrical and electronic equipment, television and computer screens, communications equipment, man-made fibers in carpets, clothing and upholstery are all reduce the level of negative ions and increase the number of positive ones. We have chained the earth with asphalt and concrete, so the pollution generated by cars or other toxic sources is trapped in concrete canyons.
In the middle of the twentieth century, discoveries were made in the field of creating unique material- microspheres with remarkable properties - to retain a negative electric charge, to accumulate and return infrared radiation, to be an unsurpassed heat insulator and at the same time be a very fluid dry material that can replace a liquid by tactile sensations, and also has bactericidal properties. These properties of microspheres - microscopic glass balls were successfully used in the aerospace complexes of the USA and the USSR in the manufacture of spacecraft skins and clothing for astronauts. Later, microspheres began to be used in burn centers as a mattress filler for patients with body burns. Microspheres are now used in the manufacture of heat-insulating materials, dyes, medicine, and orthopedics.
The microspheres are packed in covers made of a special medical fabric, which reliably protects them from leakage. The covers, in turn, are sewn into the fabric of the activator “To your health!”, which does not prevent the spread of the negative charge of the microspheres and pleasantly fits the body. Due to its negative charge, the “Keep healthy!” activator, touching the human body, affects it, and as a result of the transfer of a negative electric charge to the area of application, erythrocytes in the blood begin to restore the negative charge, normalization and improvement of blood supply follows, the destruction of erythrocyte groups and neoplasms , increases the efficiency in the transfer of oxygen and nutrients to each cell and, of course, normalizes cellular nutrition and metabolic processes of the body, improves lymph outflow. Centuries-old history scientific research physicists, mathematicians, doctors, biologists about the impact of negative electric charges on the human body, as well as the unique properties of microspheres have become a fertile foundation for the creation of the Activator "To your health!" - which since its inception has gained popularity and has become an unsurpassed means of self-rescue for many people.
The drug immediately enters the systemic circulation only when administered intravascularly. With all other routes of administration, this is preceded by a number of different processes. First of all, the drug must be released from dosage form- tablets, capsules, suppositories, etc.
D. The tablets are first destroyed, only after that the drug goes into solution. In capsules, the shell first dissolves, then the drug substance is released, which only then goes into solution. When administered as a suspension, the medicinal substance dissolves under the influence of body fluids (saliva, gastric juice, bile, etc.). The suppository base melts in the rectum, and then the medicine becomes capable of dissolution and absorption. The rate of absorption may decrease and the duration of action may increase if the drug is administered in the form of insoluble complexes, which then break down at the site of administration, forming a form that is soluble in water. An example is benzylpenicillin sodium salt, protamine-zinc-insulin.
Once the drug has passed into a soluble form suitable for absorption from the injection site, it still has to overcome a number of membranes before penetrating into the capillary bed and entering the systemic circulation. Depending on the site of absorption, penetration into the capillary bed is not always equivalent to entry into the systemic circulation.
The drug, administered orally or rectally, is absorbed by the capillaries of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), after which it enters the portal vein and liver through the mesenteric veins. If the drug is rapidly metabolized in the liver, then a certain part of it is converted into metabolites even before it enters the systemic circulation. This is even more true for drugs that are metabolized in the intestinal lumen, intestinal wall, or mesenteric veins. This phenomenon is called first pass metabolism or the first pass effect (EPE).
According to physiologists, greatest distance, which the cells in the tissues are separated from the capillaries, is about 0.125 mm. Since the cells of the human body have an average diameter of 0.01 mm, the drug molecule, after entering the systemic circulation, must overcome a biological barrier of approximately 10-12 cells before entering into a specific interaction with the receptor. In order to get into the brain, eye, breast milk and a number of other organs and tissues, the drug also needs to overcome special biological barriers, such as the blood-brain, blood-ophthalmic, placental, etc.
Thus, when a drug is administered extravascularly to the body, a number of chemical-pharmaceutical and biomedical factors can have a significant impact on its bioavailability. At the same time, physiological factors are important both in themselves and in interaction with pharmaceutical factors.
Let us consider the most significant medical and biological factors that can affect the bioavailability of drugs, and, consequently, their therapeutic efficacy and toxicity.
3.2.1. IMPACT OF THE ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION ON BIOAVAILABILITY
ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS Most drugs are administered orally, that is, through the mouth. This route of drug administration is the simplest and most convenient. At the same time, with this route of administration, the number of factors that can affect the bioavailability of drugs is the greatest.
Influence of enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract. Medications affect the body differently, depending on when they are taken: before meals, during or after meals, which is explained by a change in the pH of the gastrointestinal tract, the presence of various enzymes and active substances in it, secreted with bile to ensure the digestion process.
During the period of eating and after it, the acidic environment of the stomach reaches pH = 2.9 ... 3.0, and the small intestine - 8.0 ... 8.4, which has a significant effect on ionization, drug stability, and their rate of passage. through the digestive tract and absorption into the blood. Thus, acetylsalicylic acid at a pH of the secreting stomach from 1 to 3 is almost completely in a non-ionized form and, as a result (due to good solubility in lipids), is almost completely absorbed. Taking aspirin with food increases the amount of the drug
When converted to the salt form, its rate of absorption in the stomach is reduced to values approximately the same as the rate of absorption of aspirin in the small intestine, and overall bioavailability is reduced.
Many medicinal substances taken after meals can lose or significantly reduce their activity by interacting with digestive juices.
Under the influence of an acidic environment and stomach enzymes, erythromycin, benzylpenicillin, pancreatin, pituitrin, insulin and a number of other drugs are inactivated. Hexamethylenetetramine completely decomposes into ammonia and formaldehyde. Preparations of cardiac glycosides (lily of the valley, strophanthus, sea onion) are completely destroyed, and in the most persistent of them - digitalis preparations - activity under the action of gastrointestinal enzymes is significantly reduced. However, in the presence of proteolytic enzymes, tetracyclines and isoniazid are more rapidly absorbed. Gastric juice stimulates the absorption and acetylation (transition to an inactive form) of sulfa drugs.
A serious obstacle to the absorption of many medicinal substances is mucin, which is released after a meal and lines the mucous membrane of the mouth, stomach and intestines with a thin, highly viscous film. Streptomycin sulfate, atropine sulfate, belladonna preparations, scopolamine hydrobromide, platyfillin hydrotartrate, spasmolitin, aprofen, metacin form poorly absorbed complexes with mucin.
Bile increases the solubility of some fat-soluble substances (vitamins) and at the same time is able to form sparingly soluble and non-absorbable complexes with neomycin sulfate, polymyxin B sulfate. Bile acids can bind to sodium paraaminosalicylate, activated charcoal, white clay, and so on, and their deficiency leads to impaired absorption of other drugs (difenin, rifampicin, butadione, etc.).
So, most of the drugs taken orally - | These substances are significantly affected by enzymes and various highly active substances of the gastrointestinal tract released during and after ingestion, which can significantly affect their bioavailability.
Influence of food composition and temperature. The effectiveness of the action of medicinal substances is greatly influenced by the composition and temperature of the food.
Ordinary mixed food contains substances of plant, animal and mineral origin: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerin, tannins (in tea, persimmon), caffeine (in tea, coffee), serotonin (in nettles, peanuts, bananas). , pineapples), tyramine (in cheese, bananas, beans, herring, coffee, beer, wine, chicken liver), oxalates (in rhubarb, celery, sorrel, spinach), sterols, phytosterols, heavy metal ions and other chemically and pharmacologically active substances. In addition, various food additives are introduced into food: preservatives (sorbic, acetic, citric acid), antioxidants, emulsifiers, dyes, sweeteners that can actively interact with drugs and affect their bioavailability - in some cases increase the solubility and absorption of drugs, in others, forming insoluble or hardly soluble complexes (for example, with proteins, tannins , dipeptides) with constituent parts food, reduce their absorption.
Depending on the composition, food has a different effect on peristalsis and the secretory function of the digestive tract, which determines the degree and rate of drug absorption.
Protein food (eggs, cheese, milk, peas, beans) reduces the pharmacological effect of digitoxin, quinidine, cimetidine, caffeine, theophylline, tetracycline and penicillin, anticoagulants, cardiac glycosides and sulfonamides.
Fats (especially those containing higher fatty acids) reduce the secretion of gastric juice, slow down the peristalsis of the stomach, which leads to a delay in the digestive processes and transport of the food mass. Under the influence of food rich in fats, the absorption of many medicinal substances, especially fat-soluble ones, for example, antihelminthics, anticoagulants, sulfonamides, griseofulvin, anaprilin, diphenin, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K, carbamazepine, lithium preparations, seduxen, metronidazole, etc. E. Dietary fat deficiency slows down the metabolism of ethylmorphine hydrochloride. Preliminary intake of fatty foods reduces the activity of salol and besalol.
The presence of a large amount of carbohydrates in food (sugar, sweets, jam) slows down the motility of the stomach, delays the absorption of isoniazid, calcium chloride in the intestine. The influence of food carbohydrates can also be indirect - through an intermediate exchange.
Food slows down the absorption of phenoxymethylpenicillin, oxacillin sodium, ampicillin, rifampicin, lincomycin hydrochloride, acetylsalicylic acid, glibenclamide, isoniazid, etc. Medicinal substances containing sulfur, when interacting with heavy metal ions that are constantly in food, form insoluble compounds with low bioavailability. The absorption of medicinal substances from the alimentary canal is also delayed by low-molecular hydrolysis products of food substances: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, and sterols contained in food.
Food rich in vitamins and minerals has a pronounced effect on the metabolism of drugs. Food containing ascorbic acid stimulates the function of oxidases, accelerating the metabolism of medicinal substances, and sometimes reduces their toxicity; food containing folic acid accelerates the metabolism of pyridoxine hydrochloride, reduces the effectiveness of levodopa. In patients who eat foods rich in vitamin K (spinach, white cabbage), prothrombin time changes markedly, as does the metabolism of anticoagulants, barbiturates, nosepam, and phenacetin. In some cases, food increases the bioavailability of drugs, such as veroshpiron, dicoumarin, beta-blockers, etc.
The temperature of the food also has a certain effect. Very cold (below 7 °C), as well as excessively hot (above 70 °C) food and drinks cause digestive disorders. From cold food, the excretory function increases and the acidity of the contents of the stomach increases, followed by a decrease and weakening of the digestive capacity of gastric juice. The use of excessively hot food leads to atrophy of the gastric mucosa, which is accompanied by a sharp decrease in the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes. These changes in GI secretion in turn affect drug bioavailability.
Influence of the nature of the liquid used to drink drugs. A certain role in the bioavailability of medicinal substances is played by the nature of the liquid with which the medicine is washed down. Often, in order to mask the unpleasant taste and smell of medicinal substances, various fruit and berry or vegetable juices, tonic drinks, syrups, and milk are used. Most fruit and vegetable juices are acidic and can degrade acid-labile compounds such as ampicillin sodium, cycloserine, erythromycin (base), benzylpenicillin potassium salt. Juices can slow down the absorption of ibuprofen, furosemide, enhance the pharmacological effect of adebite, barbiturates, diacarb, nevigramone, nitrofurans, salicylates. Fruit juices and drinks contain tannins that precipitate digitoxin, sodium caffeine benzoate.
The Baikal and Pepsi-Cola tonic drinks contain iron ions, which form insoluble complexes with lincomycin hydrochloride, oleandomycin phosphate, tetracycline hydrochloride, sodium thiosulfate, and unithiol in the gastrointestinal tract, slowing down the absorption of the latter.
Tea and coffee widely used for these purposes contain, in addition to caffeine and theophylline, tannin and various tannins and can potentiate the pharmacological effect of paracetamol, acetylsalicylic acid, form sparingly soluble compounds with chlorpromazine, atropine sulfate, haloperidol, codeine, morphine hydrochloride and papaverine hydrochloride. Therefore, it is not recommended to drink them with the medications they take, with the exception of hypnotic barbiturates, which are washed down with 1/2 cup of warm, weak and unsweetened tea.
When drugs are sweetened with syrups or milk sugar, the absorption of isoniazid, ibuprofen, calcium chloride, tetracycline hydrochloride, furosemide is sharply slowed down.
Some drugs that have an irritating effect on the gastrointestinal mucosa are washed down with milk. Medicines are mixed with milk and dairy products to be taken by infants. Milk can change the drug substance and reduce the bioavailability of, for example, benzylpenicillin, cephalexin. Cup whole milk reduces the concentration of tetracycline hydrochloride, oxytetracycline and metacycline hydrochloride in the blood by 50-60%, having a slightly smaller effect on the absorption of doxycycline hydrochloride. It is not recommended to drink milk with drugs that have an acid-resistant coating (enteric coating), such as bisacodyl, pancreatin, pankurmen, due to the risk of premature dissolution of the protective shell. For the same reason, it is not advisable to drink these preparations with alkaline mineral waters(Borjomi, Luzhanskaya, Svalyava, Smirnovskaya). On the contrary, pancreatin, PASK, salicylates, citramon, phtazine, novocephalgin and sulfanilamide preparations should be taken with alkaline mineral waters. The latter are acetylated in the body, and acetyl compounds in a neutral and acidic environment do not dissolve and precipitate in the form of stones. In an alkaline environment, acetylated sulfonamides are in a dissolved state and are easily excreted from the body.
Taking medicines mixed with milk by children can lead to a violation of the accuracy of their dosing. Wash down with milk those medicines that irritate the surface of the gastrointestinal mucosa, do not change their activity at milk pH (6.4), do not bind to milk proteins and calcium (butadione, indomethacin, prednisolone, reserpine, trichopolum, potassium salts, nitrofurans, vibramycin, ethoxide, mefenamic acid, iodine preparations, etc.).
Some patients, when taking the medicine, do not drink it at all, which is not recommended, since capsules, tablets, dragees, sticking to separate parts the inner surface of the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract, are destroyed without reaching the site of absorption. In addition, they cause irritation at the site of adhesion, and the lack of a sufficient amount of liquid delays their absorption.
Influence of food products (diet). In the vast majority of cases, when prescribing drugs, it is also necessary to select an appropriate diet so that food components do not change the bioavailability of drugs and do not cause undesirable side effects.
Improper nutrition during the period of illness affects the entire course of treatment, can contribute to the disease of individual organs and cause relapses. For example, an excess of sodium chloride in food contributes to an increase in blood pressure, animal fats - the development of atherosclerosis, diseases of the digestive system.
An irrational diet can lead to inactivation of drugs, the formation of difficult-to-digest complexes, as, for example, in the case of a combination of calcium ions (cottage cheese, kefir, milk) with tetracyclines.
At the same time, by eating vegetables and fruits, you can regulate intestinal function, replenish the deficiency of macro- and microelements, phytoncides, essential oils and aromatic substances that affect the immune status, regulate the secretion of digestive glands, lactation, etc.
Deficiency in the body of potassium can be replenished by taking dried apricots, raisins, beets, apples, pumpkins, dried fruits.
Increase the effectiveness of antianemic medicines You can use foods high in iron (strawberries, apricots, apples, beets, pomegranates) in combination with ascorbic acid.
In the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract, the use of watermelons is recommended.
The use of low-calorie vegetables (cabbage, carrots, turnips, cucumbers, tomatoes, eggplants, zucchini, and so on) reduces the calorie content of the diet, prevents the absorption of cholesterol, enhances its excretion from the body, and promotes bowel movements.
Proper selection of therapeutic nutrition when prescribing drugs can significantly increase their bioavailability and, consequently, reduce their dosage, avoid unwanted side effects while maintaining proper effectiveness.
RECTAL PATH OF DRUG INTRODUCTION The rectal route of drug administration (through the rectum) ensures their rapid absorption (after 7-10 minutes). It is used for both local and general purposes. With the rectal route of administration of medicinal substances, a minimum therapeutic concentration is created in the blood after 5-15 minutes. This is due to the presence in the rectum of a dense network of blood and lymphatic vessels, good absorption of medicinal substances, soluble both in water and in fats, through the mucous membrane of the rectum. Substances absorbed in the lower part of the rectum through the lower hemorrhoidal veins enter the systemic circulation, bypassing the hepatic barrier. The fact that the drugs are not degraded by the liver enzyme system as a result of the “first pass effect” by the rectal route of administration significantly increases their bioavailability compared to oral administration.
With the rectal route of administration, bioavailability can be influenced by the individual characteristics of the blood supply to the rectum, the state of its mucosa (with age, with the systematic use of laxatives and a systematic lack of vegetable fiber in food, the functional state of the intestinal mucosa worsens).
The glands of the colonic mucosa secrete a liquid alkaline secret (pH sometimes exceeds 9). Changes in intestinal pH, as well as changes in stomach pH, significantly affect the degree of ionization and absorption of drugs.
The process of intestinal absorption is influenced by the autonomic nervous system (a 2 - and p-adrenergic agonists stimulate absorption, and cholinergic agonists stimulate secretion), the endocrine system, and biologically active peptides. The endocrine, autonomic nervous, and neuropeptide systems also regulate the motor activity of the large intestine, which, in turn, determines the duration of the presence of drugs in the intestine.
In addition, a number of diseases of the rectum (hemorrhoids, anorectal fissures, proctitis) impair the bioavailability of drugs administered rectally.
INHALATION ROAD OF ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS In the inhalation route of administration, the medicinal substance is rapidly absorbed through the bronchial mucosa into the systemic circulation, without undergoing primary metabolism in the liver. With this route of administration, the bioavailability of drugs can be affected by concomitant diseases of the bronchopulmonary system, smoking (as a factor contributing to the development of chronic bronchitis with a corresponding restructuring of the bronchial wall structure), as well as the state of blood circulation in the bronchopulmonary system.
3.2.2. INFLUENCE OF BODY AND ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the body and the environment has a significant impact on the course of physiological and biochemical processes in the body.
Under conditions of increasing air temperature and humidity, the transfer of heat from the body to the environment is difficult and can only be carried out when the mechanisms of physical thermoregulation are strained (dilation of peripheral vessels, increased sweating).
Difficulty in heat transfer leads to overheating of the body. An increase in body temperature is accompanied by a sharp excitation of the central nervous system, respiration and blood circulation, and an increase in metabolism. Excessive sweating leads to dehydration of the body, thickening of the blood, a decrease in the volume of circulating fluid, and electrolyte imbalance. All this, in turn, affects the processes of absorption, distribution and metabolism of drugs, their bioavailability.
Even greater changes in the functions of organs and systems develop with fever. The excitability of the respiratory center changes, which can cause a decrease in alveolar ventilation and partial tension of oxygen in the blood. The heart rate rises. Spasm of skin vessels at the beginning of the development of a febrile reaction increases the total peripheral vascular resistance to blood flow, which causes an increase in blood pressure. In the future, due to vasodilation, increased sweating and loss of fluid by the body in the second stage of fever, blood pressure drops, sometimes significantly. The occurrence of fever is also accompanied by significant changes in metabolism: the breakdown of muscle protein increases, gluconeogenesis increases, protein synthesis in the liver changes, the rate of biochemical processes in hepatocytes and cells of other organs.
With an increase in temperature, the absorption, metabolism and transport of medicinal substances proceed faster, and with a decrease they slow down. Local cooling of the tissues of the body leads to vasospasm, as a result, absorption slows down sharply, which should be remembered when the drug is administered locally.
The influence of the temperature factor on the pharmacokinetics of drugs must be taken into account in clinical practice in cases where drugs are prescribed to patients with severely impaired thermoregulation.
3.2.3. INFLUENCE OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD
AND METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
The magnetic field has a significant effect on the higher centers of nervous and humoral regulation, the biocurrents of the heart and brain, and the permeability of biological membranes. Men are more sensitive to the activity of the Earth's magnetic field than women. Patients with disorders of the nervous and cardiovascular systems are most sensitive to magnetic storms in the Earth's atmosphere. During the days of magnetic storms, they experience exacerbation of the disease, hypertensive crises, cardiac arrhythmias, angina pectoris attacks, reduced performance, etc. various routes of administration, both in the direction of its decrease and increase.
Meteorological factors (absolute air humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind direction and strength, average daily temperature, and others) affect the elasticity of blood vessels, viscosity, and blood clotting time. downgrade atmospheric pressure at 1.3-1.6 kPa (10-12 mmHg) can lead to vascular disorders, rainy weather causes depression. Thunderstorms and hurricanes have a particularly adverse effect on human health. A cubic centimeter of air usually contains between 200 and 1000 positive and negative ions. They affect the intensity of the heart, breathing, blood pressure and metabolism. A large concentration of positive ions causes depression, suffocation, dizziness, a decrease in general tone, fatigue and fainting in people. And the increased concentration of negative ions has a beneficial effect on the body: it helps to improve the mental state and mood. This is apparently due to the fact that they prevent the formation of serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with the sensation of pain). Thunderstorms increase the amount of negative ions in the atmosphere. The state of the central nervous system, the general tone of the body regulate the intensity of blood circulation in various organs and tissues and, to a certain extent, the intensity of the biotransformation of medicinal substances into metabolites. This is reflected in changes in the absolute and total bioavailability of drugs.
3.2.4. INFLUENCE OF AGE AND GENDER OF PERSON
A person's age also affects the bioavailability of drugs. Young patients are characterized by higher rates of absorption, excretion, the shortest time to reach the maximum concentration of drugs; for the old - a higher value of the half-life of drugs. When prescribing drugs to children, it must be remembered that in children under one and a half years of age, the bioavailability of drugs taken orally is only slightly different from that in adults. However, their absorption (both active and passive) is very slow. As a result, small concentrations are created in the blood plasma, often insufficient to achieve a therapeutic effect.
In children, the delicate, easily irritated rectal mucosa, resulting reflexes lead to rapid bowel emptying and a decrease in the bioavailability of rectally administered drugs.
With the inhalation route of administration, the respiratory mucosa is also easily irritated and reacts to it with an abundant secretion, which significantly complicates the absorption of drugs. At the same time, when applying the medicine to the skin of children, it should be borne in mind that it is much easier to absorb any substances through it than in adults.
Since ancient times, differences in the effect of drugs due to gender have been noticed. The residence time of the drug in the body of women is much longer than that of men, respectively, and the level of concentration of drugs in the blood of women is higher. It is believed that this is due to the relatively high content of "inert" adipose tissue in women, which plays the role of a depot.
3.2.5. IMPACT OF BIORHYTHMS
One of the most powerful factors affecting a person and the effectiveness of drug therapy is the action of biorhythms. Every cell in our body feels the time - the alternation of day and night. A person is characterized by an increase in the daytime and a decrease at night in physiological functions (heart rate, minute blood volume, blood pressure, body temperature, oxygen consumption, blood sugar, physical and mental performance).
Biological rhythms cover a wide range of periods: secular, annual, seasonal, monthly, weekly, daily. All of them are strictly coordinated. The circadian, or circadian, rhythm in humans is manifested primarily in the change in periods of sleep and wakefulness. There is also a biological rhythm of the body with a much lower frequency than the daily rhythm, which affects the reactivity of the body and affects the effect of drugs. Such, for example, is the hormonal rhythm (the female menstrual cycle). The circadian rhythms of liver enzyme systems involved in the metabolism of many medicinal substances, which in turn are associated with external rhythm regulators, have been established.
The biological rhythm of the body is based on the rhythm of metabolism. In humans, metabolic (mainly catabolic) processes that provide the biochemical basis for activity reach a minimum at night, while biochemical processes that ensure the accumulation of substrate and energy resources reach a maximum. The main factor determining the biological rhythm is the conditions of existence of the organism. Seasonal and especially daily rhythms act, as it were, as conductors of all oscillatory processes of the body, and therefore the attention of scientists is most of all focused on the study of these rhythms.
Accounting for physiological rhythms is a mandatory T condition for substantiating the optimal time for taking medications.
The experience of pharmacotherapy necessitated the use of medicinal substances at a certain time of the day, month, season, and so on, for example, taking hypnotics or sedatives in the evening or at night, tonic and stimulants - in the morning or afternoon, antiallergic drugs for the prevention of seasonal ( spring or summer) allergic diseases.
The rapid development of medicine and biology in the second half of the 20th century made it possible to establish, explain and predict the influence of time factors, or rather, the phase of the body's biorhythm during which the drug was used, on its effectiveness, the severity of side effects and to identify the mechanism of this influence.
Questions of the action of drugs on the body depending on the time of day, seasons of the year are studied by chronopharmacology, which establishes the principles and rules for the rational use of drugs, seeks schemes for their use for the treatment of desynchronosis. Chronopharmacology is closely related to chronotherapy and chronobiology. The tasks of chronotherapy in general terms can be formulated as the organization of a treatment process based on accounting
individual biorhythmological status and its correction using all the methods available to modern medicine.
When the biorhythms of the body do not agree with the time sensors, desynchronosis develops, which is a sign of physiological discomfort. It always occurs when moving from west to east or from east to west, in living conditions with unusual modes of work and rest (shift work), the exclusion of geophysical and social time sensors (polar day and night, space flights, deep-sea diving), exposure to stress factors (cold, heat, ionizing radiation, biologically active substances, mental and muscle tension, viruses, bacteria, food composition). Therefore, the rhythms of a healthy and sick person differ significantly.
During the day, there is an uneven sensitivity of the body to optimal and toxic doses of drugs. The experiment established a 10-fold difference in the lethality of rats from Elenium and other drugs of this group at 3 am compared to 8 am. Tranquilizers show maximum toxicity in the active phase of the day, coinciding with high motor activity. Their lowest toxicity was noted during normal sleep. The acute toxicity of epinephrine hydrochloride, ephedrine hydrochloride, mezaton and other adrenomimetics increases during the day and decreases significantly at night. And the acute toxicity of atropine sulfate, platyfillin hydrotartrate, metacin and other anticholinergics is much higher at night, in the inactive phase of the day. Greater sensitivity to sleeping pills and anesthetics is observed in the evening, and to anesthetics in dentistry - at 14-15 hours of the day (at this time it is recommended to remove teeth).
The intensity of absorption, transport and decay of various medicinal substances undergoes significant fluctuations during the day. For example, the half-life of prednisolone when administered to patients in the morning is about 3 times longer than when administered in the afternoon. The change in the activity and toxicity of the drug may be associated with the frequency of the enzyme systems of the liver and renal function.
A significant role in the daily changes in pharmacokinetics is played by the intensity of metabolic reactions and complex interactions of the endocrine glands. An important factor is the susceptibility of biosystems to exposure. In connection with the periodicity of absorption, transformation, excretion of drugs and sensitivity, the issue of synchronism of the time of the greatest activity of the drug and maximum sensitivity to it is relevant. If these maxima coincide, the effectiveness of the drug will increase significantly.
Since during the acrophase (the time of maximum function) of daily, seasonal or other rhythms, an increased efficiency or activity of systems, as well as the greatest sensitivity of cells and tissues to substances, is established, the administration of drugs before or at the beginning of the acrophase makes it possible to achieve a therapeutic effect with smaller doses and reduce their negative side effects.
3.2.6. INFLUENCE OF PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF THE ORGANISM
Essential in the reaction of the body to the drug is its initial state.
The influence of pathological conditions and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and liver on the processes of absorption and metabolism of drugs is discussed above.
Many pathological processes lead to disruption of the barrier function of biological membranes, changes in the permeability of biological barriers. First of all, these are pathological processes that promote free radical (peroxide) lipid oxidation, inflammatory processes leading to the activation of phospholipases and their hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids. Processes accompanied by a change in the electrolyte homeostasis of tissues, which causes mechanical (osmotic) stretching of the membranes, are also important. The general stress reaction of the body also leads to a mandatory change in the properties of all biological barriers, which cannot but affect the bioavailability of drugs and the effectiveness of drug therapy in patients of this category.
The presence of pathological processes also causes an altered reactivity of cells and tissues in relation to medicinal substances (often in combination with an effect on pharmacokinetics). For example, stress can increase the process of excitation and weaken the inhibition in the cerebral cortex. In diseases of the kidneys, there is a slowdown in excretion, in diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and liver, the processes of absorption and distribution of drugs are disrupted.
Individual sensitivity to medicinal substances can fluctuate within wide limits, for example, to butadione, by 6-7 times, to dicoumarin by 10-13 times. Differences in drug sensitivity are associated with unequal rates of their metabolism due to genetic factors, with individual characteristics receptor mechanism.
3.2.7. IMPACT OF ALCOHOL
Alcohol adversely affects the manifestation of the therapeutic effect of many drugs and is the cause of dangerous complications.
Ethanol affects the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of drugs in various ways. The following factors directly affect bioavailability:
> change in the permeability of histohematic barriers due to impaired fluidity of lipid membranes during their interaction with ethanol;
> changes in the structure and function of cell membranes, impaired penetration of drugs through biomembranes;
> changes in the structure and function of enzymes (Na + -K + - ATPase, Ca 2+ -ATPase, 5-nucleotidase, acetylcholinesterase, adenylate cyclase, enzymes of the mitochondrial electron transport chain);
> increased secretion of gastric mucus and reduced absorption of drugs in the stomach;
> switching the system of the microsomal non-specific enzymatic oxidase oxidizing system of the liver (MEOS - microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system) to ethanol oxidation, resulting in a decrease in the level of oxidation of other endogenous and exogenous ligands;
> induction of microsomal liver enzymes and, as a result, a change in the rate and level of biotransformation of medicinal substances.
With the simultaneous appointment of drugs and ethyl alcohol, their interaction can occur through several mechanisms at once, which is of great clinical importance.
The effect of the mutual effect of alcohol and drugs on the body depends on their concentration in the blood, the pharmacodynamic properties of drugs, the dose and time of administration. In small quantities (up to 5%), alcohol increases the secretion of gastric juice, and at a concentration of more than 30%, it clearly reduces its secretion and slows down digestion. The absorption of many medicinal substances increases as a result of their increased solubility under the influence of ethanol. Possessing lipophilic properties, alcohol facilitates the penetration of drugs through the phospholipid cell membranes, and in high concentrations, affecting the gastric mucosa, further increases the absorption of drugs. Being a vasodilator, ethanol accelerates the penetration of drugs into tissues. The inhibition of many enzymes, which occurs with the use of alcohol, enhances the effect of drugs and leads to severe intoxication when taking normal therapeutic doses. This applies to neuroleptics, analgesics, anti-inflammatory, hypnotics, diuretics, as well as antidepressants, insulin, nitroglycerin. The combination of taking the above groups of drugs and alcohol is accompanied by severe poisoning, often fatal. Death occurs as a result of a sharp inhibition of the vital centers of the brain - the respiratory and cardiovascular.
Alcohol potentiates the action of anticoagulants (acetylsalicylic acid, dicoumarin, neodicoumarin, syncumar, phenylin, etc.). It enhances their action so much that profuse bleeding and hemorrhage into the internal organs and brain can occur.
Alcohol has a multidirectional effect on the absorption and metabolism of hormonal drugs. In particular, the hypoglycemic effect of insulin and synthetic drugs for the treatment of diabetes is enhanced, as a result of which a diabetic coma may develop.
The use of alcohol and drugs that affect the function of the central nervous system is especially unacceptable: sedatives, hypnotics, anticonvulsants (bromides, chloral hydrate, diphenine and others), as well as tranquilizers (chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, oxazepam, meprobamate and others), antihistamines and etc. It is not recommended to use alcohol simultaneously with nitroglycerin, as this can lead to collapse. Antidiabetic sulfamides, chloramphenicol, griseofulvin, metronidazole give an antabuse effect (teturam-alcohol reaction), as ethanol metabolism in the body is disturbed.
Under the influence of alcohol, the effectiveness of vitamin therapy decreases. There is an inactivation and a decrease in the concentration of antibiotics in tissues. Alcohol enhances the toxicity of sulfonamides and anthelmintics, it is incompatible with anticonvulsants.
From the above examples it can be seen that the negative effect of alcohol during drug treatment is diverse and manifests itself in varying degrees. But in all cases, the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy is reduced or even lost.
3.2.8. IMPACT OF SMOKING
The effect of drugs can be affected by substances that enter the body when smoking. Nicotine as an N-cholinomimetic leads to the activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia, the adrenal medulla, and dysfunction of the central nervous system. Stimulation of the adrenal medulla leads to narrowing of the peripheral vessels, which disrupts the blood supply to many organs and tissues. Activation of the parasympathetic ganglia increases the secretion of acidic gastric juice, which plays a role in the absorption of drugs. Nicotine, benzpyrene and their derivatives change the activity of metabolic enzymes. Smoking stimulates the oxidative metabolism of phenacetin, propranolol, theophylline, noxiron, chlorpromazine, diazepam, as a result of which their effectiveness is reduced. When smoking, the therapeutic effect of dexamethasone, furosemide (Lasix), propoxyphene and oral contraceptives is reduced. Flavored cigarettes contain coumarins, which can enhance the effect of anticoagulants - coumarin derivatives.
In a number of cases, the effect of smoking on the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of drugs requires further study.
Thus, when prescribing drugs and assessing their therapeutic efficacy and toxicity, it is necessary to take into account the action of numerous factors of the external and internal environment.
Ions are an integral part of the atmosphere that surrounds us everywhere. There are negative and positive ions in the air, between which there is a certain balance. negative ions(anions) are atoms that carry a negative electrical charge. They are formed by incorporating one or more electrons into an atom, thereby completing its energy level. Positive ions (cations), on the contrary, are formed by the loss of one or more electrons.
Studies conducted at the beginning of this century showed that air dominated by cations (positively charged ions) adversely affects health.
If the air maintains a balance (relative balance) of positive and negative ions, then the human body functions properly.
Today, the air is dominated by positive ions due to pollutants, which can negatively affect health. Some people are especially sensitive to this imbalance. Cations especially affect the respiratory, nervous and hormonal systems.
The air saturated with negative ions is in the natural environment - sea, forest, air after a thunderstorm, near a waterfall, after rain. Thus, pure natural air contains more useful negative ions, in contrast to the air we breathe in rooms, offices, and polluted areas.
Albert Krueger (pathologist-bacteriologist) conducted research on plants, animals and came to the conclusion that negative ions control the level of serotonin in the body, calm and do not cause harmful effects.
Negative ions are very valuable for our life, health, because. they affect the body through the respiratory system. Negative ions are usually present where we feel good, relaxed, fun, easy... the body is saturated with oxygen, and the respiratory system is reliably protected from bacteria, dust, and harmful impurities.
Quality of inhaled oxygen
The cilia of the respiratory system trap dirt, dust from the air and other substances so that the air delivered to the lungs is much cleaner.
Electrochemical air - air with positive ions is difficult to digest, because. only negative oxygen has the ability to penetrate the membranes of the lungs and be absorbed by the blood.
Tiny positively charged particles of dust and smog form clusters to attract negatively charged ions. Their weight, however, becomes so great that they are unable to remain in a gaseous state and sink to the ground, i.e. are removed from the air. Negative ions thus contribute to the purification of the air we breathe.
Ionic air imbalance
The culprit of ionic imbalance is contamination chemicals. Ionic imbalance leads to the growth of various diseases: respiratory, allergies, mental problems. Experts say that virtually all the amenities of civilization produce harmful positive ions.
Positive ions have a negative impact on our health and they dominate, for example, in enclosed spaces, dirty streets, before a thunderstorm. Positive ions are present where it becomes difficult for us to breathe.
Automobiles, industrial smog, synthetic fibers, transmitters, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect, computer monitors, televisions, fluorescent lamps, copiers, laser printers etc. negatively affect the balance of ions in the air (cations increase).
Today, the correct balance of ions can only be found in a clean area in nature. Negative ions, which are dominated by, for example, sea air, have a beneficial effect on health (). Negative ions in another way can be called air vitamins. Their number increases in ecologically clean areas, for example, a waterfall, sea, forest. In these places it is easier to breathe, the body relaxes and rests. In principle, a person should breathe air with at least 800 negative ions per cm 3. In nature, the concentration of anions reaches values up to 50,000 cm 3. While cations predominate in urban areas.
However, these are the places where we spend most of our time. An excessive predominance of positively charged ions in indoor air contributes to headaches, nervousness, fatigue (), increased blood pressure, and in sensitive people they can cause allergies, depression.
Positive ions in human life
Positive ions are located where a person lives, i.e. in cities, enclosed spaces, next to a TV, computer, etc. A person's house is filled with various synthetic materials that pollute the air; modern technology, LCD monitors, printers, fluorescent lamps, telephones, televisions, as well as cigarette smoke, chemical detergents () are the worst enemies of air ionization.
Negative ions in human life
They predominate mainly from clean countryside, after a storm, in caves, on mountain tops, in forests, on the seashore, near waterfalls and other ecologically clean areas.
Areas with the highest concentration of negative ions are used as a climatic resort. Negative ions have a positive effect on the immune system, mental well-being, improve mood, calm, eliminate insomnia ().
Elevated concentrations of anions have a positive effect on the respiratory tract, help cleanse the lungs (). In addition, they increase the alkalinity of the blood, promote its purification, accelerate the healing of wounds, burns, accelerate the regenerative abilities of cells, improve metabolism, suppress free radicals, regulate the level of serotonin (the hormone of happiness) and neurotransmitters, thus contributing to an improvement in the quality of life.
A high concentration of negative ions has been found in salt caves, an alternative to which is used in sanatoriums for treatment chronic diseases respiratory organs.
In nature, the concentration of atmospheric ions depends on temperature, pressure and humidity, but also on the speed and direction of wind, rain and solar activity.
An environment containing a high concentration of negative oxygen ions has been shown to kill bacteria, and even lower concentrations retard their growth.
Thus, air with negative ions can be used to accelerate wound healing, treat skin diseases, burns, and also for the treatment of the upper respiratory tract.
The values of negative ions in the forest reaches 1000 - 2000 ions / cm3, the Moravian cave karst up to 40000 ions / cm3, while the urban environment contains 100-200 ions / cm3.
The optimal concentration for a person should be higher than 1,000 - 1,500 ions / cm3, for workaholics and people engaged in mental work, the optimal value should be increased to 2,000 - 2,500 ions / cm3.
How to increase the concentration of negative ions?
To increase the concentration of negative ions, today there are various products, for example, bracelets, watches that emit anions.
In addition, there are salt lamps that can significantly improve the air in homes. They are recommended to be placed next to a computer, TV, air conditioner. You can also purchase an Orgonite crystal or an air ionizer.
