Key areas of the body and emotions associated with them. Types of human emotions and feelings
A person is a complex organism, consisting of many organs united into a single network, the work of which is regulated precisely and impeccably. The main function of regulating the functioning of the body is performed by the central nervous system (CNS). This is a complex system, including several organs and peripheral nerve endings and receptors. The most important organ of this system is the brain - a complex computing center responsible for the proper functioning of the entire organism.
General information about the structure of the brain
They have been trying to study it for a long time, but for all this time scientists have not been able to accurately and unambiguously answer the question 100% of what it is and how this organ works. Many functions have been studied, for some there are only guesses.
Visually, it can be divided into three main parts: the cerebellum and the cerebral hemispheres. However, this division does not reflect the full versatility of the functioning of this organ. In more detail, these parts are divided into departments responsible for certain functions of the body.
Oblong section
The human central nervous system is an inextricable mechanism. A smooth transitional element from the spinal segment of the central nervous system is the medulla oblongata. Visually, it can be represented in the form of a truncated cone with the base at the top or a small onion head with thickenings diverging from it - connecting to the intermediate section.
There are three different functions of the department - sensory, reflex and conductive. Its tasks include controlling the basic protective (gag reflex, sneezing, coughing) and unconscious reflexes (heartbeat, breathing, blinking, salivation, secretion of gastric juice, swallowing, metabolism). In addition, the medulla oblongata is responsible for such senses as balance and coordination of movements.
Midbrain
The next department responsible for communication with the spinal cord is the middle one. But the main function of this department is to process nerve impulses and adjust the performance of the hearing aid and the human visual center. After processing the received information, this formation sends impulse signals to respond to stimuli: turning the head towards the sound, changing body position in case of danger. Additional functions include regulation of body temperature, muscle tone, and arousal.
The human midbrain is responsible for such an important ability of the body as sleep.
The middle section has a complex structure. There are 4 clusters of nerve cells - tubercles, two of which are responsible for visual perception, the other two for hearing. Nerve clusters are connected to each other and to other parts of the brain and spinal cord by the same nerve-conducting tissue, visually similar to legs. Overall size segment does not exceed 2 cm in an adult.
Diencephalon
The department is even more complex in structure and functions. Anatomically, the diencephalon is divided into several parts: Pituitary gland. This is a small appendage of the brain that is responsible for the secretion of necessary hormones and regulation of the body's endocrine system.
Conventionally divided into several parts, each of which performs its own function:
- The adenohypophysis is a regulator of peripheral endocrine glands.
- The neurohypophysis is connected to the hypothalamus and accumulates the hormones it produces.
Hypothalamus
A small area of the brain whose most important function is to control heart rate and blood pressure in blood vessels. Additionally, the hypothalamus is responsible for some of the emotional manifestations by producing the necessary hormones to suppress stressful situations. Another important function is the control of hunger, satiety and thirst. To top it off, the hypothalamus is the center of sexual activity and pleasure.
Epithalamus
The main task of this department is to regulate the daily biological rhythm. With the help of produced hormones, it influences the duration of sleep at night and normal wakefulness during the day. It is the epithalamus that adapts our body to the conditions of “daylight” and divides people into “night owls” and “larks”. Another task of the epithalamus is to regulate the body’s metabolism.
Thalamus
This formation is very important for a correct understanding of the world around us. It is the thalamus that is responsible for processing and interpreting impulses coming from peripheral receptors. This information processing center brings together data from the visual nerves, hearing aid, temperature receptors of the body, olfactory receptors and pain points.
Posterior
Like previous sections, the hindbrain includes subsections. The main part is the cerebellum, the second is the pons, which is a small cushion of nerve tissue that connects the cerebellum with other parts and the blood vessels that supply the brain.
Cerebellum
In its shape, the cerebellum resembles the cerebral hemispheres; it consists of two parts, connected by a “worm” - a complex of conducting nervous tissue. The main hemispheres consist of nerve cell nuclei, or “gray matter,” folded together to increase surface area and volume. This part is located in the occipital part of the skull and completely occupies its entire posterior fossa.
The main function of this department is the coordination of motor functions. However, the cerebellum does not initiate movements of the arms or legs - it only controls accuracy and clarity, the order of movements, motor skills and posture.
The second important task is the regulation of cognitive functions. These include: attention, understanding, awareness of language, regulation of the feeling of fear, sense of time, awareness of the nature of pleasure.
Large hemispheres of the brain
The bulk and volume of the brain is located in the terminal section or cerebral hemispheres. There are two hemispheres: the left - mostly responsible for analytical thinking and speech functions of the body, and the right - whose main task is abstract thinking and all processes associated with creativity and interaction with the outside world.
Structure of the telencephalon
The cerebral hemispheres are the main “processing unit” of the central nervous system. Despite their different “specializations,” these segments complement each other.
The cerebral hemispheres are a complex system of interaction between the nuclei of nerve cells and nerve-conducting tissues connecting the main areas of the brain. The upper surface, called the cortex, consists of a huge number of nerve cells. It is called gray matter. In the light of general evolutionary development, the cortex is the youngest and most developed formation of the central nervous system and has reached its highest development in humans. It is she who is responsible for the formation of higher neuropsychic functions and complex forms of human behavior. To increase the usable area, the surface of the hemispheres is assembled into folds or convolutions. The inner surface of the cerebral hemispheres consists of white matter - processes of nerve cells responsible for conducting nerve impulses and communicating with the rest of the segments of the central nervous system.
In turn, each of the hemispheres is conventionally divided into 4 parts or lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal.
Occipital lobes
The main function of this conditional part is the processing of neural signals coming from the visual centers. It is here that the usual concepts of color, volume and other three-dimensional properties of a visible object are formed from light stimuli.
Parietal lobes
This segment is responsible for the occurrence of pain and processing signals from the body's thermal receptors. This is where their common work ends.
The parietal lobe of the left hemisphere is responsible for structuring information packages, allowing you to operate with logical operators, count and read. Also, this area forms awareness of the holistic structure of the human body, determination of the right and left parts, coordination of individual movements into a single whole.
The right one is engaged in generalizing information flows that are generated by the occipital lobes and the left parietal lobe. In this area, a general three-dimensional picture of perception is formed environment, spatial position and orientation, calculation of perspective.
Temporal lobes
This segment can be compared to " hard drive» computer is a long-term storage of information. This is where all the memories and knowledge of a person collected over a lifetime are stored. The right temporal lobe is responsible for visual memory - image memory. Left - all concepts and descriptions of individual objects are stored here, interpretation and comparison of images, their names and characteristics takes place.
As for speech recognition, both temporal lobes are involved in this procedure. However, their functions are different. If the left lobe is called upon to recognize the semantic load of the words heard, then the right lobe interprets the intonation coloring and compares it with the speaker’s facial expressions. Another function of this part of the brain is the perception and decoding of neural impulses coming from the olfactory receptors of the nose.
Frontal lobes
This part is responsible for such properties of our consciousness as critical self-esteem, adequacy of behavior, awareness of the degree of meaninglessness of actions, and mood. General human behavior also depends on the proper functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain; violations lead to inappropriate and antisocial behavior. The process of learning, mastering skills, and acquiring conditioned reflexes depends on the proper functioning of this part of the brain. This also applies to the degree of activity and curiosity of a person, his initiative and awareness of decisions.
To systematize the functions of the GM, they are presented in the table:
| Brain department | Functions |
|---|---|
| Medulla | Control of basic protective reflexes. Control of unconscious reflexes. Control of balance and coordination of movements. |
| Midbrain | Processing of nerve impulses, visual and auditory centers, response to them. Regulation of body temperature, muscle tone, arousal, sleep. |
| Diencephalon Hypothalamus Epithalamus |
Secretion of hormones and regulation of the body's endocrine system. Awareness of the surrounding world, processing and interpretation of impulses coming from peripheral receptors. Processing information from peripheral receptors Monitoring heart rate and blood pressure. Hormone production. Monitoring the state of hunger, thirst, satiety. Regulation of the daily biological rhythm, regulation of the body's metabolism. |
| hindbrain Cerebellum |
Coordination of motor functions. Regulation of cognitive functions: attention, understanding, awareness of language, regulation of the feeling of fear, sense of time, awareness of the nature of pleasure. |
| Large hemispheres of the brain Occipital lobes Parietal lobes Temporal lobes Frontal lobes. |
Processing of neural signals coming from the eyes. Interpretation of pain and heat sensations, responsibility for the ability to read and write, logical and analytical thinking ability. Long-term storage of information. Interpretation and comparison of information, recognition of speech and facial expressions, decoding of neural impulses coming from olfactory receptors. Critical self-esteem, adequacy of behavior, mood. The process of learning, mastering skills, acquiring conditioned reflexes. |
Interaction of brain parts
In addition to the fact that each part of the brain has its own tasks, the holistic structure determines consciousness, character, temperament and other psychological characteristics of behavior. The formation of certain types is determined by varying degrees of influence and activity of one or another segment of the brain.
The first psychotype or choleric. The formation of this type of temperament occurs under the dominant influence of the frontal lobes of the cortex and one of the subsections of the diencephalon - the hypothalamus. The first generates determination and desire, the second section reinforces these emotions with the necessary hormones.
The characteristic interaction of the departments that determines the second type of temperament - sanguine - is the joint work of the hypothalamus and hippocampus (the lower part of the temporal lobes). The main function of the hippocampus is to maintain short-term memory and convert acquired knowledge into long-term memory. The result of such interaction is an open, inquisitive and interested type of human behavior.
Melancholic people are the third type of temperamental behavior. This variant is formed due to increased interaction between the hippocampus and another formation of the cerebral hemispheres - the amygdala. At the same time, the activity of the cortex and hypothalamus is reduced. The amygdala takes on the entire “blow” of exciting signals. But since the perception of the main areas of the brain is inhibited, the reaction to excitement is low, which in turn affects behavior.
In turn, by forming strong connections, the frontal lobe is able to set an active pattern of behavior. When the cortex of this area interacts with the tonsils, the central nervous system generates only highly significant impulses, while ignoring unimportant events. All this leads to the formation of a Phlegmatic model of behavior - a strong, purposeful person with an awareness of priority goals.
The feeling of fear, like any other strong emotion, causes a significant surge in the body’s activity. This is manifested by the release of various hormones that cause an increase in blood pressure, heart rate and muscle tone, increased breathing, changes in perception, and other less noticeable effects. Along with this, there is a change in activity individual parts brain. Changes in hormonal levels in a person experiencing fear were described in detail in the article. Now I would like to focus on in which parts and regions of the brain the changes are most significant.
What part of the brain is responsible for fear?
The limbic system is primarily responsible for emotions in general, and fear in particular. This is a fairly ancient part of the brain; in the embryo it forms immediately after the brain stem. The limbic system received this name because of its shape - it goes around the top of the trunk in a ring, forming something like a limb. Anatomically, it connects the spinal cord with the brain, being, as it were, an intermediary between the reflex part of the human being and the higher mental functions localized in the cerebral cortex.
In the process of evolution, the rudiments of the limbic system (neostriatum) already appear in reptiles, although it is difficult to call such formations the limbic system itself. Therefore, among amphibians and reptiles, the emotional life is extremely meager, if we can talk about it at all. But they have achieved perfection of that formation, which is sometimes called the “reptilian brain.” These creatures are endowed with a perfect set of reactions to danger, food and a sexual partner, which makes them quite good survival specialists at a primitive level.
With the development of the limbic system in evolutionarily more advanced animals, emotions become richer and more subtle, giving them new tools, including new fears. A more developed emotional sphere makes it possible to take care of offspring, which significantly increases the chances of survival. At an even higher level, emotions allow for complex intraspecific communication, which makes gregarious living possible. But with the development of emotions, new, unknown to reptiles, shades and varieties of fear appear. For example, concern about the cubs left for a while. Or the fear of falling to a lower level in the hierarchy of the community.
If we talk about fear as such, then its center in the brain can be considered the amygdala (amygdala, amygdala complex, amygdala). It is part of the limbic system and consists of two formations located inside the medial temporal lobes. If we imagine the brain as transparent, we will see them as if hanging down on the sides of the belt formed by the limbic system. Reasoning very simply and schematically, we can say that fear is deep in the temples.
Action of the fear center in the brain
Because fear is a key element in survival, the amygdala is anatomically connected to all major brain regions. The amygdala continuously receives signals from the olfactory, tactile, visual and auditory analyzers, meticulously examining them for possible threats. And if one is noticed, the fear mechanism is triggered. To do this, connections are used with the hypothalamus, which begins to produce corticoliberin - a hormone that causes a feeling of anxiety and makes you distract from business and focus on danger. A signal transmitted from the amygdala to the locus coeruleus in the brain stem leads to the secretion of the well-known norepinephrine. Signals also go to the striatum, central gray matter and other centers of the nervous system responsible for the motor sphere. Hence the effect on muscle tone, heart rate and even the intestines, which, as is known, can give a very curious reaction to danger.
But it's not that simple. One of the functions of the amygdala is the formation of emotional memory, especially for complexes of signals preceding the occurrence of danger. But the danger can be not only immediate, in the form of an approaching predator. A student who cannot solve a problem during an exam seems to be in no danger - a cozy, quiet, bright and warm audience, everything is peaceful and friendly. But, nevertheless, he may feel fear at this moment. And faceless information about changes in stock prices can even give some people a heart attack. This means that the formation of emotional memory involves not only signals from receptors, but also connections with the youngest parts of the brain, which are responsible for the most complex mental processes.
Experiments on influencing fear centers in the brain
Let's start with a description of natural experiments that nature itself sometimes performs on people. There is Urbach-Wiethe disease, which completely removes fear from a person. This is a rather rare pathology; since its discovery in 1929, there have been less than three hundred recorded cases in the world. This disease destroys the amygdala, and also often causes roughening of the mucous membranes and skin, or hardening of the tissue in the area of the amygdala itself, which can provoke epileptic seizures. Otherwise, Urbach-Wiethe disease is not dangerous and does not directly lead to premature death, although it can accelerate its onset due to loss of vigilance.
The most famous patient today is a woman living in the USA, in the state of Iowa. Her amygdala was completely destroyed in adolescence, which allowed her emotional sphere to develop normally, with the exception of a feeling of fear, which she does not experience at all. On the one hand, this is, of course, pleasant, and to some, the absence of fear will even seem like a very desirable effect, but in reality this is not the case. There can be no disease better health. This woman repeatedly found herself in situations where her fear was silent, and she remained alive only by pure chance.
Experiments on the formation of phobias also deserve attention. A group of volunteers were shown a picture, after which they received an electric shock. After a certain number of displays, the experience was consolidated, and the subjects began to feel fear when they saw the picture. Using hardware methods, the role of the limbic system and the amygdala in the formation of phobias was established. But this is not the main thing. The phobia that arose was completely cured for everyone. psychological ways. And this clearly shows the possibility and even the necessity of treating phobias without the destructive use of drugs. That is, a phobia is not so much a disease as a result of learning. And it should be treated not by direct influence on the brain, but by retraining, that is, by cognitive-behavioral methods.
Military developments to suppress fear are also interesting. This is mainly pharmacology, and the developments are classified, but it is reliably known that drugs for suppressing fear exist. Many readers of these lines who suffer from fear will probably make attempts to find out something about such drugs. I warn you right away: this is a road to nowhere. Caries cannot be treated with painkillers, just as fear cannot be treated with military pills. They are given so that a soldier will risk, die and mutilate his brain in order to complete a combat mission. Do you need it?
The feeling of fear, along with anger and sexual feelings, is one of the first emotions that a living being experiences. Without exaggeration, this wonderful feeling allows you to avoid danger before it manifests itself fully and turns into pain, leaving no chance of salvation. It was the feeling of fear that was one of the first results of the analytical work of the primitive brain, endowing the body with a new, powerful tool for survival. Therefore, it is not surprising that the part of the brain that is responsible for fear is located in one of the oldest parts of the brain. Take care of your fear just as it takes care of you. Rejoice and be proud that you have a magical fear mechanism that allows you to survive much more effectively than those who have it weakened or broken. And if you have problems with fear, then you should not rely on pills. Instead, you need to resort to reliable and harmless psychological methods corrections.
Functions of emotions
The biological significance of emotions is that they allow a person to quickly evaluate his internal state, the need that has arisen, the possibility of satisfying it. For example, the true nutritional need for the amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, salts, etc. we evaluate through the appropriate emotion. This is the experience of hunger or the feeling of satiety.
There are several functions of emotions: reflective (evaluative), motivating, reinforcing, switching and communicative.
The reflective function of emotions is expressed in a generalized assessment of events. Emotions cover the entire body and thereby produce almost instantaneous integration, generalization of all types of activities that it performs, which allows, first of all, to determine the usefulness and harmfulness of the factors affecting it and to react before the localization of the harmful effects is determined. An example is the behavior of a person who has suffered a limb injury. Focusing on pain, a person immediately finds a position that reduces pain.
A person’s emotional evaluative abilities are formed not only on the basis of the experience of his individual experiences, but also as a result of emotional empathy that arises in communication with other people, in particular through the perception of works of art and the media.
The evaluative or reflective function of an emotion is directly related to its motivating function. According to the Oxford Dictionary in English The word “emotion” comes from the French verb “mouvoir,” meaning “to set in motion.” It began to be used in the 17th century when talking about feelings (joy, desire, pain, etc.) as opposed to thoughts. Emotion reveals the search zone where a solution to a problem or satisfaction of a need will be found. An emotional experience contains an image of the object of need satisfaction and an attitude towards it, which prompts a person to act.
P.V. Simonov highlights the reinforcing function of emotions. It is known that emotions are directly involved in the processes of learning and memory. Significant events that cause emotional reactions are imprinted in memory faster and for a long time. Successful learning requires motivational arousal.
The real reinforcement for the development of a conditioned reflex (classical and instrumental) is a reward.
The reinforcing function of emotions was most successfully studied using the experimental model of “emotional resonance” proposed by P.V. Simonov. It was discovered that the emotional reactions of some animals can arise under the influence of the negative emotional states of other animals exposed to electrocutaneous stimulation. This model reproduces the situation of the emergence of negative emotional states in a community, typical for social relationships, and allows us to study the functions of emotions in their purest form without the direct action of painful stimuli.
Under natural conditions, human activity and animal behavior are determined by many needs at different levels. Their interaction is expressed in the competition of motives that manifest themselves in emotional experiences. Evaluations through emotional experiences have motivating power and can determine the choice of behavior.
The switching function of emotions is especially clearly revealed during the competition of motives, as a result of which the dominant need is determined. So, in extreme conditions A struggle may arise between a person’s natural instinct of self-preservation and the social need to follow a certain ethical norm; it is experienced in the form of a struggle between fear and a sense of duty, fear and shame. The outcome depends on the strength of motives and personal attitudes.
There are genetically specified universal complexes of behavioral reactions that express the emergence of basic fundamental emotions. The genetic determination of expressive reactions is confirmed by the similarity of expressive facial movements in the blind and sighted (smile, laughter, tears). The differences in facial movements between blind and sighted young children are very small. However, with age, the facial expressions of sighted people become more expressive and generalized, while in the blind they not only do not improve, but even regress. Consequently, facial movements not only have a genetic determinant, but also strongly depend on training and upbringing.
Physiologists have found that the expressive movements of animals are controlled by an independent neurophysiological mechanism. Stimulating electric shock different points of the hypothalamus in awake cats, the researchers were able to detect two types of aggressive behavior: “affective aggression” and “cold-blooded” attack. To do this, they placed a cat in the same cage as a rat and studied the effect of stimulation of the cat's hypothalamus on its behavior. When certain points of the hypothalamus are stimulated in a cat at the sight of a rat, affective aggression occurs. She attacks the rat with her claws extended, hissing, i.e. her behavior includes behavioral responses that demonstrate aggression, which usually serve to intimidate in a fight for dominance or territory. In a “cold-blooded” attack, which is observed when another group of hypothalamic points is stimulated, the cat catches the rat and grabs it with its teeth without any sounds or external emotional manifestations, i.e. her predatory behavior is not accompanied by a display of aggression. Finally, by once again changing the location of the electrode, rage behavior can be induced in the cat without attacking. Thus, demonstrative reactions of animals expressing an emotional state may or may not be included in the behavior of the animal. The centers or group of centers responsible for the expression of emotions are located in the hypothalamus.
2. Physiological expression of emotions
Emotions are expressed not only in motor reactions: facial expressions, gestures, but also in the level of tonic muscle tension. In the clinic, muscle tone is often used as a measure of affect. Many people consider increased muscle tone as an indicator of a negative emotional state (discomfort), a state of anxiety. The tonic reaction is diffuse, generalized, affects all muscles and thus makes it difficult to perform movements. Ultimately, it leads to tremors and chaotic, uncontrollable movements.
Persons suffering from various conflicts and especially with neurotic deviations are, as a rule, characterized by greater stiffness of movements than others. R. Malmo and his colleagues showed that muscle tension in mental patients is higher than in the control group. It is especially high in psychoneurotics with a predominance of pathological anxiety. Many psychotherapeutic techniques are associated with relieving this tension, for example, relaxation techniques and autogenic training. They teach you to relax, resulting in a decrease in irritability, anxiety and related disorders.
One of the most sensitive indicators of changes in a person’s emotional state is his voice. Developed special methods, allowing one to recognize the occurrence of emotional experiences by voice, as well as differentiate them by sign (positive and negative). To do this, a person’s voice recorded on magnetic tape is subjected to frequency analysis. Using a computer, the speech signal is decomposed into a frequency spectrum. It has been established that as emotional stress increases, the width of the frequency spectrum of spoken words and sounds expands and shifts to the region of higher frequency components. Moreover, for negative emotions, the spectral energy is concentrated in the lower frequency part of the shifted spectrum, and for positive emotions- in its high-frequency zone. These shifts in the spectrum of the speech signal can be caused even by very heavy physical activity. This method makes it possible to correctly determine an increase in emotional stress in 90% of cases, which makes it especially promising for studying human conditions.
An important component of emotion is changes in the activity of the autonomic nervous system. Autonomic manifestations of emotions are very diverse: changes in skin resistance (GSR), heart rate, blood pressure, dilation and constriction of blood vessels, skin temperature, hormonal and chemical composition blood, etc. It is known that during rage, the level of norepinephrine and adrenaline in the blood increases, the heart rate increases, blood flow is redistributed in favor of the muscles and brain, and the pupils dilate. These effects prepare the animal for the intense physical activity necessary for survival.
A special group of emotional reactions consists of changes in the biocurrents of the brain. Physiologists believe that in animals the EEG correlate of emotional stress is the alert rhythm (or hippocampal theta rhythm), the pacemaker of which is located in the septum. Its intensification and synchronization are observed when defensive, indicative and exploratory behavior appears in the animal. The hippocampal theta rhythm also intensifies during paradoxical sleep, one of the features of which is a sharp increase in emotional tension. In humans, such a clear EEG indicator of the emotional state as the hippocampal theta rhythm of an animal cannot be found. A rhythm similar to the hippocampal theta rhythm is generally poorly expressed in humans. Only during the performance of certain verbal operations and writing in the human hippocampus is it possible to observe an increase in the regularity, frequency and amplitude of the theta rhythm.
A person’s emotional states are most likely reflected in the EEG in a change in the ratio of the main rhythms: delta, theta, alpha and beta. EEG changes characteristic of emotions occur most clearly in the frontal areas. According to some data, in persons with a predominance of positive emotions, the alpha rhythm and slow components of the EEG are recorded, and in persons with a predominance of anger, beta activity is recorded.
P.Ya.Balanov, V.L.Deglin and N.N. Nikolaenko, to regulate emotional states in patients, used electroconvulsive therapy using the method of unipolar seizures, which are caused by the application of electrical stimulation to one side of the head - right or left. They found that positive emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the left hemisphere, and negative emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the right hemisphere and increased delta activity in the left hemisphere.
In addition, the emergence of emotional states is accompanied by changes in the electrical activity of the amygdala. In patients with implanted electrodes into the amygdala, when discussing emotionally charged events, an increase in its electrical activity of high-frequency oscillations was found. In patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, who are characterized by pronounced emotional disturbances in the form of increased irritability, anger, and rudeness, epileptic electrical activity was recorded in the dorsomedial part of the amygdala. The destruction of this part of the tonsil makes the patient non-aggressive.
Brain structures involved in emotions.
Before talking about how individual brain structures interact and influence the occurrence of emotions, we need to separately consider each of them, their function and structure. Only in the 20th century. information appeared about the brain structures responsible for the occurrence of emotions, and the physiological processes that are the basis of emotional states became clear.
The decisive role in the formation of emotions belongs to the limbic system, reticular formation, frontal and temporal lobes.
1) Limbic system (LS).
HP includes several interconnected formations. It includes the cingulate gyrus, fornix, septum, some nuclei of the anterior region of the thalamus, as well as a small but important part of the brain located below - the hypothalamus (Hpt), amygdala, hippocampus. The last three areas of the brain are the most important, and we will pay attention to them.
· Hpt. Hpt is the highest center for regulating the internal environment of the body. It contains neurons that are activated or, on the contrary, decrease activity when there are changes in the level of glucose in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid, changes in osmotic pressure, hormone levels, etc. Another way for Hpt to notify about changes in the internal environment is represented by nerve afferent pathways that collect impulses from receptors of internal organs. Changes in the parameters of the internal environment reflect one or another need, and Hpt, in accordance with this, forms a motivational dominant. Neurons of the lateral Hpt interact with some structures of the limbic system, and through the anterior nuclei of the thalamus they influence the associative parietal cortex and motor cortex, thereby initiating the intention of movements.
When certain areas of the Hpt are surgically damaged, animals lose the feelings of satiety and hunger, which are known to be closely related to the emotional state of pleasure and displeasure. As a result of the loss of these feelings, a well-fed animal uncontrollably absorbs food and may die from gluttony, while a hungry animal refuses to eat and also dies.
When irritating the upper and anterior sections, Hpt causes an aggressive reaction in rats and, once experiencing it, they subsequently avoided causing it in every possible way. Apparently, in this case, structures related to the formation of negative emotions are activated. The “pleasure zones” coincided with the pathways of excitation transmission from dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and adrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus. This means that the synthesis and secretion of dopamine and norepinephrine plays a significant role in the occurrence of feelings of pleasure. The Hpt nuclei contain many different receptors. Hpt has the ability to perceive changes in the internal environment, as well as shifts in the blood constant, i.e. they have a central receptor function.
The entire body of currently available data indicates that Hpt is a key structure for the implementation of the most ancient reinforcing function of emotions.
· Amygdala (almond-shaped nucleus). This is a cellular cluster the size of a nut. Experiments on animals show that the amygdala is responsible for aggressive behavior or fear responses. Damage to the amygdala in monkeys affects emotional and social behavior and can lead to emotional disturbances similar to those associated with diseases such as schizophrenia. Removal of the tonsils from the temporal cortex was called "Klüver-Bucy syndrome." Consequences of removal: the feeling of fear disappears, hyperphagia (eats everything), hypersexuality, the animal loses the ability to adequately evaluate the result of the action taken and internal emotional experience.
The amygdala, like the Hpt, are motivational structures, but, unlike the Hpt, the amygdala is driven not so much by internal events as by external stimuli. The amygdala is more connected to emotions than to primary needs, and they determine behavior patterns by “weighing” competing emotions. They “help” to choose the right solution. When the tonsils are removed bilaterally in monkeys, there is a loss of the ability for normal communication within the herd, isolation and a tendency to solitude are revealed. The leader who has undergone such an operation completely loses his rank, because he ceases to distinguish between “good” monkey behavior and “bad” behavior.
The amygdala plays a decisive role in the implementation of the behavior-switching function of emotions, in the choice of motivation that corresponds not only to this or that need, but also to the external conditions of its satisfaction in a given situation and at a given moment.
Hippocampus The hippocampus is located next to the amygdala. Its role in creating emotions is still not very clear, but its close connection with the amygdala suggests that the hippocampus is also involved in this process. Damage to the hippocampus leads to memory impairment—the inability to remember new information.
The hippocampus is an information structure; its role is to retrieve memory traces of previous experiences and evaluate the competition of motives. Motivational excitation of the hippocampus is carried out by Hpt, some of the signals come to it from the septum, and memory traces are retrieved due to the interaction of the hippocampus with the associative cortex.
The ability of the hippocampus to respond to signals from unlikely events allows us to consider it as a key structure for the implementation of the compensatory function of emotions, replacing the lack of information. Hippocampal destruction does not affect emotional behavior.
An analysis of the participation of the hippocampus in the formation of positive and negative emotional states was proposed by the experiments of L.A. Preobrazhenskaya. Experiments clearly show that the role of the hippocampus in the genesis of emotional stress comes down to assessing the formal novelty of stimuli acting on the animal.
Septum, fornix and cingulate gyrus.
The cingulate gyrus surrounds the hippocampus and other structures of the limbic system. She serves as the highest coordinator various systems, i.e. makes sure that these systems interact and work together. Near the cingulate gyrus there is a fornix - a system of fibers running in both directions; it follows the curve of the cingulate gyrus and connects the hippocampus with various brain structures, including the Hpt.
Another structure, the septum, receives input signals through the fornix from the hippocampus and sends output signals to the Hpt. "... stimulation of the septum can provide information about the satisfaction of all (and not individual) internal needs of the body, which, apparently, is necessary for the occurrence of a reaction of pleasure" (T.L. Leontovich).
The joint activity of the temporal cortex, cingulate cortex, hippocampus and Hpt is directly related to the emotional sphere of higher animals and humans. Bilateral ablation of the temporal region in monkeys results in symptoms of emotional apathy.
Removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys, together with the hippocampus and amygdala, led to the disappearance of feelings of fear, aggressiveness, and difficulty in distinguishing the quality of food and its suitability for eating. Thus, the integrity of the temporal structures of the brain is necessary to maintain normal emotional status associated with aggressive-defensive behavior.
2) Reticular formation (R.f.).
R.f. plays an important role in emotions. - structure inside the pons and brain stem. It is this formation that is most capable of being a “generalizer” of one or another “particular” need of the body. It has a wide and varied influence on various departments The central nervous system up to the cerebral cortex, as well as the receptor apparatus (sense organs). She is highly sensitive to adrenaline and adrenolytic substances, which once again indicates organic connection between R.F. and the sympathetic nervous system. It is capable of activating different areas of the brain and bringing to its specific areas information that is new, unusual or biologically significant, i.e. acts as a kind of filter. Fibers from the neurons of the reticular system go to various areas of the cerebral cortex, some through the thalamus. Most of these neurons are thought to be "nonspecific". This means that the neurons of the R.f. can respond to many types of stimuli.
Some sections of the R.f. have specific functions. These structures include the locus coeruleus and the substantia nigra. The locus coeruleus is a dense accumulation of neurons producing in the area of synaptic contacts (to the thalamus, Hpt, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, spinal cord) the transmitter norepinephrine (also produced by the adrenal medulla). Norepinephrine triggers an emotional response. It is possible that norepinephrine also plays a role in the occurrence of reactions that are subjectively perceived as pleasure. Another part of the R. f. - the substantia nigra - is a cluster of neurons that secrete the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine contributes to some pleasant sensations. It is involved in creating euphoria. R.F. plays important role in the regulation of the level of performance of the cerebral cortex, in the change of sleep and wakefulness, in the phenomena of hypnosis and neurotic states.
3) Cerebral cortex.
Emotions are one of the reflective sides, i.e. mental activity. Consequently, they are connected with the cortex, the highest part of the brain, but to a large extent also with the subcortical formations of the brain, which are responsible for the regulation of the heart, respiration, metabolism, sleep and wakefulness.
Currently accumulated big number experimental and clinical data on the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of emotions. The areas of the cortex that play the largest role in emotions are the frontal lobes, which receive direct neural connections from the thalamus. The temporal lobes are also involved in the creation of emotions.
The frontal lobes are directly related to the assessment of probabilistic characteristics of the environment. When emotions arise, the frontal cortex plays the role of identifying highly significant signals and filtering out unimportant ones. This allows behavior to be directed towards achieving real goals, where need satisfaction can be predicted with a high degree of probability.
Thanks to the anterior parts of the neocortex, behavior is guided by signals of high-probability events, while reactions to signals with a low probability of reinforcement are inhibited. Bilateral damage to the frontal cortex in monkeys leads to impaired prediction that does not recover for 2-3 years. A similar defect is observed in patients with pathology of the frontal lobes, who are characterized by stereotypical repetition of the same actions that have lost their meaning. Focus on signals of highly probable business events
The frontal regions of the neocortex are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment.
Data are gradually accumulating indicating the role of interhemispheric asymmetry in the formation of emotions. To date, the information theory of P.V. Simonov is the only complete system of ideas about the formation of emotions, only it allows you to connect the behavioral functions of emotions with the brain structures necessary for these functions.
Damage to the frontal lobes leads to profound disturbances in the emotional sphere of a person. Two syndromes predominantly develop: emotional dullness and disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. With injuries to the frontal lobes of the brain, changes in mood are observed - from euphoria to depression, loss of the ability to plan, and apathy. This is due to the fact that the limbic system, as the main “reservoir” of emotions, is closely connected with different areas of the cerebral cortex, especially the temporal (memory), parietal (spatial orientation) and frontal lobes of the brain (forecasting, associative thinking, intelligence).
Conclusion
Emotions are a necessary foundation for the everyday and creative life of people. They are caused by the action on the body, on the receptors and, consequently, on the brain ends of the analyzers of certain environmental stimuli associated with the conditions of existence. The characteristic physiological processes that occur during emotions are reflexes of the brain. They are caused by the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres through the autonomic centers, limbic system and reticular formation. Excitation from these centers spreads along the autonomic nerves, which directly change the functions of internal organs, causing the entry into the blood of hormones, mediators and metabolites that affect the autonomic innervation of organs.
Excitation of the anterior group of nuclei of the subthalamic region directly behind the optic chiasm causes parasympathetic reactions characteristic of emotions, and the posterior and lateral groups of nuclei – sympathetic ones. Excitation of the subtubercular region causes not only autonomic, but also motor reactions. Due to the predominance of the tone of the sympathetic nuclei in it, it increases the excitability of the cerebral hemispheres and thereby affects thinking.
When the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated physical activity increases, and when the parasympathetic is excited, it decreases.
Emotions are one of the manifestations of a person’s subjective attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. Joy, grief, fear, anger, compassion, bliss, pity, jealousy, indifference, love - there is no end to the words that define different kinds and shades of emotions. From a physiological point of view, they represent the body's reactions to the influence of external and internal stimuli, having a pronounced subjective coloring and covering all types of sensitivity. However, they manifest themselves not only in subjective experiences, the nature of which we can only learn from humans, and, based on them, build analogies for higher animals, but also in objectively observable external manifestations, characteristic actions, facial expressions, and vegetative reactions. These external manifestations are quite expressive.
Have you ever wondered how emotions may be related to the functioning of the internal organs of our body?
According to Traditional Chinese Medicine, our body reacts to every stimulus, internal or external. And this is a whole storm of reactions!
After all, the human body is a complex mechanism. and its function of metabolic processes (converting food into energy) is far from the only one. This is not enough for our survival as a species.
Our body processes all stimuli. It generates a positive or negative response that affects the functioning of all its organs.
In addition to the physical stimuli received through the senses, there is also emotions. And even if at first glance it seems to you that they cannot cause such a reaction, some of them strongly stimulate certain organs of our body or, conversely, interfere with their work.
And despite the fact that this is a completely natural process, strong negative emotions(or too long) may cause damage to internal organs and make them more vulnerable to various diseases.
Various emotions are associated with the work of certain internal organs
The deterioration of the functioning of any organ has a direct connection with the emotions that we experience.
NA disruption in the functioning of one organ affects the entire body as a whole. That is why it is very important to know the true emotional cause in order to eliminate it.
This involves working hard on yourself in order to eventually be able to transform negative feelings into positive ones.
1. Heart and small intestine: joy
According to Traditional Chinese Medicine, “joy” is an emotion that connects two organs: the heart and the small intestine.
The heart regulates and controls the blood vessels. The small intestine is responsible for absorption nutrients and minerals from food.
And despite the fact that joy is a “healthy” emotion that stimulates the work of these two organs, its excess can generate:
- Nervousness
- Insomnia
- Loss of concentration
Typically, those who experience certain problems with these organs - people are very sensitive and talkative. They are extroverts who are caught up in their own emotions. That is, they emotionally overload their body.
Beware of euphoria, increased excitability and excessive emotionality. Keep yourself in control, and then these important organs will perform their functions correctly.
2. Liver and gallbladder: rage and anger
3. Spleen and stomach: obsession
Yes, no matter how surprising it may sound, the work of these organs is directly related to obsession with some idea, nostalgia and reflection (reflection).
While the stomach processes incoming food, the spleen is part of the lymphatic system. It fights infections and maintains the balance of fluids in the body.
Typically, people experiencing problems with these organs are calm and quiet, but they often experience difficulty making decisions.
Emotions such as compassion and empathy will contribute to the balanced functioning of the above organs.
4. Lungs and large intestine: sadness
These two organs suffer from our melancholy, sadness and grief.
The lungs regulate breathing, and the intestines perform the digestive function, are responsible for the absorption of nutrients and strengthening the body's immunity.
If you have problems with these organs, then most likely you are a very rational and independent person. However, you have a tendency to withdraw into your inner world from others.
This can also have physical consequences: poor appetite, tightness in the chest, aversion to everything.
5. Kidneys and Bladder: Fear
The work of the kidneys is connected with our fears. The kidneys are responsible for removing all the waste in the blood. The bladder produces urine, stores it for a certain time, and then removes it from the body.
Those who complain of back pain, weakness and other symptoms may be experiencing situations of uncertainty.
But maintaining energy balance can give people confidence in their own abilities.
Now that you know that emotions are really connected to the work of your internal organs, you will probably pay more attention to them and work on yourself.
Try to transform all negativity into positive thoughts. You will see how this will have a beneficial effect on the functioning of your body. Take your step towards health!
Guilt and Shame: Temporal Lobes
It is easy for us to understand how memory or counting can be processes occurring in the brain. Feelings aren't quite so simple, however, partly because in speech we use phrases like "break my heart" to describe sadness or "blush" to describe shame. And yet, feelings are a phenomenon from the field of neurophysiology: a process that takes place in the tissues of the main organ of our nervous system. Today we can partially appreciate it thanks to neuroimaging technology.
As part of their research, Petra Michl and several of her colleagues at the Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich recently took a series of MRI scans. They sought to find areas of the brain that are responsible for our ability to feel guilty or ashamed. Scientists have found that shame and guilt seem to be neighbors on the block, although each of these feelings has its own anatomical region.
The researchers asked participants to imagine feeling guilty or ashamed, and in both cases it activated the temporal lobes of the brain. At the same time, shame involved in them the anterior cingulate cortex, which monitors external environment and informs a person about mistakes, and the parahippocampal gyrus, which is responsible for remembering scenes from the past. Vina, in turn, “turned on” the lateral occipitotemporal gyrus and the middle temporal gyrus - the center of the vestibular analyzer. In addition, the anterior and middle frontal gyri began to work in shamed people, and in those who felt guilty, the amygdala (tonsils) and insula became more active. The last two areas of the brain are part of the limbic system, which regulates our basic fight-or-flight emotions, the functioning of internal organs, blood pressure and other parameters.
Having compared MRI images of the brains of people of different sexes, scientists found that in women, guilt affected only the temporal lobes, while in men, the frontal lobes, occipital lobes and tonsils began to work in parallel - one of the most ancient elements of the brain, which are responsible for feelings of fear, anger, panic and pleasure.
Fear and Anger: The Amygdala
During intrauterine development of the embryo, the limbic system is formed immediately after the trunk, which organizes reflexes and connects the brain with the spinal cord. Her job is feelings and actions that are necessary for the survival of the species. Tonsils - important element limbic system. These areas are located near the hypothalamus, inside the temporal lobes, and are activated when we see food, sexual partners, rivals, crying children, and so on. The body's various reactions to fear are also their work: if you feel like a stranger is following you at night in the park and your heart starts pounding, this is due to the activity of the tonsils. In the course of several independent studies conducted at various centers and universities, experts were able to find out that even artificial stimulation of these areas causes a person to feel that imminent danger is approaching.
Anger is largely also a function of the amygdala. However, it is very different from fear, sadness and other negative emotions. The amazing thing about human anger is that it is similar to happiness: like joy and pleasure, it makes us move forward, while fear or grief forces us to withdraw. Like other emotions, anger, malice and rage cover a variety of parts of the brain: in order to realize their impulse, this organ needs to assess the situation, access memory and experience, regulate the production of hormones in the body and do much more.
Tenderness and comfort: somatosensory cortex
In many cultures, it is customary to hide sadness and shock: for example, in British English there is even an idiomatic expression “keep a stiff upper lip,” which means “not to show your feelings.” However, neuroscientists argue that from the point of view of brain physiology, a person simply needs the participation of other people. “Clinical experiments show that loneliness provokes stress more than any other factor,” says German scientist, author of the book “The Science of Happiness” Stefan Klein. “Loneliness is a burden on the brain and body. The result is anxiety, confusion in thoughts and feelings (a consequence of stress hormones) and a weakened immune system. Isolation makes people sad and sick.”
Study after study shows that companionship is good for you physically and mentally. It prolongs life and improves its quality. “One touch from someone close to you and deserving of your trust eases sadness,” says Stefan. "This is a consequence of the neurotransmitters - oxytocin and opioids - that are released during moments of tenderness."
Recently, British researchers were able to confirm the theory of the usefulness of affection using computed tomography. They found that the touch of other people causes strong bursts of activity in the somatosensory cortex, which is already working constantly, tracking all our tactile sensations. Scientists have come to the conclusion that the impulses that arise if someone gently touches our body in difficult moments are associated with the process of isolating from the general flow of critical stimuli that can change everything for us. Experts also noticed that the experiment participants experienced grief more easily when a stranger held their hand, and much easier when their palm was touched by a loved one.
Joy and laughter: prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
When we experience joy, experience happiness, laugh or smile, many different areas of our brain light up. The process of creating and processing positive emotions involves the familiar amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anterior insula cortex, so that feelings of joy, like anger, sadness, or fear, pervade the entire brain.
In joyful moments, the right amygdala becomes much more active than the left. Today, it is widely believed that the left hemisphere of our brain is responsible for logic, and the right hemisphere for creativity. However, we have recently learned that this is not the case. The brain requires both parts to perform most functions, although hemispheric asymmetries exist: for example, the largest speech centers are located on the left, while processing of intonation and accents is more localized on the right.
The prefrontal cortex is several areas of the frontal lobes of the brain that are located at the front of the hemispheres, just behind the frontal bone. They are associated with the limbic system and are responsible for our ability to set our goals, make plans, achieve desired results, change course and improvise. Research shows that during happy moments in women, the prefrontal cortex on the left hemisphere is more active than the same area on the right.
The hippocampi, which are located deep in the temporal lobes, together with the amygdala, help us separate important emotional events from unimportant ones so that the former can be stored in long-term memory and the latter can be discarded. In other words, the hippocampi evaluate happy events in terms of their significance for the archive. The anterior insula cortex helps them do this. It is also connected to the limbic system and is most active when a person remembers pleasant or sad events.
Lust and love: not emotions
Today, the human brain is studied by thousands of neuroscientists around the world. However, science has not yet been able to accurately determine what emotion and feeling are. We know that many feelings are born in the limbic system - one of the most ancient elements of the brain. However, perhaps not everything we have traditionally recognized as an emotion actually is. For example, lust from the point of view of brain physiology is not similar to fear or joy. Its impulses are formed not in the tonsils, but in the ventral striatum, which is also called the “reward center.” This area is also activated during orgasm or eating tasty food. Some scientists even doubt that lust is a feeling.
However, lust differs from love, which activates the dorsal striatum. It is curious that the brain uses the same area if a person uses drugs and becomes dependent on them. However, we definitely experience happiness, fear, anger and sadness more often during periods of love than during calm periods - which means that love should perhaps be considered the sum of emotions, desires and impulses.
Icons: Pham Thi Dieu Linh
