Increasing entropy in the human body. Entropy of living systems

The owners of the patent RU 2533846:

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to the study of the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on human or animal health. The method concerns the study of entropy in the body. To do this, determine the relative relative to the body weight of the mass of the heart in% (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in% (Co 2). The calculation is carried out according to the formula: α \u003d (0.25 / T) Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time for a complete turnover of an erythrocyte with a circulating blood flow per second, while T \u003d [(0.44 75) /(X A)] 21.5. The method makes it possible to measure the main characteristic of an organism that unites living systems, which can be used to determine biological age, health status, to study the effect of various means of preventing health disorders and prolonging life. 1 tab.

The invention relates to biology and medicine, and in particular to methods for studying the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on the health of humans and animals, and can be used to determine their biological age, aging rate, predict the longevity of individuals under various conditions of the body and manage these vital signs .

It is known that living systems are open thermodynamic systems and are characterized by a complex ordered structure. The levels of their organization are much higher than in inanimate nature. In order to maintain and increase their high orderliness, living systems, to the extent of their inherent openness (including at the organismal level), continuously exchange energy, matter and information with the external environment and, at the same time, perform work to reduce entropy (dissipation of energy into the environment), which inevitably grows. due to losses due to heat transfer, Brownian motion and aging of molecules, etc. [Nikolis G., Prigozhy I. Knowledge of the complex. M., 1990. - S.293]. The process of this exchange is called metabolism. It is known that the preferred is the metabolism with a minimum level of entropy, since it is he who ensures the operation of the system with maximum savings in losses and stability in the external environment [Prigozhiy I. From existing to emerging. - M., 1985. - 113 p.; Prigozhy I. Introduction to thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Per. from English. M., 1960; Frank G.M., Kuzin A.M. About the essence of life. - M., 1964. - 350 p.]. On this basis, we put forward a hypothesis that the higher the level of metabolism in a living system, that is, the more intensively it exchanges energy, matter and information with the external environment, the more this system is forced to do a lot of work to maintain homeostasis in order to maintain a minimum level of entropy , incur more significant losses in this regard, become more open to the environment, and, consequently, vulnerable to its adverse effects. Following this hypothesis, the level of openness of a living system can be considered as an indicator of the quality of its physiological state, which has an inverse relationship with the characteristics of this quality - health, performance, life expectancy. It should be noted that other authors [Frolov V.A., Moiseeva T.Yu. Living organism as an information-thermodynamic system. - Bulletin of RUDN University, 1999, No. 1. - P.6-14] also consider the openness of a living system in connection with the duration of its life at the stage of evolution to a closed thermodynamic system. Thus, metabolism, entropy, openness of a living system to the surrounding air environment can not only characterize the quality of the life support processes occurring in this system, but also be its root cause. The very concept of the openness of a living system to the environment can be given the following definition: the openness of a living system is its inherent development of the universal property of expediently life-supporting interaction with the environment.

In connection with the foregoing, we have set the task of developing a method for determining entropy in a human or animal body in order to be able to control life support processes.

Entropy in a human or animal body can be characterized by the kinetics of O 2 at the stages of its movement from the atmosphere into the body, which depends on the content of O 2 in the inhaled air and in the air contained in the alveoli of the lungs (alveolar), the time of complete saturation of the erythrocyte with oxygen in the lungs, the time , provided to the erythrocyte for the return of O 2 received in the lungs to the cells of the body, and the strength of the bond of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2.

It is known that the content of O 2 in the inhaled air depends on its content in the breathing zone. The natural content of O 2 in the air of open spaces is higher than in enclosed spaces and is equal to an average of 20.9%. The content of O 2 in the alveolar air is one of the individual homeostatic constants and (ceteris paribus: age, resistance to oxygen deficiency, etc.) is in interaction with the indicators of working capacity and general health of the body [Sirotinin N.N., 1971; Evgenyeva L.Ya., 1974; Karpman V.L., Lyubina B.G., 1982; Meyerson F.Z., 1981, etc.].

It is known that the duration of stay of erythrocytes in the pulmonary capillaries depends on the speed of the pulmonary blood flow and is 0.25-0.75 s. This time is sufficient for oxygenation of the blood, since normally the erythrocyte is completely saturated with O 2 in 0.25 s [Zayko N.N., Byts Yu.V., Ataman A.V. and other Pathological physiology (Textbook for students of medical universities). - To "Logos", 1996]. Thus, the time of complete saturation of the erythrocyte with oxygen in the lungs, equal to 0.25 s, characterizes the period or phase of the effective (direct or open) contact of the erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air. It is known that the time taken by an erythrocyte to return the oxygen received in the lungs to the cells of the body until the next passage of the erythrocyte through the lungs for oxygenation characterizes the period or phase of inefficient (indirect or closed) contact of the circulating blood erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air. The duration of this period (phase) significantly exceeds the duration of direct contact of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with O 2 of the alveolar air and depends on the speed of blood circulation or the time (T) of the complete circulation of circulating blood in the body, which (ceteris paribus) is affected by the heart rate (HR ) [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M.: Medicine, 1966. - S. 117]. For example, in an adult with a normal heart rate of 75 beats / min (muscle rest), T equals an average of 21.5 s. Taking into account the known age, sex and interspecies differences in the ratio of heart mass to body weight [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 p.] the value of T at different heart rates in animals and humans can be determined by the following mathematical expression:

T \u003d [ (0.44 ⋅ 75) / (X ⋅ A)] ⋅ 21.5; (one)

T is the time of a complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body (the time of a complete turnover of circulating blood in the studied animal and human, during which the circulating blood makes a complete revolution in the sum of the small and large circles of blood circulation), s;

0.44 - the average relative mass of the human heart (in relation to the total body weight), which is characterized by the time of complete blood circulation in 21.5 s at a heart rate of 75 bpm,%;

75 - heart rate (HR), at which the time of a complete circulation of circulating blood in a person takes place on average in 21.5 s, bpm;

21.5 - time of complete circulation of circulating blood in a person with a heart rate of 75 bpm, s;

X - actual or (if it is impossible to measure) the average statistical relative mass of the heart, characteristic of a person and the studied animal species,%; (according to [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 p.] the mass of the heart from the total body weight is on average 1/215 in men and 1/250 in women );

A - actual heart rate, measured at the time of the study of the individual, beats / min.

Known [Eckert R., Randell D., Augustine J. Animal Physiology. T.2. M., 1992], that the bond strength of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2 or the resistance of oxyhemoglobin to dissociation, all other things being equal, depends on the hydrogen index (pH) of the blood, which, for example, with an increase in CO 2 tension in it decreases and, thereby, reduces the strength of the bond of hemoglobin with O 2 (hemoglobin affinity for O 2), which contributes to the release of O 2 into the blood plasma and from there to the surrounding tissues. It is also known that there is a reciprocal (reciprocal) relationship between changes in the concentrations of CO 2 and O 2 in the body. Therefore, if the content of CO 2 in any part of the body naturally affects the strength of the bond between hemoglobin and O 2 , then the effect of this force on the further movement of O 2 into the structures of the body can be taken into account by the concentration of alveolar O 2 .

However, taken separately, these physiological indicators affecting the interaction of atmospheric O 2 with body structures (phases of direct and indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration) cannot fully characterize its entropy, since in this case, their combined effect on metabolic processes is not taken into account.

The objective of the invention is to determine the entropy in the human or animal body by the interaction of the phases of direct and indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

This problem is solved in the claimed method for determining entropy in the human or animal body, which consists in taking into account the time of direct contact of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 equal to 0.25 s, determining the time of the complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in the body with the actual number of heart beats per minute by the ratio of the product of the average relative mass of the human heart, expressed as a percentage, equal to 0.44, expressed in heartbeats per minute, the number 75 to the product of the relative mass of the heart of the individual under study, expressed as a percentage, by the number of actual heartbeats he has at the time of the study per minute, multiplied by the time expressed in seconds for a complete turnover of an erythrocyte with a circulating blood flow, equal to the number 21.5 at 75 heartbeats per minute, a measurement expressed as a percentage of the content of O 2 in the alveolar air, and characterized in that the entropy in the human body or animal def is divided by the value obtained from the product of the ratio of the time of direct contact of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 to the time of complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in the body with the actual number of heartbeats per minute and the percentage of O 2 in the alveolar air.

where α - entropy in the human or animal body,%;

0.25 - the number corresponding to the time of complete saturation of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood in the body with oxygen, s;

T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body, s;

The proposed method for determining entropy in a human or animal body is based on the fact that with an increase in heart rate (HR), the total (over a certain time) duration of direct contacts of a circulating blood erythrocyte with oxygen in the alveolar air increases, and indirect contacts decreases, which is accompanied by an increase in metabolism in the body and an increase in the irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment. So in a person (for example, in 10 minutes), the total duration of direct contacts of an erythrocyte with O 2 of alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats / min (T = 21.5 s) is 7 s (that is, 600 s / 21.5 s = 27 .9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9 0.25 s≈7 s), with a heart rate of 100 beats / min (T = 16.1 s) - 9.3 s, and with a heart rate of 180 beats / min (T \u003d 8.96 s) - 16.7 s. At the same time, during the same time, the total duration of indirect contacts of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with the oxygen of the alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats / min is 593 s [that is, 600 s / 21.5 s = 27.9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9 (21.5 s-0.25 s) = 593 s], with a heart rate of 100 bpm - 591 s, and with a heart rate of 180 bpm - 583 s. Thus, in the proposed method, the body's openness to the atmosphere, metabolism and entropy increase with increasing heart rate by increasing the phase of direct contact of the erythrocyte with the atmosphere (alveolar air-atmosphere) per unit time and reducing the opposite phase without gas exchange with the atmosphere.

The table shows examples of determining the entropy (α) in 12 different animal species, which was compared with the information available in the literature on the average life expectancy (D average) of the species of these animals. Based on the data presented, the following power regression equation was obtained, which characterizes the relationship between α and the average life expectancy (D average):

where 5.1845 is an empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the approximation reliability between D average and α.

In order to simplify the mathematical expression 3, we have developed formula 4 with the correlation coefficient r D average /D o average =0.996; R<0,001:

where D about the average - the expected average life expectancy;

5.262 - empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the approximation reliability between D about the average and α.

The obtained dependence of the lifespan of an animal species on the entropy in the body makes it possible to explain the longevity of the rodent "Naked mole rat" (Heterocephalus glaber), which is considered paradoxical, exclusively by the habitation of this mammal in hardly ventilated underground conditions (tunnels with a diameter of 2-4 cm, a depth of up to 2 m, a length of up to 5 km ) with an extremely low content of O 2 in the inhaled air from 8 to 12% (10% on average) and a CO 2 concentration that is fatal for many other animals (10%). There is data on the content of high concentrations of carbon dioxide on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes in these rodents [Shinder A. An animal that does not feel pain // Weekly 2000. - 27.06-03.07.2008. No. 26 (420)], which are not observed in other animal species. These conditions for the existence of a naked mole rat lead to extremely low concentrations of O 2 in the alveoli of the lungs (3.5%) and, according to the data presented in the table, reduce entropy by more than 8 times in comparison with other rodents of equal mass, which, apparently, leads to a significant (more than 15 times) increase in the lifespan of individuals of this species. In the literature available to us, this phenomenon of longevity of Heterocephalus glaber is explained from the standpoint of genetics by an acquired special property of its organism, but this does not yet characterize the very root cause (external cause) of the formation and consolidation of this property in this species of rodent. It follows from the obtained results that (ceteris paribus) the lifespan of an organism is most likely a weighted average value determined by the duration of its states in the process of ontogenesis, characterized by the intensity of the interaction of circulating blood erythrocytes with atmospheric oxygen.

However, based on the analysis of the literature (Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. Biology of life expectancy M .: Nauka. 1991. - 280 p.), it should be considered incorrect to transfer the patterns of the animal world to understanding the problems of human longevity, which is determined primarily by socio-economic factors (the level of medical support, labor safety and recreation efficiency, material security and spiritual comfort). Since the socio-economic living conditions of Homo sapiens have changed significantly during its evolution, the measurement of the life expectancy of a modern person using the patterns identified and reflected in formula 4 needs to be supplemented, taking into account the impact of these conditions on longevity.

The average life expectancy of a person in the Paleolithic (2.6 million years ago), when the conditions of his life differed little from animals, was 31 years [Buzhilova A.P. On the issue of the semantics of collective burials in the Paleolithic era. In: Human etiology and related disciplines. Modern research methods. Ed. Butovskoy, M.: Institute of Etiology and Anthropology, 2004. S.21-35], which corresponds to the result obtained for great apes, for example, for a male gorilla:

α (for gorilla)=(0.25 s/21.5 s) 14.4%=0.167%;

D about average \u003d 5.262 0.167 -1 \u003d 31.5 years.

Taking into account the calculations of B.Ts. Urlanis [Urlanis B.Ts. Increasing life expectancy in the USSR // Social research: Sat. - M.: Nauka, 1965. - S. 151, 153; Urlanis B.Ts. Etude about age // Week. - 1966. - No. 40], in which, using the example of the most advanced and prosperous countries, he statistically proves that the biological life expectancy (designated by the author as normal) should be 90 years, we We have corrected formula 4, transforming it into formula 5, which takes into account the additional 58 years that, in our opinion, men and women should live in normal socio-economic conditions of work and life. So, for example, if we take into account that in an adult, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is normally 14.4% [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M .: Medicine, 1966. - S. 117, 143], then (with an average heart rate of 72 beats / min, characteristic of men in a state of muscle rest and a heart mass of 1/215 of the total body weight), the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in the body is 21.4 s, α and Up to the average are:

α=(0.25 s/21.4 s) 14.4%=0.168%;

D about average \u003d 5.262 0.168 -1 \u003d 31.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for men is: 90 years - 31.3 years = 58.7 years.

With an average heart rate of 78 bpm and a heart mass of 1/250 of the total body weight, typical for women in a state of muscle rest, the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in the body is 22.7 s, α and D about the average are:

α=(0.25 s/22.7 s) 14.4%=0.158%;

D about average \u003d 5.262 0.158 -1 \u003d 33.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for women is: 90 years - 33.3 years = 56.7 years.

On the basis of these obtained data, as noted above, we have adopted the average value of the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for men and women, equal to 58 years.

It is known that, in contrast to normal socio-economic conditions that provide a person with a specific (normal) life expectancy, real socio-economic conditions related to the region under study and the temporary period of residence form the average life expectancy. For example, if the average life expectancy in Russia in 2011 (according to Rosstat) was 64.3 years for men and 76.1 years for women, then the contribution of existing (in 2011) socio-economic conditions to the expected The life expectancy of a Russian was:

64.3 years-31.3 years = 33.0 years (for men);

76.1 years-33.3 years = 42.8 years (for women).

In the formulations of normal and average life expectancy, the semantic content of the expressions “normal and average” takes into account, first of all, the socio-economic conditions of life (normal - characterize conditions that are close to ideal, most conducive to the achievement of species, biological life expectancy, average - reflect real conditions in the region during the given period of residence). In view of the foregoing, the expected life expectancy of a person (D o) should be calculated using the following mathematical expression:

D o \u003d 5.262 ⋅ α - 1 + A; (5)

where A is the expected number of years of living due to socio-economic conditions (under conditions close to ideal, denoted normal, - 58 years; under other conditions - the number of years obtained by subtracting from known statistical data on average life expectancy in the region in this period of residence is 31.3 years for men and 33.3 years for women). The designation of other symbols is given above.

An outstanding modern gerontologist academician D.F. Chebotarev points out that the specific life expectancy should serve as a real guideline for increasing the average life expectancy. The difference between these values ​​represents a reserve that can be fully exploited by improving conditions and lifestyle. He considers the tactical task of gerontology to be the fight against premature aging and at least partial development of those reserves that a person certainly has and which are determined by the unused period between the modern average and species life expectancy, the preservation of practical health throughout the entire period of the so-called third age (from 60 to 90 years). He considers the prolongation of active longevity beyond the terms of the species longevity of a person as a strategic task [Chebotarev D.F. Physiological mechanisms of aging. L .: Nauka, 1982. - 228 p.]. The formula that defines the ultimate goals of gerontology “To add not only years to life, but also life to years” embodies both tactical and strategic tasks of this science, combines both medical and social problems of aging. Therefore, the development of tools that allow assessing the development of such body reserves that work to achieve active longevity with overcoming normal life expectancy should be considered as one of the important primary steps on the way to solving the complex problem of aging. In this regard, we believe that the method we have developed for determining the openness of human and animal organisms to the atmosphere is an important tool for successfully resolving this problem, since it makes it possible, for example, to identify and a priori evaluate the development of the longevity reserve of an organism at the stages of ontogenesis and, under various functional states, to identify similarities and difference in the formation of this reserve in humans and animals.

Let us give examples of the use of the proposed method in humans and some animals in various functional states (muscle rest, physical activity, disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the neonatal period and infancy of postnatal ontogenesis).

In a man, when performing work of moderate severity, the heart rate is 100 bpm, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by the PGA-12 gas analyzer in the last portions of exhaled air, is maintained at 14.4%. Therefore, the entropy in the human body when doing moderate work is:

α=(0.25 s/15.4 s) 14.4%=0.23%.

With this value of entropy, the normal and average life expectancy in 2011 can be:

D about normal \u003d (5.262 0.23 -1) + 58 years \u003d 80.9 years;

D about the average \u003d (5.262 0.23 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 55.9 years.

In a man with a violation of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the heart rate in a state of muscle rest is 95 beats / min, when performing work of moderate severity - 130 beats / min, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by the gas analyzer PGA-12 in these conditions, is equal to 16.1%. Therefore, the entropy in the body will be:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 =0.25 s/16.2 s·16.1%=0.25%;

- (in the state of performing moderate work) α 2 =0.25 s/11.9 s·16.1%=0.34%.

The normal and average life expectancy of a man with disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems will be:

D o1 \u003d (5.262 0.25 -1) + 58 years \u003d 79.0 years (normal in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 \u003d (5.262 0.34 -1) + 58 years \u003d 73.5 years (normal in the state of performing work of moderate severity);

D o1 \u003d (5.262 0.25 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 54.0 years (average in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 \u003d (5.262 0.34 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 48.5 years (average in the state of performing work of moderate severity).

In a newborn boy, the heart rate is 150 bpm, the heart mass in the total body weight is 0.89%, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 17.8%. After 1/2 year and after a year, the heart rate and the content of O 2 in the alveolar air of the child decreased to 130 and 120 bpm, 17.3 and 17.2%, respectively. Therefore, the entropy in the body is:

In a newborn, α=0.25 s/5.31 s 17.8%=0.84%,

1/2 year after birth α=0.25 s/6.13 s 17.3%=0.70%,

One year after birth, α=0.25 s/6.64 s·17.2%=0.65%.

The normal life expectancy, measured under the indicated functional states of the body, will be equal to:

In a newborn D o \u003d (5.262 0.84 -1) + 58 years \u003d 64.3 years

1/2 years after birth D o \u003d (5.262 0.70 -1) + 58 years \u003d 65.5 years

A year after the birth, D o \u003d (5.262 0.65 -1) + 58 years \u003d 66.1 years.

The average life expectancy will be:

In a newborn D o \u003d (5.262 0.84 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 39.3 years

1/2 years after birth D o \u003d (5.262 0.70 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 40.5 years

One year after birth, D o = (5.262 0.65 -1) + 33.0 years = 41.1 years.

The revealed differences in the value of entropy in the body under these conditions are consistent with the risk of health disorders to which newborns are exposed to a greater extent, apparently due to insufficiently formed metabolic mechanisms. In particular, in terms of body weight, infants and young children drink more water, consume more food and inhale more air than adults [Dyachenko V.G., Rzyankina M.F., Solokhina L.V. Guide to social pediatrics: textbook / V.G. Dyachenko, M.F. Rzyankina, L.V. Solokhina / Ed. V.G. Dyachenko. - Khabarovsk: Publishing House of the Far East. state honey. university - 2012. - 322 p.]. The indicated results of testing the proposed method are consistent with the literature data that the biological age of the body is not a constant value, it changes under various conditions due to age, physical activity, health, psycho-emotional stress and other factors [Pozdnyakova N.M., Proshchaev K. .I., Ilnitsky A.N., Pavlova T.V., Bashuk V.V. Modern views on the possibilities of assessing biological age in clinical practice // Fundamental research. - 2011. - No. 2 - S.17-22].

In a house sparrow, the heart rate in a state of muscle rest is 460 beats / min, and in flight - 950 beats / min (this animal species has an average life expectancy of 1.2 years and a relative heart mass of 1.5%; [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans, 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 p.]), the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 14.4%. Consequently, the entropy in the body of a house sparrow under these conditions will be equal to:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 \u003d (0.25 s / 1.03 s) 14.4% \u003d 3.49%;

- (during flight) α 2 \u003d (0.25 s / 0.50 s) 14.4% \u003d 7.20%.

The average life expectancy of this sparrow would be:

- (in the state of muscular rest) D o =(5.262·3.49 -1)=1.5 years;

- (during flight) D o \u003d (5.262 7.20 -1) \u003d 0.73 years.

From the examples of using the proposed method, it follows that with the growth of entropy in the human or animal body, the normal and average life expectancy of individuals are reduced and vice versa. The results of the application of the proposed method are consistent with the known results of physiological studies [Marshak M.E. Physiological significance of carbon dioxide. - M.: Medicine, 1969. - 145 p.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Elfimov A.I. Body functions under conditions of hypoxia and hypercapnia. M.: Medicine, 1986. - 272 p.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Katkov A.Yu. reserves of our body. M .: Knowledge, 1990. - 240 pp.], which established the effect of training the body to a lack of O 2 and an excess of CO 2 to improve health, increase efficiency and increase life expectancy. Since in the studies of these authors it was reliably established that training to a lack of O 2 and an excess of CO 2 reduces heart rate, the frequency and depth of pulmonary respiration, the content of O 2 in the alveolar air, then the indicated beneficial effect of such training on the body can be explained by the achieved decrease in its openness to the atmosphere and irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment.

So, during systematic training with volitional delays in pulmonary respiration and inhalation of hypoxic-hypercapnic air mixtures with an O 2 content of 15-9% and CO 2 5-11%, the alveolar air contains O 2 8.5; 7.5%. As a result (at heart rate, for example, 50 bpm) T=32.25 s; α=0.0659%; 0.0581%. Then the normal life expectancy would be:

D o \u003d (5.262 0.0659 -1) + 58 years \u003d 138 years;

D o1 \u003d (5.262 0.0581 -1) + 58 years \u003d 149 years.

The average life expectancy for men will be equal to:

D o \u003d (5.262 0.0659 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 113 years;

D o1 \u003d (5.262 0.0581 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 124 years.

Thus, in the claimed method for determining entropy in a human or animal body, the task of the invention is solved: entropy in a human or animal body is determined by the interaction of the contact phases of a circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

LITERATURE

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22. Shinder A. An animal that does not feel pain // Weekly 2000.-27.06-03.07.2008. No. 26 (420).

23. Eckert R., Randell D., Augustine J. Animal Physiology. T.2. M., 1992.

24. Stahl W.R. Organ weights in primates and other mammals, Science, 1965, 150, P.1039-1042.

25. Stahl W.R. scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. J. Appl. Physiol., 1967, 22, P. 453-460.

A method for determining entropy in a human or animal body, characterized in that the heart mass relative to body weight is determined in% (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in% (Co 2) and the calculation is carried out according to the formula: α \u003d (0.25 / T) Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time for a complete turnover of an erythrocyte with a circulating blood flow per second, while T \u003d [(0.44 75) / ( X A)] 21.5.

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The invention relates to medicine, forensic medicine, measurement for diagnostic purposes, including in investigative practice. Interactive psychophysiological testing (PFT) includes presenting the test questions to the test person, determining, analyzing the parameters of psychogenesis using sensors of the test person's physical parameters, indicating the results and making a judgment.

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The invention relates to medicine, namely to surgery, and can be used when performing cholecystectomy in patients with cholelithiasis. To do this, pre-determine the body mass index (BMI) of patients, the level of glycemia, glucosuria, measure blood pressure, detect the presence of osteochondrosis of the spine and arthrosis of the knee joints.

The invention relates to medicine, namely to pediatric cardiology, and can be used to determine the form of essential arterial hypertension in children and adolescents. In children and adolescents with essential arterial hypertension, the magnitude of the stroke volume of the left ventricle is determined according to echocardiography data, the content of lead in the blood serum, and the value of the time index of hypertension of systolic blood pressure in the daytime is calculated using the regression analysis formula: IV SBP day = 0.12 + 0, 0035*UO+0.13*Pb syv., where IV GARDEN day - index of time of hypertension GARDEN in the daytime; SV - stroke volume of the left ventricle according to echocardiography; Pb syv. - the content of lead in blood serum. When the value of the time index of hypertension of systolic blood pressure is in the range from 0.25 to 0.50, the form of essential arterial hypertension is defined as labile, with values ​​of more than 0.50 - a stable form of essential arterial hypertension. The method allows to determine the form of essential arterial hypertension in children and adolescents by determining the content of lead in the blood serum according to atomic absorption spectrophotometry and stroke volume of the left ventricle according to echocardiography. 1 tab., 3 pr.

SUBSTANCE: invention relates to sports medicine, namely to a method for prenosological diagnostics of sportsmen's health. A comprehensive clinical and laboratory study of an athlete is carried out 12-16 hours after the cessation of heavy physical activity. The scope of the study is determined taking into account the organs and systems most vulnerable to the action of physical activity when assessing prognostically significant criteria for the morphofunctional state of the body. The study includes the determination and analysis of biochemical, hematological, immunological and functional indicators, as well as indicators of vitamin and mineral saturation of the body. And, if these indicators remain stably changed, significantly different from normal values, non-specific changes in the athlete's organs and systems are diagnosed. EFFECT: method provides early diagnosis of significant changes in organs and systems of the body during the training-competition cycle, which allows subsequently to take timely measures to prevent the further development of pathological conditions and, in this regard, maintain professional performance and achieve consistently high sports results.

The invention relates to medical equipment. The device for measuring blood pressure in conditions of human motor activity contains a measuring pulse wave sensor under the pneumocuff at the passage of the brachial artery and a compensation pulse wave sensor on the diametrically opposite side of the arm. The outputs of the measuring and compensation sensors are connected to the corresponding amplifiers, which are connected to a subtractor, the output of which is connected to a band-pass filter, which is the output of the pressure meter. The device is additionally equipped with a second band-pass filter, first and second comparators, first and second sources of negative threshold voltage, first and second standby multivibrators, logic element 2I, a device for generating an informing signal about the invalid displacement of the sensors. The application of the invention will make it possible to eliminate false positives and the occurrence of errors in blood pressure measurement in cases of unacceptable displacement of sensors from the installation point due to the prompt receipt of information about this. 4 ill.

The invention relates to medicine, namely to internal medicine. The patient is tested with the definition of clinical signs and the evaluation of each in points and the diagnostic indicator is calculated. At the same time, clinical signs are determined: arterial hypertension, taking into account its stage and duration; diabetes mellitus, its duration, taking into account the age of the patient and complications; coronary heart disease and its duration, the presence of angina pectoris, myocardial infarction and its duration; patient's age; adherence to treatment; smoking. The absence of any of the listed signs is estimated at 0 points. After that, the sum of points is calculated, depending on the value obtained, a high, moderate or low probability of having a “silent” stroke is predicted. The method allows to reliably establish the presence of a "silent" stroke, which is achieved by determining clinically significant signs and their ranking, taking into account the individual characteristics of their severity in the patient. 3 ill., 4 tab., 3 pr.

The invention relates to medicine, namely to preventive medicine, and is intended to identify young people with a high risk of developing cardiovascular diseases for its timely correction. Conduct a survey to identify the leading risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases in accordance with the National recommendations for cardiovascular prevention. The result of the survey is evaluated in points: if the level of psychological stress is 3.01-4 for males and 2.83-4 for females, 0 points are assigned; if 2.01-3 for males and 1.83-2.82 for females, 1 point is assigned; if 2 or less for males and 1.82 or less for females, 2 points are assigned; if the respondent does not smoke, they assign 0 points, if they smoke less than 1 cigarette per day, they assign 1 point, if they smoke 1 or more cigarettes per day, they assign 2 points; when using 13.7 grams or less of ethanol per day, 0 points are assigned, when using from 13.8 grams to 27.4 grams - 1 point, when using 27.5 grams or more - 2 points; if the blood pressure is less than 129/84 mm Hg, 0 points are assigned, if in the range of 130-139/85-89 mm Hg. - 1 point if 140/90 mm Hg. and more - 2 points; if the body mass index is 24.9 kg/m2 or less, 0 points are assigned, if in the range of 25-29.9 kg/m2 - 1 point, if 30 kg/m2 or more - 2 points; with physical activity accompanied by energy burning of 3 MET / min or more for six or more recent months, 0 points are assigned, with physical activity accompanied by energy burning of 3 MET / min for less than the last six months - 1 point, with physical activity accompanied by burning energy less than 3 MET / min, assign 2 points; when using 500 g or more vegetables and fruits per day, 0 points are assigned, when using less than 500 g - 1 point, if there are no vegetables and fruits in the daily diet - 2 points; with a heart rate at rest from 50 to 69 per minute, 0 points are assigned, from 70 to 79 per minute - 1 point, 80 per minute or more - 2 points; with a negative history of cardiovascular diseases in case of manifestation of coronary artery disease or CVD in first-degree relatives in men under 55 years of age and in women under 65 years of age, 0 points are assigned, with a positive history of cardiovascular diseases - 1 point. The scores are summed up, and if the sum is 8 points or more, the respondent is classified as at high risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and preventive measures are recommended. The method allows to determine the risk of cardiovascular disease in young people by assessing risk factors. 1 tab., 1 pr.

The method relates to the field of medicine, namely to clinical diagnostics, and is intended to identify healthy individuals with non-communicable chronic diseases or a predisposition to them using an integral assessment of risk factors, suboptimal health status and endothelial dysfunction. The patient answers the questionnaire “Assessment of suboptimal health status. SHS-25", indicates his smoking history and the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Additionally, the patient's weight, height, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, blood glucose, total blood cholesterol are measured, the stiffness indices of the vascular wall and pulse wave reflection are measured using a cuff test. Smoker indexes, body weights, endothelial function indices are calculated. Computer data processing is carried out in accordance with the equations. Based on the highest value obtained from the calculation, the subject will be assigned to one of five groups: optimal health status, suboptimal health status of low risk of developing pathological conditions, suboptimal health status of high risk of developing pathological conditions, cardiovascular phenotype of suboptimal health status of low risk of developing cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular phenotype suboptimal health status high risk of developing cardiovascular disease. The method allows to assess the state of health with deviations in health at the preclinical stage, by identifying and assessing risk factors and determining the suboptimal health status. 1 ave.

The invention relates to the field of medicine and can be used by dentists in various fields. Before the start of dental activities, tests reveal the degree of psycho-emotional stress and the psycho-physiological state of the patient, and also determine the pulse level before the first test (P1), between two tests (P2) and after the second test (P3). In the presence of a mild degree of psycho-emotional stress, a stable psycho-physiological state in combination with a difference between P3 and P2 of no more than 15 bpm compared to the difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as stable and the patient's readiness for dental intervention is stated. In the presence of an average degree of psycho-emotional stress, a borderline psycho-physiological state in combination with a difference between P3 and P2 of no more than 15 beats / min, compared with the optimal state with a difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as labile and the need for relaxation effects on the patient is stated before dental intervention. In the presence of a severe degree of psycho-emotional stress, an unstable psycho-physiological state in combination with a difference between P3 and P2 of more than 15 bpm compared to the difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as unfavorable for dental intervention, requiring its delay. The method allows to perform a rapid assessment of the patient's psycho-emotional state before dental intervention. 3 Ave.

The group of inventions relates to medicine. The system for measuring blood pressure using an indirect method comprises a device for applying an external contact force to the measured artery, a sensor for arterial pronounced signs, and a device for measuring and recording for determining the systolic and diastolic periods of the arterial cycle based on the values ​​recorded by the sensor. The measurement and recording device measures the diastolic pressure during the diastolic period before the artery is completely occluded, and measures the systolic pressure during the systolic period when the artery is occluded. The sensor records pronounced features before, during and after receiving an external force. When measuring blood pressure by obliteration, an arterial cycle is obtained by distinguishing between systolic and diastolic periods without affecting the blood flow and the arterial wall by external forces. An external force is applied to the artery and the arterial pronounced sign from each period is recorded. The external force is increased until it equalizes with the arterial pressure in the period to be measured. A given blood pressure is measured in a given arterial cycle when an arterial pronounced sign disappears in any of the systolic or diastolic periods. When measuring diastolic blood pressure by release, an external force is applied to the artery until it is occluded. The external force is weakened until it equalizes with arterial pressure in the diastolic period. Diastolic pressure is measured during registration of an arterial pronounced sign at the moment of time when an arterial expressed sign appears from the diastolic period of the arterial cycle. The use of a group of inventions will improve the accuracy of blood pressure measurement in an indirect way. 3 n. and 29 z.p. f-ly, 13 ill.

The invention relates to medical equipment. The device for recording arterial blood pulsation contains a pulse generator, a light source, a photodetector, a current/voltage converter, an AC voltage amplifier, a synchronous demodulator, and a band pass filter. Additionally, an accelerometer, an analog-to-digital converter, a microcontroller, an adaptive filter, and a subtractor are introduced into the device. The output of the band pass filter is connected to the first input of the analog-to-digital converter, the output of the accelerometer is connected to the second input of the analog-to-digital converter, the output of the analog-to-digital converter is connected to the input of the microcontroller, the first output of the microcontroller is connected to the first input of the subtractor, the second output of the microcontroller is connected to the first input adaptive filter, the output of the subtractor is connected to the second input of the adaptive filter, the output of the adaptive filter is connected to the second input of the subtractor. The application of the invention will increase the noise immunity of recording a human arterial blood pulsation signal in the presence of motor artifacts due to random movements of the subject. 1 ill.

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to the study of the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on human or animal health. The method concerns the study of entropy in the body. To do this, determine the relative weight of the heart in relation to body weight, the number of heartbeats and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs. The calculation is carried out according to the formula: α·Co2, where α is the entropy in, T is the time of complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow per second, while T 21.5. The method makes it possible to measure the main characteristic of an organism that unites living systems, which can be used to determine biological age, health status, to study the effect of various means of preventing health disorders and prolonging life. 1 tab.

A measure of uncertainty in the distribution of the states of a biological system, defined as

where II - entropy, the probability of the system accepting a state from the area x, - the number of system states. E. s. can be determined relative to the distribution of any structural or functional indicators. E. s. used to calculate the biological systems of an organization. An important characteristic of a living system is the conditional entropy, which characterizes the uncertainty of the distribution of the states of a biological system relative to a known distribution

where is the probability of the system accepting a state from the x region, provided that the reference system, against which the uncertainty is measured, accepts a state from the y region, is the number of states of the reference system. A variety of factors can act as parameters of reference systems for a biosystem, and first of all, a system of environmental variables (material, energy or organizational conditions). The measure of conditional entropy, as well as the measure of organization of a biosystem, can be used to assess the evolution of a living system in time. In this case, the reference is the distribution of the probabilities of the system accepting its states at some previous points in time. And if the number of system states remains unchanged, then the conditional entropy of the current distribution relative to the reference distribution is defined as

E. s., like the entropy of thermodynamic processes, is closely related to the energy state of the elements. In the case of a biosystem, this connection is multilateral and difficult to determine. In general, entropy changes accompany all life processes and serve as one of the characteristics in the analysis of biological patterns.

Yu. G. Antomopov, P. I. Belobrov.

ENTROPY AND ENERGY IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS. BIOPHYSICAL MECHANISMS OF "ENERGY" MERIDIANS ACTIVITY

Korotkov K. G. 1 , Williams B. 2 , Wisnesky L.A. 3
Email: [email protected]

1 - SPbTUITMO, Russia ; 2 - Holos University Graduate Seminary, Fairview, Missouri; USA, 3-George Washington University Medical Center, USA.

Doing

Methods for studying the functional state of a person by recording the electro-optical parameters of the skin can be divided into two conditional groups according to the nature of the involved biophysical processes. The first group includes "slow" methods, in which the measurement time is more than 1 s. In this case, under the influence of applied potentials, ion-depolarization currents are stimulated in the tissues, and the ion component makes the main contribution to the measured signal (Tiller, 1988). "Fast" methods, in which the measurement time is less than 100 ms, are based on the registration of physical processes stimulated by the electronic component of tissue conductivity. Such processes are described mainly by quantum mechanical models, so they can be designated as methods of quantum biophysics. The latter include methods for recording stimulated and intrinsic luminescence, as well as the method of stimulated electron emission with amplification in a gas discharge (gas-discharge visualization method). Let us consider in more detail the biophysical and entropy mechanisms for implementing the methods of quantum biophysics.

electronic circuit of life

"I am deeply convinced that we will never be able to understand the essence of life if we limit ourselves to the molecular level ... The amazing subtlety of biological reactions is due to the mobility of electrons and can only be explained from the standpoint of quantum mechanics."
A. Szent-Györgyi, 1971

The electronic scheme of life - the circulation and transformation of energy in biological systems, can be represented in the following form (Samoilov, 1986, 2001) (Fig. 1). Photons of sunlight are absorbed by chlorophyll molecules concentrated in the chloroplast membranes of green plant organelles. By absorbing light, the electrons of chlorophylls acquire additional energy and pass from the ground state to the excited state. Due to the ordered organization of the protein-chlorophyll complex, which is called the photosystem (PS), the excited electron does not spend energy on thermal transformations of molecules, but acquires the ability to overcome electrostatic repulsion, although the substance located next to it has a higher electronic potential than chlorophyll. As a result, the excited electron passes to this substance.

After losing its electron, chlorophyll has a free electron vacancy. And it takes an electron from the surrounding molecules, and substances whose electrons have lower energy than the electrons of chlorophyll can serve as a donor. This substance is water (Fig. 2).

Taking electrons from water, the photosystem oxidizes it to molecular oxygen. So the Earth's atmosphere is continuously enriched with oxygen.

When a mobile electron is transferred along a chain of structurally interconnected macromolecules, it spends its energy on anabolic and catabolic processes in plants, and, under appropriate conditions, in animals. According to modern concepts (Samoilov, 2001; Rubin, 1999), the intermolecular transfer of an excited electron occurs by the mechanism of the tunnel effect in a strong electric field.

Chlorophylls serve as an intermediate step in the potential well between the electron donor and acceptor. They accept electrons from a donor with a low energy level and, due to the energy of the sun, excite them so much that they can transfer to a substance with a higher electron potential than the donor. This is the only, albeit multi-stage, light reaction in the process of photosynthesis. Further autotrophic biosynthetic reactions do not require light. They occur in green plants due to the energy contained in the electrons belonging to NADPH and ATP. Due to the colossal influx of electrons from carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, sulfates and other relatively simple substances, high-molecular compounds are created: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleic acids.

These substances serve as the main nutrients for heterotrophs. In the course of catabolic processes, also provided by electron transport systems, electrons are released in approximately the same amount as they were captured by organic substances during their photosynthesis. Electrons released during catabolism are transferred to molecular oxygen by the respiratory chain of mitochondria (see Fig. 1). Here, oxidation is associated with phosphorylation - the synthesis of ATP by attaching a phosphoric acid residue to ADP (that is, ADP phosphorylation). This ensures the energy supply of all life processes of animals and humans.

Being in a cell, biomolecules "live", exchanging energy and charges, and hence information, thanks to a developed system of delocalized π-electrons. Delocalization means that a single cloud of π-electrons is distributed in a certain way over the entire structure of the molecular complex. This allows them to migrate not only within their own molecule, but also to move from molecule to molecule if they are structurally combined into ensembles. The phenomenon of intermolecular transfer was discovered by J. Weiss in 1942, and the quantum mechanical model of this process was developed in 1952-1964 by R.S. Mulliken.

At the same time, the most important mission of π-electrons in biological processes is associated not only with their delocalization, but also with the peculiarities of their energy status: the difference between the energies of the ground and excited states for them is much less than that of π-electrons and is approximately equal to the photon energy hν.

Due to this, it is π-electrons that are able to accumulate and convert solar energy, due to which all the energy supply of biological systems is connected with them. Therefore, π-electrons are usually called "electrons of life" (Samoilov, 2001).

Comparing the scales of the reduction potentials of the components of photosynthesis systems and the respiratory chain, it is easy to verify that the solar energy converted by π-electrons during photosynthesis is spent mainly on cellular respiration (ATP synthesis). Thus, due to the absorption of two photons in the chloroplast, π-electrons are transferred from P680 to ferredoxin (Fig. 2), increasing their energy by approximately 241 kJ/mol. A small part of it is consumed during the transfer of π-electrons from ferredoxin to NADP. As a result, substances are synthesized, which then become food for heterotrophs and turn into substrates for cellular respiration. At the beginning of the respiratory chain, the free energy of π-electrons is 220 kJ/mol. This means that before that the energy of π-electrons decreased by only 20 kJ/mol. Consequently, more than 90% of the solar energy stored by π-electrons in green plants is carried by them to the respiratory chain of animal and human mitochondria.

The final product of redox reactions in the respiratory chain of mitochondria is water. It has the least free energy of all biologically important molecules. It is said that with water the body emits electrons that are deprived of energy in the processes of vital activity. In fact, the supply of energy in water is by no means zero, but all the energy is contained in σ-bonds and cannot be used for chemical transformations in the body at body temperature and other physicochemical parameters of the body of animals and humans. In this sense, the chemical activity of water is taken as a reference point (zero level) on the scale of chemical activity.

Of all biologically important substances, water has the highest ionization potential - 12.56 eV. All molecules of the biosphere have ionization potentials below this value, the range of values ​​is approximately within 1 eV (from 11.3 to 12.56 eV).

If we take the ionization potential of water as a reference point for the reactivity of the biosphere, then we can build a scale of biopotentials (Fig. 3). The biopotential of each organic substance has a very definite meaning - it corresponds to the energy that is released when the given compound is oxidized to water.

The dimension of the BP in Fig. 3 is the dimension of the free energy of the corresponding substances (in kcal). And although 1 eV \u003d 1.6 10 -19 J, when moving from the scale of ionization potentials to the scale of biopotentials, one must take into account the Faraday number and the difference in standard reduction potentials between the redox pair of a given substance and the O 2 /H 2 O redox pair.

Through the absorption of photons, electrons reach the highest biopotential in plant photosystems. From this high energy level, they discretely (step by step) descend to the lowest energy level in the biosphere - the water level. The energy given off by electrons on each rung of this ladder is converted into the energy of chemical bonds and thus drives the life of animals and plants. Water electrons are bound by plants, and cellular respiration re-creates water. This process forms an electronic circuit in the biosphere, the source of which is the sun.

Another class of processes that are a source and reservoir of free energy in the body are oxidative processes occurring in the body with the participation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are highly reactive chemical species, which include oxygen-containing free radicals (O 2¾ , HО 2 , NO , NO , ROO ), as well as molecules capable of easily producing free radicals (singlet oxygen, O 3 , ONOOH, HOCl, H 2 O 2 , ROOH, ROOR). In most publications devoted to ROS, issues related to their pathogenic action are discussed, since for a long time it was believed that ROS appear in the body when normal metabolism is disturbed, and molecular components of the cell are nonspecifically damaged during chain reactions initiated by free radicals.

However, it has now become clear that superoxide-generating enzymes are present in almost all cells and that many of the normal physiological responses of cells correlate with an increase in ROS production. ROS are also generated in the course of non-enzymatic reactions constantly occurring in the body. According to minimal estimates, up to 10-15% of oxygen goes to the production of ROS during the respiration of humans and animals, and with an increase in activity, this proportion increases significantly [Lukyanova et al., 1982; Vlessis, et al., 1995]. At the same time, the stationary level of ROS in organs and tissues is normally very low due to the ubiquity of powerful enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems that eliminate them. The question of why the body produces ROS so intensively in order to immediately get rid of them has not yet been discussed in the literature.

It has been established that adequate cell responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, and physical factors (light, temperature, mechanical influences) require a certain amount of ROS in the medium. ROS themselves can induce in cells the same reactions that develop under the action of bioregulatory molecules - from activation or reversible inhibition of enzymatic systems to regulation of genome activity. The biological activity of the so-called air ions, which have a pronounced therapeutic effect on a wide range of infectious and non-infectious diseases [Chizhevsky, 1999], is due to the fact that they are free radicals (O 2 ¾ · ) . The use of other ROS for therapeutic purposes is also expanding - ozone and hydrogen peroxide.

Important results have been obtained in recent years by professor of Moscow State University V.L. Voeikov. Based on a large amount of experimental data on the study of the ultra-weak luminescence of whole undiluted human blood, it was found that reactions involving ROS continuously occur in the blood, during which electronically excited states (EES) are generated. Similar processes can be initiated in model water systems containing amino acids and components promoting slow oxidation of amino acids under conditions close to physiological. The energy of electronic excitation can migrate radiatively and nonradiatively in water model systems and in blood, and be used as an activation energy to intensify the processes that generate EMU, in particular, due to the induction of degenerate chain branching.

Processes involving ROS occurring in the blood and in water systems show signs of self-organization, expressed in their oscillatory nature, resistance to the action of intense external factors while maintaining high sensitivity to the action of factors of low and ultra-low intensity. This position lays the foundation for explaining many of the effects used in modern low-intensity therapy.

Received by V.L. Voeikov, the results demonstrate another mechanism for the generation and utilization of EMU in the body, this time in liquid media. The development of the concepts outlined in this chapter will make it possible to substantiate the biophysical mechanisms of energy generation and transport in biological systems.

Entropy of life

In terms of thermodynamics, open (biological) systems in the process of functioning pass through a number of non-equilibrium states, which, in turn, is accompanied by a change in thermodynamic variables.

Maintenance of non-equilibrium states in open systems is possible only by creating flows of matter and energy in them, which indicates the need to consider the parameters of such systems as functions of time.

The change in the entropy of an open system can occur due to the exchange with the external environment (d e S) and due to the growth of entropy in the system itself due to internal irreversible processes (d i S > 0). E. Schrödinger introduced the concept that the total change in the entropy of an open system consists of two parts:

dS = d e S + d i S.

Differentiating this expression, we get:

dS/dt = d e S/dt + d i S/dt.

The resulting expression means that the rate of change in the entropy of the system dS/dt is equal to the rate of entropy exchange between the system and the environment plus the rate of entropy generation within the system.

The term d e S/dt , which takes into account the processes of energy exchange with the environment, can be both positive and negative, so that for d i S > 0 the total entropy of the system can either increase or decrease.

Negative d e S/dt< 0 соответствует тому, что отток положительной энтропии от системы во внешнюю среду превышает приток положительной энтропии извне, так что в результате общая величина баланса обмена энтропией между системой и средой является отрицательной. Очевидно, что скорость изменения общей энтропии системы может быть отрицательной при условии:

dS/dt< 0 if d e S/dt < 0 and |d e S/dt| >d i S/dt.

Thus, the entropy of an open system decreases due to the fact that in other parts of the external environment there are conjugated processes with the formation of positive entropy.

For terrestrial organisms, the overall energy exchange can be simplified as the formation of complex carbohydrate molecules from CO 2 and H 2 O during photosynthesis, followed by the degradation of photosynthesis products in the processes of respiration. It is this energy exchange that ensures the existence and development of individual organisms - links in the energy cycle. So is life on earth in general. From this point of view, the decrease in the entropy of living systems in the course of their life activity is ultimately due to the absorption of light quanta by photosynthetic organisms, which, however, is more than offset by the formation of positive entropy in the interior of the Sun. This principle also applies to individual organisms, for which the intake of nutrients from outside, carrying an influx of "negative" entropy, is always associated with the production of positive entropy when they are formed in other parts of the environment, so that the total change in entropy in the organism + environment system is always positive. .

Under constant external conditions in a partially equilibrium open system in a stationary state close to thermodynamic equilibrium, the rate of entropy growth due to internal irreversible processes reaches a non-zero constant minimum positive value.

d i S/dt => A min > 0

This principle of minimum entropy growth, or Prigogine's theorem, is a quantitative criterion for determining the general direction of spontaneous changes in an open system near equilibrium.

This condition can be presented in another way:

d/dt (d i S/dt)< 0

This inequality testifies to the stability of the stationary state. Indeed, if the system is in a stationary state, then it cannot spontaneously leave it due to internal irreversible changes. When deviating from a stationary state, internal processes must occur in the system, returning it to a stationary state, which corresponds to the Le Chatelier principle - the stability of equilibrium states. In other words, any deviation from the steady state will cause an increase in the rate of entropy production.

In general, the decrease in the entropy of living systems occurs due to the free energy released during the decay of nutrients absorbed from the outside or due to the energy of the sun. At the same time, this leads to an increase in their free energy. Thus, the flow of negative entropy is necessary to compensate for internal destructive processes and the loss of free energy due to spontaneous metabolic reactions. In essence, we are talking about the circulation and transformation of free energy, due to which the functioning of living systems is maintained.

Diagnostic technologies based on the achievements of quantum biophysics

Based on the concepts discussed above, a number of approaches have been developed that make it possible to study the lifetime activity of biological systems. First of all, these are spectral methods, among which it is necessary to note the method of simultaneous measurement of the intrinsic fluorescence of NADH and oxidized flavoproteins (FP), developed by a team of authors led by V.O. Samoilov. This technique is based on the use of an original optical scheme developed by E.M. Brumberg, which makes it possible to simultaneously measure the NADH fluorescence at a wavelength of λ = 460 nm (blue light) and the fluorescence of the FP at a wavelength of λ = 520–530 nm (yellow-green light) under ultraviolet excitation (λ = 365 nm). In this donor-acceptor pair, the π-electron donor fluoresces in the reduced form (NADH), while the acceptor fluoresces in the oxidized form (FP). Naturally, reduced forms predominate at rest, while oxidized forms predominate when oxidative processes are intensified.

The technique was brought to the practical level of convenient endoscopic devices, which made it possible to develop an early diagnosis of malignant diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, lymph nodes during surgical operations, and skin. It turned out to be fundamentally important to assess the degree of tissue viability in the course of surgical operations for economical resection. Intravital flowometry provides, in addition to static indicators, the dynamic characteristics of biological systems, as it allows you to conduct functional tests and explore the dose-effect relationship. This provides reliable functional diagnostics in the clinic and serves as a tool for experimental study of the intimate mechanisms of the pathogenesis of diseases.

The method of gas-discharge visualization (GDV) can also be attributed to the direction of quantum biophysics. Stimulation of the emission of electrons and photons from the surface of the skin occurs due to short (10 µs) electromagnetic field (EMF) pulses. As measurements with a pulse oscilloscope with memory showed, during the action of an EMF pulse, a series of current pulses (and glow) with a duration of approximately 10 ns each develops (Fig. 4). The development of the pulse is due to the ionization of the molecules of the gaseous medium due to emitted electrons and photons, the breakdown of the pulse is associated with the processes of charging the dielectric surface and the emergence of an EMF gradient directed opposite to the initial field (Korotkov, 2001). When applying a series of EMF stimulating pulses with a repetition rate of 1000 Hz, emission processes develop during the duration of each pulse. Television observation of the temporal dynamics of the luminescence of an area of ​​the skin with a diameter of several millimeters and a frame-by-frame comparison of the luminescence patterns in each voltage pulse indicates the appearance of emission centers practically at the same points of the skin.

For such a short time - 10 ns - ion-depolization processes in the tissue do not have time to develop, so the current may be due to the transport of electrons through the structural complexes of the skin or other biological tissue under study included in the circuit of the pulsed electric current. Biological tissues are usually divided into conductors (primarily biological conductive liquids) and dielectrics. To explain the effects of stimulated electron emission, it is necessary to consider the mechanisms of electron transport through nonconducting structures. Ideas have been repeatedly expressed to apply the model of semiconductor conductivity to biological tissues. The semiconductor model of electron migration over large intermolecular distances along the conduction band in a crystal lattice is well known and is actively used in physics and technology. In accordance with modern ideas (Rubin, 1999), the semiconductor concept has not been confirmed for biological systems. Currently, the concept of tunneling electron transport between individual protein carrier molecules separated from each other by energy barriers attracts the most attention in this area.

The processes of tunnel transport of electrons are well studied experimentally and modeled using the example of electron transfer along a protein chain. The tunnel mechanism provides an elementary act of electron transfer between donor-acceptor groups in the protein, located at a distance of about 0.5 - 1.0 nm from each other. However, there are many examples where an electron is transferred in a protein over much longer distances. It is essential that in this case the transfer occurs not only within one protein molecule, but may include the interaction of different protein molecules. Thus, in the electron transfer reaction between cytochromes c and cytochrome oxidase and cytochrome b5, it turned out that the distance between the gems of interacting proteins is more than 2.5 nm (Rubin, 1999). The characteristic electron transfer time is 10 -11 - 10 -6 s, which corresponds to the development time of a single emission event in the GDV method.

The conductivity of proteins can be of an impurity character. According to the experimental data, the value of mobility u [m 2 /(V cm)] in an alternating electric field was ~ 1*10 -4 for cytochrome, ~ 2*10 -4 for hemoglobin. In general, it turned out that for most proteins, conduction occurs as a result of electron hopping between localized donor and acceptor states separated by distances of tens of nanometers. The limiting stage in the transfer process is not the movement of the charge through the current states, but the relaxation processes in the donor and acceptor.

In recent years, it has been possible to calculate real configurations of such "electronic paths" in specific proteins. In these models, the protein medium between the donor and acceptor is divided into separate blocks, interconnected by covalent and hydrogen bonds, as well as non-valent interactions at a distance of the order of van der Waals radii. The electron path, therefore, is represented by a combination of those atomic electron orbitals that make the greatest contribution to the value of the matrix element of the interaction of the wave functions of the components.

At the same time, it is generally recognized that specific ways of electron transfer are not strictly fixed. They depend on the conformational state of the protein globule and can change accordingly under different conditions. In the works of Marcus, an approach was developed that considers not a single optimal transport trajectory in a protein, but a set of them. When calculating the transfer constant, we took into account the orbitals of a number of electron-interacting atoms of protein amino acid residues between the donor and acceptor groups, which make the greatest contribution to the superexchange interaction. It turned out that for individual proteins, more accurate linear relationships are obtained than when taking into account a single trajectory.

The transformation of electronic energy in biostructures is associated not only with the transfer of electrons, but also with the migration of the energy of electronic excitation, which is not accompanied by detachment of an electron from the donor molecule. The most important for biological systems, according to modern concepts, are the inductive-resonant, exchange-resonant and exciton mechanisms of electron excitation transfer. These processes turn out to be important when considering the processes of energy transfer through molecular complexes, which, as a rule, are not accompanied by charge transfer.

Conclusion

The above concepts show that the main reservoir of free energy in biological systems is the electronically excited states of complex molecular complexes. These states are continuously maintained due to the circulation of electrons in the biosphere, the source of which is solar energy, and the main "working substance" is water. Some of the states are spent to provide the current energy resource of the body, and some can be stored in the future, just as it happens in lasers after the absorption of the pump pulse.

The flow of a pulsed electric current in nonconductive biological tissues can be provided by intermolecular transfer of excited electrons by the tunnel effect mechanism with activated electron hopping in the contact region between macromolecules. Thus, it can be assumed that the formation of specific structural-protein complexes in the thickness of the epidermis and dermis of the skin provides the formation of channels of increased electronic conductivity, experimentally measured on the surface of the epidermis as electroacupuncture points. Hypothetically, one can assume the presence of such channels in the thickness of the connective tissue, which can be associated with "energy" meridians. In other words, the concept of "energy" transfer, which is typical for the ideas of Eastern medicine and cuts the ear of a person with a European education, can be associated with the transport of electronically excited states through molecular protein complexes. If it is necessary to perform physical or mental work in a given system of the body, electrons distributed in protein structures are transported to a given place and provide the process of oxidative phosphorylation, that is, energy support for the functioning of the local system. Thus, the body forms an electronic "energy depot" that supports the current functioning and is the basis for performing work that requires instantaneous realization of huge energy resources or proceeds under conditions of super-heavy loads, typical, for example, for professional sports.

Stimulated pulsed emission also develops mainly due to the transport of delocalized π-electrons, realized in an electrically non-conductive tissue by means of a tunnel mechanism of electron transfer. This suggests that the GDV method makes it possible to indirectly judge the level of energy reserves at the molecular level of the functioning of structural protein complexes.

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Information for a living organism is an important factor in its evolution.

Russian biologist I.I. Schmalhausen was one of the first who drew attention to the relationship of information with entropy and developed an informational approach to theoretical biology. He also established that the process of receiving, transmitting and processing information in living organisms must obey the well-known principle of optimality. Applied to

living organisms can be considered that "information is a remembered choice of possible states." This approach to information means that the emergence and transfer of it to a living system is the process of organizing these states, and, therefore, the process of self-organization can also occur in it. We know that these processes for a living system can lead to its ordering and, therefore, to a decrease in entropy.

The system seeks to reduce the internal entropy, giving it to the external environment. Recall that entropy can also be considered a biological criterion of optimality and serves as a measure of the freedom of the system:

the more states available to the system, the greater the entropy.

Entropy is maximum precisely with a uniform probability distribution, which, therefore, can no longer lead to further development. Any deviation from the uniformity of perception leads to a decrease in entropy. In accordance with the above expressions of the system, the entropy is defined as the logarithm of the phase space. Note that the extremal principle of entropy allows us to find a stable state of the system. The more information a living system has about internal and external changes, the more opportunities it has to change its state due to metabolism, behavioral reactions or adaptation to the received signal, for example, a sharp release of adrenaline into the blood in stressful situations, reddening of a person’s face, increased body temperature, etc. The information received by the body is the same as

entropy affects the processes of its organization. The general state of the system, its

stability (homeostasis in biology as the constancy of structure and functions) will depend on the relationship between entropy and information.

THE VALUE OF INFORMATION

With the development of cybernetics as a science of managing processes in inanimate and living nature, it became clear that it is not just the amount of information that makes sense, but its value. A useful informative signal should stand out from the informational noise, and the noise is the maximum number of equilibrium states, i.e. the maximum of entropy, and the minimum of entropy corresponds to the maximum of information, and the selection of information from noise is the process of the birth of order from chaos. Therefore, a decrease in monotony (the appearance of a white crow in a flock of blacks) will mean a decrease in entropy, but an increase in information content about such a system (flock). For obtaining information, you need to “pay” with an increase in entropy, it cannot be obtained for free! Note that the law of necessary diversity, inherent in living nature, follows from the theorems of K. Shanon. This law was formulated by W. Ashby (1915-1985): "...information cannot be transmitted in greater quantities than the amount of diversity allows."

An example of the relationship between information and entropy is the emergence in inanimate nature of an ordered crystal from a melt. In this case, the entropy of the grown crystal decreases, but information about the arrangement of atoms at the nodes of the crystal lattice increases. notice, that

the amount of information is complementary to the amount of entropy, since they are inversely

are proportional, and therefore the informational approach to the explanation of living things does not give us more understanding than the thermodynamic one.

One of the essential features of a living system is the ability to create new information and select the most valuable for it in the process of life. The more valuable information is created in the system and the higher the criterion for its selection, the higher this system is on the ladder of biological evolution. The value of information, especially for living organisms, depends on the purpose for which it is used. We have already noted that the desire to survive as the main goal of living objects underlies the entire evolution of the biosphere. This applies to both higher and simpler organisms. The goal in living nature can be considered a set of behavioral reactions that contribute to the survival and preservation of organisms in the struggle for existence. In higher organisms this may be conscious, but this does not mean that the goal is absent. Therefore, to describe living nature, the value of information is a meaningful concept, and this concept is connected with an important property of living nature, the ability of living organisms to set goals.

According to D.S. Chernyavsky, for inanimate objects, the goal could be considered the system's striving for an attractor as an unstable final state. However, under conditions of unstable development of attractors, there can be many, and this allows us to assume that there is no valuable information for such objects of inanimate nature. Perhaps that is why in classical physics the concept of information was not used to describe processes in inanimate nature: it developed in accordance with the laws of nature, and this was enough to describe processes in the language of physics. It can even be said that in inanimate nature, if there is a goal, then there is no information, and if there is information, then there is no goal. Probably, on this basis, it is possible to distinguish between non-living objects and living ones, for which the concepts of purpose, information and its value are constructive and meaningful. Therefore, along with other considered signs of the development of self-organizing systems, the criterion of biological evolution is the increase in the value of information that is born in the system and then transmitted by a living organism genetically to the next generations.

The information necessary for the development of a living system arises and acquires value through selection, according to which favorable individual changes are preserved, and harmful ones are destroyed. In this sense, the value of information is a translation into the language of synergetics of the Darwinian triad of heredity, variability and natural selection. There is a kind of self-organization of the necessary information. This will allow through this concept to connect the Darwinian theory of evolution, classical information theory and molecular biology.

The patterns of biological evolution in the light of information theory will be determined by how the principle of maximum information and its value is realized in the process of development of a living being. It should be noted that the "border effect" that attracts all living things, which we have already talked about, is confirmed by the fact that the border is more informative.

CONCLUSION

The physical variable entropy originally arose from the problems of describing thermal processes and then was widely used in all areas of science. Information - knowledge used to develop and improve the interaction of the system with the environment. The development of the system is followed by the development of information. The existence of new forms, principles, subsystems causes changes in the content of information, forms of receipt, processing, transmission and use. A system that interacts purposefully with the environment is controlled or controlled by information flows.

One of the essential features of a living system is the ability to create new information and select the most valuable for it in the process of life. The more valuable information is created in the system and the higher the criterion for its selection, the higher this system is on the ladder of biological evolution.

Stabilization, adaptation and restoration of the system can provide operational information in case of violations of the structure and / or subsystems. The stability and development of the system is influenced by: how much the system is informed, the process of its interaction with the environment. In our time, forecasting plays a big role. Any enterprise in the process of organization is faced with various risks that affect its condition.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gorbachev V. V. Concepts of modern natural science: - M .: LLC Publishing House ONYX 21st Century: LLC Publishing House World and Education, 2005

2. Kanke V.A. Concepts of modern natural science M.: Logos, 2010 - 338 p.

3. Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for university students studying in the humanities and specialties in economics and management. M.: UNITI-DANA, 2006. - 447 p.

4. Novikov BA. Dictionary. Practical market economy: - M.: Flint, - 2005, - 376s.

5. Shmalgauzen I.I. The organism as a whole in individual and historical development. M., 1982

6. Khramov Yu. A. Clausius Rudolf Julius Emanuel // Physicists: Biographical reference book / Ed. A. I. Akhiezer. - Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional - M.: Nauka, 1983. - S. 134. - 400 p.

Gorbachev V. V. Concepts of modern natural science: - M .: LLC Publishing House ONIKS 21

century ": LLC" Publishing House "Mir and Education", 2003. - 592 p.: ill.

Shmalgauzen I.I. The organism as a whole in individual and historical development. M., 1982.

Chernyavsky D.S. Synergetics and information. M., Knowledge, 1990

According to the Boltzmann formula, entropy is defined as the logarithm of the number of microstates possible in a given macroscopic system

where A in \u003d 1.38-10 16 erg-deg or 3.31? 10 24 entropy units (1 e.u. = 1 cal deg 1 = 4.1 J/K), or 1.38 10" 23 J/K. - Boltzmann's constant; W- the number of microstates (for example, the number of ways in which gas molecules can be placed in a vessel).

It is in this sense that entropy is a measure of the disorder and chaotization of a system. In real systems, there are stable and unstable degrees of freedom (for example, the solid walls of a vessel and the molecules of the gas contained in it).

The concept of entropy is associated precisely with unstable degrees, according to which the system can be chaotized, and the number of possible microstates is much greater than one. In completely stable systems, only one single solution is realized, i.e., the number of ways in which this single macrostate of the system is implemented is equal to one (IV= 1), and the entropy is zero. In biology, the concept of entropy, as well as thermodynamic concepts, can be used only in relation to specific metabolic processes, and not to describe the behavior and general biological properties of organisms as a whole. The connection between entropy and information in information theory was established for statistical degrees of freedom.

Let us assume that we have received information about how the given macrostate of the system is implemented. Obviously, the amount of information that is obtained in this case will be the greater, the greater was the initial uncertainty or entropy

According to information theory, in this simple case, the amount of information about the only real state of the system will be equal to

The unit of information amount (bit) is the information contained in a reliable message, when the number of initial possible states was equal to W= 2:

For example, a message about which side a coin fell on when thrown into the air contains an amount of information of 1 bit. Comparing formulas (7.1) and (7.2), we can find the relationship between entropy (in entropy units) and information (in bits)

Now let's try to formally estimate the amount of information contained in the human body, where there are 10 13 cells. Using formula (7.2), we obtain the quantity

Such an amount of information would have to be initially obtained in order to carry out the only correct arrangement of cells in the body. This is equivalent to a very slight decrease in the entropy of the system by

If we consider that the unique nature of the arrangement of amino acid residues in proteins and nucleotide residues in DNA is also carried out in the body, then the total amount of information contained in a human gel will be

which is equivalent to a small decrease in entropy by AS~~ 300 es = 1200 J/K.

In the metabolic processes of GS, this decrease in entropy is easily compensated by an increase in entropy during the oxidation of 900 g of glucose. Thus, a comparison of formulas (7.1) and (7.2) shows that biological systems do not have any increased information capacity compared to other non-living systems consisting of the same number of structural elements. This conclusion at first glance contradicts the role and significance of information processes in biology.

However, the relationship between / and S in (7.4) is valid only with respect to information about which of all W microstates implemented at the moment. This micro-information, related to the arrangement of all atoms in the system, cannot actually be remembered and stored, since any of these micro-states will quickly change into another due to thermal fluctuations. And the value of biological information is determined not by quantity, but primarily by the possibility of its memorization, storage, processing and further transfer for use in the life of the organism.

The main condition for the perception and memorization of information is the ability of the receptor system, as a result of the information received, to move into one of the stable states predetermined by virtue of its organization. Therefore, information processes in organized systems are associated only with certain degrees of freedom. The very process of storing information must be accompanied by some loss of energy in the receptor system so that it can be stored in it for a sufficient time and not be lost due to thermal fluctuations. It is here that the transformation of micro-information, which the system could not remember, into macro-information, which the system remembers, stores and then can transfer to other acceptor systems, is carried out. As they say, entropy is a measure of the set of microstates that the system does not remember, and macroinformation is a measure of the set of their states, the presence in which the system must remember.

For example, the information capacity in DNA is determined only by the number of certain nucleotides, and not by the total number of microstates, including vibrations of all atoms of the DNA chain. The process of storing information in DNA is the fixation of a certain arrangement of nucleotides, which is stable due to the formation of chemical bonds in the chain. Further transmission of genetic information is carried out as a result of biochemical processes, in which the dissipation of energy and the formation of appropriate stable chemical structures ensures the efficiency of biological processing of information.

In general, information processes are widespread in biology. At the molecular level, they occur not only during the memorization and processing of genetic information, but also during the mutual recognition of macromolecules, provide the specificity and directed nature of enzymatic reactions, and are important in the interaction of cell membranes and surfaces.

Physiological receptor processes, which play an independent informational role in the life of the organism, are also based on the interactions of macromolecules. In all cases, macroinformation appears initially in the form of conformational changes during the dissipation of part of the energy over certain degrees of freedom in interacting macromolecules. As a result, macroinformation is recorded as a set of sufficiently deep conformational substates, which make it possible to store this information for the time necessary for its further processing. The biological meaning of this macro-information is already realized in accordance with the peculiarities of the organization of the biological system and specific cellular structures, on which further processes are played out, ultimately leading to the corresponding physiological and biochemical effects.

It can be argued that living systems directly control biochemical reactions at the level of single macromolecules.

the totality of which ultimately determines the macroscopic properties of biological systems.

Even the most advanced technological devices do not possess such properties, such as, for example, submicron computer processors, where the control of electron flow occurs with inevitable energy losses. Further, it will be shown that in biomembranes the regulation of electron flows is carried out in relation to the transfer of each individual electron along the chain of macromolecular carriers.

In addition, it will be shown that the transformation of energy in biological processes occurs in macromolecular energy-converting "machines" having nanosizes.

The small dimensions also determine the small magnitudes of the energy gradients. and consequently, they bring the operation of such machines closer to the conditions of thermodynamic reversibility. This is known to increase the energy efficiency (COP) of energy conversion. It is in such nanosized molecular machines that the maximum energy yield and a low level of energy dissipation, corresponding to a low rate of entropy production in the system, are optimally combined.

Low differences in redox potentials between individual carriers in the chains of photosynthesis and respiration illustrate this situation, providing conditions close to the reversibility of individual processes of electron transport.

The study of the operation of individual molecular motors associated with energy transformation calls for the development of thermodynamics of small systems, where energy drops at the elementary stages of working cycles are comparable in magnitude to thermal fluctuations. Indeed, the average value of the total energy of a macrosystem (ideal gas) consisting of N particles and distributed over them according to the Gauss law, is 2>/2Nk b T. The size of random fluctuations of this quantity, on the order of l/V)V, is negligible with respect to the average value for a system consisting of a large number of particles. However, for small N the size of fluctuations approaches the average value of the energy of such a small system, which itself can be only a few units k h T.

For example, a kinesin molecule less than 100 nm in size moves along microtubules, transporting cell organelles and making “steps” of 8 nm every 10–15 ms due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis (20 k and T)."Kinesin motor" produces work at every step 2k g, T with efficiency = 60%. In this regard, kinesin is one of many molecular machines that use the energy of phosphate bond hydrolysis in various processes, including replication, transcription, translation, repair, and others. The small size of such machines can help them absorb the energy of large thermal fluctuations from the surrounding space. On average, of course, when a molecular motor moves along its dynamic trajectory, the performance of work is accompanied by the release of thermal energy, however, it is possible that the randomly absorbed energy of thermal fluctuations at certain stages of the working cycle, in combination with the “directed” energy of hydrolysis of phosphate bonds, contributes to the ratio between the change in free energy and the work done. In this case, thermal fluctuations can already lead to noticeable deviations from the averaged dynamic trajectories. Consequently, such small systems cannot be adequately described on the basis of classical thermodynamics. Currently, these issues are being intensively developed, including with the development of nanotechnologies associated with the creation of nanoscale molecular machines.

We note once again that the biochemical processes of energy transformation, in which useful chemical work is performed, in themselves are only a supplier of initial elements for the self-organization of biological structures and thereby the creation of information in biological systems.

It is to biochemical reactions that the basic principles of chemical thermodynamics and, in particular, the fundamental concept of chemical potential as a measure of the dependence of the number of admissible microstates on the number of particles in the system are applicable.

A chemical reaction is considered as the result of a redistribution of the number of moles or the relative number of particles (molecules) of reactants and products during the reaction, with the total number of their atoms unchanged. These redistributions are associated with the breaking and formation of chemical bonds and are thus accompanied by thermal effects. It is in the field of linear thermodynamics that their general orientation obeys Prigogine's theorem. Figuratively speaking, a biochemical reaction creates initial elements and delivers them to the place of self-assembly of stable "information" macromolecular complexes, information carriers. Direct self-assembly is carried out spontaneously and, of course, comes with a general decrease in free energy: A F= D U - TAS

Indeed, when a stable ordered structure appears, the energy of the formed structural bonds (-AU) in absolute value must be greater than the decrease in the entropy term ( -TAS) in the expression for the free energy |DS/| > | 7A,S|, so D F

Recall that during the period of prebiological evolution, stable structural “building blocks” of the living (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars) were thus formed spontaneously, abiogenically, from inorganic simple compounds, without any participation of living systems, due to external energy sources (light, electric discharges) necessary to overcome the activation barriers of synthesis reactions.

On the whole, the immediate emergence of biological information at the macromolecular level actually leads to a corresponding decrease in structural entropy (the appearance of negative entropy). This decrease in entropy is compensated by the formation of stable links in the information structure. At the same time, the balance of "thermodynamic" entropy in an open system is determined by the ratio of driving forces and velocities in a group of chemical processes that create conditions for the synthesis of information structures.

Obviously, the calculation of the total balance of the changed structural and thermodynamic entropy in a living system is purely arithmetic. It is determined by two interrelated, but different in nature, groups of processes, the direct compensation of entropy change between which does not take place.