Modern philosophy (positivism, neopositivism, existentialism, Freudianism, pragmatism). Philosophy of pragmatism, neopositivism, existentialism
The era of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. characterized by the fact that philosophical schools try to integrate the accumulated scientific knowledge on one of the philosophical foundations after the Hegelian period.
In the twentieth century, numerous philosophical trends appear: neopositivism, pragmatism, existentialism, neo-Thomism, personalism, intuitionism, Freudianism and others.
Positivism(lat. Positivus - positive) - a direction of philosophy that originated in the 30s - 40s of the XIX century. In France, and advocating that philosophy should be freed from scientific features and relied only on reliable scientific knowledge.
According to the positivists, philosophy should investigate only facts (and not their inner essence), free itself from any evaluative role, be guided in research by the scientific arsenal of means (like any other science), rely on the scientific method. Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) is considered the founder of positivism.
In its development, positivism went through four main stages:
Classical positivism (O. Comte and G. Spencer);
Neopositivism;
Post-positivism.
Very popular and widespread in the first half and middle of the XX century. was neopositivism. The main representatives of neopositivism were:
Philosophers of the "Vienna Circle" (M. Schlick - founder; his followers - R. Carnap, O. Neurath, G. Reechenbach);
Representatives of the Lvov-Warsaw school (A. Tarsky, J. Lukasevich);
The main idea of neopositivism is that philosophy should deal with the logical analysis of the language of science, since language, like the language of science, is the main means through which a person positively (reliably, scientifically) perceives the world around him.
Philosophy should deal with the logical analysis of text, signs, concepts, connections within sign systems, semantics (meaning) contained in signs (this brings neopositivism closer to hermeneutics). The main principle of neopositivism is the principle of verification - the comparison of all the provisions of science with the facts of experience. Only then a position, a concept makes sense, is of interest to science, when it can be verified - subjected to experimental verification by facts.
Most of the problems of the previous philosophy (being, consciousness, idea, God) are not subject to verification, and therefore, these problems are pseudo-problems that do not have a reliable scientific solution. They must be excluded from philosophy.
Another main goal of neopositivism (in addition to the logical analysis of the language of science) is the liberation of philosophy from metaphysical (not having a reliable scientific solution) problems.
Existentialism comes from the Latin word existentia - existence. Existentialism appeared in Germany after World War I, and a second wave of existentialism rose in France during its occupation and immediately after World War II.
The most famous representatives of existentialism are K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger (Germany), Jean-Paul Sartre, A. Camus (France), F. Kafka (Austria), L. Shestov and N. Berdyaev (Russia).
After World War II, existentialism became the most fashionable and influential ethical movement in Western Europe. It became widespread due to the fact that more than other directions in ethics, it reflected the mood of people living in modern bourgeois society. Usually distinguish religious existentialism - (Marseille, Jaspers, Costelli, Tillich, Buber) and the so-called "atheistic" (Heidegger, Camus, Beauvoir, Sartre), whose supporters in words deny God.
The problems addressed by the existentialists were close to many: the meaning of life, human destiny, choice of life path and personal responsibility for one's choice, "borderline" situations, attitude to the problem of life and death, the right to choose voluntary departure from life. In their opinion, a person reacts to everything that happens, first of all, emotionally, therefore, the description of the emotional structure of human existence becomes the main content of existentialism. A person, according to existentialists, is born "no", he is not given by anyone, is completely free, has no essence, he freely "chooses" himself, "projects", "makes" himself what he wants to become, chooses various possibilities and is responsible for its choice.
Existentialists talked about the absurdity of life, about the fact that the true purpose of human life is death, therefore a person has the right to leave life at his own discretion. In general, existentialism is quite pessimistic; it became an expression of a deep crisis in Western philosophy and culture in the 20th century.
Freudianism - the general name of various schools and trends seeking to apply the psychological teachings of 3. Freud to explain the phenomena related to man, society and culture. Initially, Freudianism arose on the basis of the concept of explaining and treating neuroses, taking into account the relationship of the unconscious sphere with consciousness, the process of self-assertion of a person who fell into a conflict situation. According to Freud, the basis of the unconscious is formed by sexual instincts (libido), which determine not only the majority of human mental actions, but also all historical events and social phenomena: eternal conflicts in the depths of the human psyche become the cause and content (often hidden from direct awareness) of morality, art, science, religion, state, law, wars, etc. Representatives of Freudianism - A. Adler, C. G. Jung and others. In the end. 30s, neo-Freudianism arose (E. Fromm, V. Reich, and others), which, while retaining the foundation. the logic of Freud's reasoning, he refused to see a sexual implication in all phenomena of human life.
Pragmatism(from the Greek. praqma - deed, action, philosophy of action - as a philosophical and ethical trend emerged at the end of the 19th century and became especially widespread in the United States.
Its creator and theorist is the outstanding logician and philosopher Charles Pearce (1839-1914), and the most famous systematizers of his ideas are W. James (1842-1914) and J. Dewey (1859-1952).
Soon after the official proclamation of pragmatism from the department of the University of California (1898), this philosophical ethical direction quickly penetrates into the countries of Europe, and after a while into the countries of Asia. The pragmatist ethic was proclaimed by the American national ethic - the ethics of the "morning dawn" of American capitalism. American pragmatism did not want to be "conventional" philosophical and ethical lines. Pragmatists pretend that they have taken a "neutral" third line in philosophy and ethics. One of the characteristic features of the ethics of pragmatism is its desire to go beyond the philosophical classrooms of the university audience and become accessible to the broad masses of the people. Pragmatists are flooding the book market with many “novelties” that provide advice for all occasions.
A person can act as he pleases, for all means are good for achieving the goal, the end justifies any means. That is why the ideas of pragmatist ethics have come to the taste of American businessmen, businessmen, money-gamblers. Pragmatists reproach past ethical systems with inattention to man. They consider their system to be the only one that affirms the freedom of the human person. But for pragmatists, a person acts as a biological being, and not an intellectual, social: human activity is determined, in their opinion, by subjective desire, caused by the corresponding instinct, unconscious impulses.
The main currents of modern philosophy are pragmatism, neopositivism, existentialism.
Pragmatism . It arose at the end of the 19th century. as a reaction to the philosophy of Anglo-American neo-Hegelianism. Its creator and theorist is the outstanding logician and philosopher Charles Pearce (1839-1914), and the most famous systematizers of his ideas are W. James (1842-1914) and J. Dewey (1859-1952).
The term "pragmatism" was coined by Peirce and means "philosophy of action." Investigating the relationship between knowledge, faith and action, the philosophers of this trend believed that the level of knowledge and theoretical development of the problems that life puts forward was not quite sufficient. Therefore, a person is constantly in a "problem situation" of finding effective solutions. Pragmatists introduced the concept of pragmatic faith as the true basis of action and several methods. These are the "method of perseverance" in achieving the goal, the "method of authority", which requires the coordination of personal goals with the "general opinion", the "a priori method" by which it is necessary to act in accordance with the principles of the general intelligence of the intellect, and the "scientific method", which asserts the possibility of objective knowledge. The goal of knowledge Pierce formulated in the "Pragmatic Maxim": "We comprehend the subject of our thought, considering those of its properties that could presumably be of practical importance; our idea of these properties, and forms the whole concept of the subject. "
Positivism. At the end of the XIX century. the positivism of Comte, Mill and Spencer entered a period of crisis because their philosophical constructions did not find a logical foundation and were not constructive enough. As a result, the "second" positivism of Mach-Avenarius arose, which was called empirio-criticism, or the philosophy of critical experiential knowledge. At the same time, experience was understood only as the sensory experience of a certain person, and not as a socio-historical practice of mankind. They believed that there was a series of physical events, and a number of mental perceptions correspond to them. Self-knowledge is the economical adaptation of thought to facts. The subject and object in cognition are linked through fundamental coordination.
By the 20s of the XX century. there is a "third" positivism - neopositivism. Unlike its predecessors, neopositivism focuses on the problem of language, seeking to clarify its structure and thereby draw the line between its ideal and such a use that is fraught with metaphysics. Neopositivists drew attention to the shortcomings of everyday speech, in which the correct linguistic form of a sentence can obscure its logical structure. In 1905, B. Russell (1872-1970) published an article "On the designation", where he formulated the idea of creating an ideal language by excluding from the composition of science sentences those that cannot be classified as either false or true, since they are meaningless. At the heart of the language of science are "atomic statements" that record single facts. The task of philosophy is to provide a logical analysis of such proposals.
Members of the Vienna Circle divide all statements into: logical and mathematical (analytical), empirical (synthetic) and metaphysical (not scientifically meaningful). The former, which correspond to the rules of logic and mathematics, and the latter, fixing direct sensory experience, were recognized by neopositivists as scientifically significant, and the latter as metaphysical and meaningless. In order to remove this contradiction, neopositivists put forward the principle of verification, which says: a theory is feasible, it makes sense if its provisions are translated as the language of observation, experience. The criterion of truth is in the agreement of judgments with "facts" (the theory of correspondence).
Further development of this concept is associated with the "philosophy of linguistic analysis." Its author, the Austrian philosopher Wittgenstein (1889-1951), in his "Logical-Philosophical Treatise" 1918) put forward a holistic concept of language. In the structure of the language, he distinguished between analytical and synthetic sentences. Analytical sentences are those in which the predicate derives from the subject. These are tautologies like "2x2 = 4", "Socrates is mortal." In synthetic sentences, the predicate contains new knowledge that is drawn from sensory experience. For example, “Rose is red”. Those sentences that cannot be classified either as analytical or as synthetic sentences are declared metaphysical, devoid of meaning. It follows from this that there are important philosophically important questions about the meaning of life, about the essence of good and evil, etc. turn out to be "unscientific", meaningless, belonging, according to Wittgenstein, to the sphere of the "mystical".
In the 60s of the XX century. logical positivism practically ceased to exist and was replaced by "post-positivism", or "philosophy of science." Its founder, the English philosopher Karl Popper (1902-1988), abandoned the verification concept of meaning and the idea of inductive justification of science and put forward the principle of falsification, according to which a proposal is scientific, if it is possible, at least in principle, to find such a fact that would refute this proposal. A theory cannot be substantiated by reference to experience, since the latter is always limited, but by experience it can be falsified.
Falsifiability - it is the demarcation criterion of science and metaphysics. This concept of Popper laid the foundations for critical rationalism - a new direction in epistemology, in which the problem of rationality comes to the fore: is there a single standard of scientificity, rationality, and what is its rationale?
Existentialism - a philosophical trend that considers human life, human existence as its subject.
Its goals, means and methods are fundamentally inconsistent with the traditions of academic philosophy. The existential interpretation of the most important philosophical problems is based on an extremely specific premise. This premise consists in the assumption of a special - existential - way of thinking. Its content is the non-rational logic of anti-speculative concepts from the field of axiology, morality, aesthetics, etc. His method is subjective, since existential thinking follows the relational attitudes of the individual, as a rule, consciousness. Existentialism has its predecessors in the person of B. Pascal (1623-1662) and S. Kierkegaard (1813-1855). Sometimes they include M. Unamuno (1864-1936), F. Dostoevsky (1821-1881), f. Nietzsche.
The development of existentialism is associated with the names of L. Shestov and N. Berdyaev in Russia, M. Heidegger and K. Jaspers in Germany, J.P. Sartre and A. Camus in France for the philosophical style of thinking of existentialism, which often uses the language of art for its expression, is characterized by the desire to "understand" being as something immediate and to overcome the rationalistic limitations of intellectualism.
The founder of German existentialism was Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). In his main work "Being and Time", he defines the basis of human existence as finitude, timelessness. As long as human existence lasts, there is a world, it will disappear, and the world will also disappear. Time is understood by him as the experience of human existence of its own limitations and flows between birth and death.
Man, Heidegger believes, strives for the unconditional, but the loss of God has become a reality. True, here, too, Jaspers runs into a contradiction, since if the main value in a person is his unique individuality, then communication, even genuine, turns out to be dangerous for her, does harm (“Whoever leads you, you’ll get enough of it”).
French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) represents the atheistic trend of existentialism. In his work "Existentialism is Humanism" he directly writes that existentialism "is only an attempt to draw all conclusions from a consistent atheistic position."
The world, according to Sartre, is “the universal wrong”, the complete absence of anything corresponding to human expectations. The world is “being in itself” and opposes man as “being for itself”. The irreparable antagonism between them gives rise to metaphysical longing as the deepest human experience of his position in the world. A person brings his freedom to the world, freely organizes his own meaningful world. He must be free to act, otherwise he will be manipulated. Therefore, a person is responsible for everything that happens in the world. Therefore, a person must act. In this Sartre sees the humanism of existentialism. Russian philosophy of the XX century. shared the fate of the Russian people and its culture. Having experienced an undoubted take-off at the beginning of the century, after the 1917 revolution, it gradually lost the national originality of its essential characteristics, turning into an international Marxist-Leninist philosophy, of which it was very proud. Idealistic directions of Russian philosophy of the XX century. cultivated not political, but moral or religious ways of saving Russia. This direction of Russian philosophical thought could be understood in the categories of freedom, the coincidence of the ideal and reality.
Both materialistic and idealistic currents of Russian philosophy were far from scholasticism and abstract schemes, they were a philosophy of life. They are characterized by predominant attention to the problems of the philosophy of history, sociology, the problem of man, ethics, i.e. those that directly led to the solution of the burning problems of our time. Russian philosophy asserts the indivisibility of subject and object. The subject of cognition in it does not reflect being, as, for example, in English empiricism, is not identical with being, as in German panlogism, but acts as a fact within being. Ontologism means not just the primacy of reality over "pure consciousness", but means the involvement of the cognitive process in the life of the subject in the world. As a result, being turns into an event, or "living". In other words, Russian philosophy comprehends objective reality not as impersonal, opposed to reality, but experiences it as its own destiny, thus linking epistemology with evaluation and morality. This, however, did not mean that the so-called metaphysical problems of ontology, methodology, epistemology were not developed in Russian philosophy of this period.
In the XX centuries. in Russian philosophy, more than before, there is a craving for the synthesis of knowledge, for the acquisition of truly "integral knowledge" that combines philosophy, science and religion.
At the end of the XIX century. industrial production developed so rapidly that sometimes it reached the point of self-denial, and the automation of production led to the mechanization of the spirit. In this situation, the most perspicacious and conscientious Russian thinkers warned: "The man has been forgotten!" (A.P. Chekhov).
The years of the First World War, the 1917 revolution, the civil war, the post-revolutionary persecution of dissidents by the victorious Bolsheviks gradually reduced the potential of this development, bringing it to naught, although it is impossible to speak about the complete cessation of the existence of Russian philosophy, since even after 1917 philosophical journals and books of individual idealist philosophers. However, the fate of Russian philosophy was predetermined. The "exodus" of Russian philosophers began outside the homeland. Some of them emigrated on their own: P.B. Struve (1917), P.I. Novgorodtsev (1917), L.I. Petrazhitsky (1918), P.N. Milyukov (1920), L. Shestov (1920), V. Ivanov (1924), G.P. Fedotov (1925) and others. And in 1922 g.
On the initiative of V.I. Lenin, an unprecedented action was taken to deport Russian thinkers from Russia. The expulsion went by various routes, by rail - through the Baltic States and by sea - from Sevastopol, Odessa, Petrograd. Not of their own free will, I.I. Lapshin, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, L.P. Karsavin, I.A. Ilyin, B.V. Lkovenko, (F. A. Stepun, N. A. Berdyaev, P. A. Sorokin and others. The non-Marxist Russian philosophers who remained in Russia (P. Florensky, A. Losev, G. Shlet, etc.) were soon arrested and mostly died in prisons and camps.
The anthropological orientation of Russian philosophy is its generally recognized national feature. Throughout its history, it has demonstrated constant attention to the problems of the essence and existence of man, offering a wide range of solutions. Since the middle of the XIX century. questions of the existence of man, his value, freedom come to the fore in Russian philosophy; it is all imbued with anxiety in connection with the awareness of the imperfection of being, the presence of irrational principles in it. It is not surprising that it was precisely Russian philosophy at the beginning of the 20th century. formulated and proposed a solution to the basic questions of the philosophy of existence - existentialism, becoming, as it were, the forerunner of its European currents. And the first existentialist among Russian philosophers should be called L.I. Shestov (Shvartsman) (1866-1938) - one of the most mysterious, unique ("lonely") thinkers.
NEOPOSITIVE or logical positivism (logical empiricism) - one of the main directions of philosophy of the 20th century, combining the basic principles of positivist philosophy with the widespread use of the technical apparatus of mathematical logic. N.'s basic ideas were formulated by members of the Vienna circle in the middle. 1920s These ideas were supported by representatives of the Lvov-Warsaw School, the Berlin Group of Philosophers, and a number of Amer. representatives of the philosophy of science. After the Nazis came to power in Germany, most of the N. representatives emigrated to England and the USA, which contributed to the spread of their views in these countries. "The world is a combination of facts, not things." Reality breaks down into separate "atomic" facts, which can be combined into more complex, "molecular" facts. Atomic facts are independent of one another: "Any fact may or may not take place, and everything else remains the same." Atomic facts are in no way connected with each other, therefore there are no regular connections in the world: "Belief in a causal connection is a prejudice." Since reality is only various combinations of elements of the same level - facts, in so far as science should be nothing more than a combination of sentences reflecting facts and their various combinations. Everything that claims to go beyond this "one-dimensional" world of facts, everything that appeals to connections of facts or to deep essences must be expelled from science.
Pragmatism(from ancient Greek πράγμα, genitive πράγματος - "deed, action") is a philosophical trend based on practice as a criterion of truth and semantic significance. Its origin is associated with the name of the 19th century American philosopher Charles Pearce, who was the first to formulate the "maxim" of pragmatism. Further pragmatism developed in the writings of William James, John Dewey and George Santayana. Among the main directions of pragmatism are instrumentalism, fallibilism, anti-realism, radical empiricism, verificationism, etc. Attention to pragmatism increased significantly in the second half of the XX century with the emergence of a new philosophical school, which focused on criticism of logical positivism, relying on its own version of pragmatism. These were representatives of the analytical philosophy Willard Quine, Wilfrid Sellars, and others. Their concept was then developed by Richard Rorty, who later moved to the position of continental philosophy and was criticized for relativism. After that, modern philosophical pragmatism was divided into analytical and relativistic directions. In addition to them, there is also a neoclassical direction, in particular, represented by the works of Susan Haack (English).
Neotomism(on behalf of Thomas Aquinas) - The official philosophy of Catholicism since 1879, a modern version of Thomism, which is a Christian adaptation of the philosophy of Aristotle. God is perceived as a root cause, things - as a combination of matter and form, processes - as the transition of potency into actuality. The main representatives of neo-Thomism: J. Maritain, F. Vetter, E. Gilson (France), M. Grabman, K. Beimker, D. Berger, I. De Vries, I. Lotz, K. Rainer, G. Falk (Germany), D. Mercier, D. Nees, L. Noel, M. De Wolfe (Belgium), A. Jeremy, D. Capelo ( Italy), etc.
The main centers of neo-Thomist philosophy are the Academy of Saint Thomas in Rome and the University of Louvain in Belgium.
Existentialism(FR Existentialism developed in parallel to related directions of personalism and philosophical anthropology, from which it differs primarily in the idea of overcoming (and not revealing) a person of his own essence and a great emphasis on the depth of the emotional nature. In its pure form, existentialism as a philosophical trend has never existed. The inconsistency of this term comes from the very content of "existence", since it is, by definition, individual and unique, means the experiences of a single individual who is not like anyone else. This inconsistency is the reason that practically none of the thinkers classified as existentialism actually an existentialist philosopher. The only one who clearly expressed his belonging to this direction was Jean-Paul Sartre. His position was outlined in the report "Existentialism is Humanism", where he made an attempt to generalize the existentialist aspirations of individual thinkers of the early 20th century. According to the existential psychologist and psychotherapist R. May, existentialism is not just a philosophical direction, but rather a cultural movement that captures a deep emotional and the spiritual dimension of modern Western man, depicting the psychological situation in which he finds himself, an expression of the unique psychological difficulties he faces
1 . Pragmatism (from the Greek \ "pragma \" - business) is a philrological-pedagogical direction, advocating the rapprochement of education with life, achieving the goals of education in practical activities. The founders of pragmatic philosophy - Charles Pierce (1839 - 1914) and W. James (1842 - 1910) - claimed to create a new philosophy that would stand outside idealism and materialism.
The ideas of the early pragmatists were developed by the American philosopher and educator J. Dewey (1859 - 1952). He brought them into a system that he preferred to call instrumentalism.
The main provisions of this system are as follows:
school should not be divorced from life, education - from upbringing;
in the educational process, it is necessary to rely on the students' own activity, to develop and stimulate it in every possible way;
the educational process should be based on the interests of the child: \ "... we must take the place of the child and proceed from him. Not a program, but he should determine both the quality and quantity of training \". J. Dewey's methodological guidelines were supplemented with new principles, brought in line with new trends in understanding education as a process of socialization of the individual.
The main essence of the neo-pragmatic concept of upbringing is reduced to the self-affirmation of the individual. Its supporters (A. Maslow, A. Combs, E. Kellee, K. Rogers, T. Brummeld, S. Hook and others) strengthen the individualistic orientation of education.
2. Neopositivism is a philosophical and pedagogical direction that tries to comprehend the complex of phenomena caused by the scientific and technical revolution. Born in the depths of classical positivism on the ethical ideas of Plato, Aristotle, Hume, Kant, the new direction gradually strengthened and became widespread in the West. The current pedagogical neo-positivism is most often referred to as \ "new humanism \". In relation to some of its directions, the term \ "sciencism \" (from the English sciense - science) is also used.
The most prominent representatives of the new humanism and scientism - P. Khere, J. Wilson, R.S. Peter, A. Harris, M, Warnock, L. Kohlberg. The main provisions of the pedagogy of neopositivism are as follows.
Education must be cleansed of ideological ideas, because social life in conditions of scientific and technological progress needs \ "rational thinking \", and not ideology.
Supporters of the new humanism advocate the complete humanization of the education system, seeing in it the main means of establishing justice in all spheres of society's life as the highest principle of relations between people.
Supporters of scientism do not believe in feelings, but in logic and are convinced that only with the help of rational thinking as the main criterion for the maturity of a person, she will be able to show the ability for self-realization, for communication with other members of society. The person himself programs his development, which has an opposite effect on his social experience. Therefore, in education, the main attention should be paid to the development of the human "I".
3. Existentialism (from Lat. Existentia - existence) is a philosophical trend that recognizes personality as the highest value of the world. The existence of a person as \ "I \" precedes his essence and creates it. Each personality is unique, unique, special. Each person is a bearer of his own morality.
According to the existentialists, the identity of the individual is especially harmed by the collective, which turns a person into a \ "herd animal \", levels and suppresses him \ "I \".
The most prominent representatives of modern existentialist pedagogues are J. Kneller, K. Gould, E. Breisach (USA), W. Barrett (Great Britain), M. Marseille (France), O.F. Bolnov (FRG), T. Morita (Japan), A. Falliko (Italy) - the subconscious is considered the center of educational influence: moods, feelings, impulses; human intuition is the main thing, and consciousness, intellect, logic are of secondary importance.
The teacher of existentialism assigns a very peculiar role: he must first of all take care of creating a free atmosphere, not limit the process of self-expression of the individual; the teacher will help the student to find a stable \ "inner morality \" by teaching the art of looking only in oneself.
4. Thomism is a religious philosophical doctrine that received its name from the name of Thomas (Toma) Aquinas (1225 - 1274). The Thomists recognize the existence of an objective reality, but make this reality dependent on the will of God. The world is the embodiment of \ "Divine Reason \", and theology is the highest level of knowledge. The essence of the world, according to the neo-Thomists, is incomprehensible to science. It can be cognized only by approaching God, \ "Overmind \". Science has access to a piece of the material world that surrounds a person. Therefore, it is necessary to improve \ "true education \", which consists in introducing young people to culture based on religious values, in fostering faith in God, which brings a person closer to the highest manifestation of his mind.
A detailed presentation of the pedagogical concept of modern neotomism was given by the famous French philosopher, the recognized head of neotomism J. Maritain. Prominent representatives of Catholic pedagogy -U. Cunningham, W. McGaken (USA), M. Casotti, M. Stephanini (Italy), W. von Lovenich (Germany). R. Livigstrn (England), E. Gilson (France). The main provisions of neo-Thomism pedagogy are determined by the "dual nature" of man. Man is a unity of matter and spirit, and therefore he is both an individual and a person at the same time; As an individual, a person is a material, corporeal being, subject to all the laws of nature and society. As a person, he possesses an immortal soul - the organ of \ "super-existence \", rises above everything earthly and is subordinate only to God.
Science is powerless to define the goals of education. This can only be done by a religion that knows the true answer to the question of the essence of man, the meaning of his life.
The main thing is the soul, therefore, upbringing must certainly be based on the priority of the spiritual principle.
The pedagogy of neo-Thomism stands for the education of universal human virtues: kindness, humanism, honesty, love for one's neighbor, the ability to sacrifice, etc. 5. Behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior) is a psychological and pedagogical concept of technocratic education , which is understood as upbringing based on the latest achievements of human science, the use of modern methods of researching his interests, needs, abilities, factors that determine behavior. Classical behaviorism, at the origins of which was a prominent American philosopher and psychologist J. Watson, enriched science with the position of the dependence of behavior (reaction) on an irritant (stimulus), presenting this connection in the form of the formula S - »R (stimulus - response) ... Non-behaviorists (BF Skinner, K. Hull, E. Tolman, S. Pressy and others) supplemented it with the provision of reinforcement, as a result of which the chain of formation of a given behavior acquired the form "stimulus - reaction - reinforcement".
Thus, the main idea of neobehaviorism in relation to upbringing is that human behavior is a controlled process. It is conditioned by the stimuli applied and requires positive reinforcement.
Used sources:
Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy: in 2 books. Book 1.P. 145 - 151.
Introduction
Conclusion
List of used literature
INTRODUCTION
The study of this topic is very relevant for modern pedagogical science. The relevance is emphasized by the importance of studying the philosophical foundations for the methodological culture of the modern teacher, since nowadays it requires a bright, large-scale, creative personality of the teacher, who is called upon to master the culture of universal human values, professional thinking, methodological knowledge as a reliable tool of theoretical and practical transformative activity. In modern pedagogical science, the concept of the teacher's individual activity has been developed, the essence of which is, firstly, in the development of his rich, original personality, and secondly, in the fusion of social and personal meanings.
The individuality of the teacher as a subject of professional activity is expressed in form and content. The formal side is the external expression of the individual characteristics of the teacher's personality. It manifests itself in the form of an individual style of pedagogical activity, communication, and behavior. The content side has a serious philosophical basis.
The purpose of this work is the need to characterize the concept of neo-Thomism as a philosophical basis for a modern teacher.
Achieving this goal involves solving a number of the following tasks:
Describe the concept of "philosophical foundation" and determine its role for the development of modern pedagogy
Describe the main provisions of the philosophical theory of neo-Thomism as the philosophical foundation of modern pedagogy.
To write this work, we mainly used analytical research methods. In the process of research, we used monographic, educational and journalistic literature.
The concept of "philosophical foundation" and its role in the development of modern pedagogy
Various philosophical and anthropological concepts express a certain philosophical position in relation to human education. It was philosophical anthropology that drew the attention of educational scientists to the openness of man to the world, to his desire not only to adapt in society, but also to self-change and self-realization.
At the base of any pedagogical doctrine, along with psychological and natural science, certain philosophical ideas about a person are implicitly laid.
Philosophical anthropology, which is not only a systemic and whole, but also a comprehensive knowledge about a person, is one of the main sources of pedagogical anthropology, which in turn acts as the foundation of the entire building of pedagogy. Pedagogical anthropology relies on philosophical knowledge about a person as an object not only of education and self-education, but also of formation and self-realization, development and self-development, proceeding from his essence as integrity, from the multifaceted manifestations of his being.
In pedagogical anthropology, a fairly wide range of issues is raised, traditionally attributed to philosophical anthropology, related to the nature of man, his essence and existence, his development and self-development in the process of education, the meaning of his being and the pedagogical ideal.
It is the anthropological aspects of philosophical knowledge that give pedagogical anthropology generalized ideas about a person, which underlie pedagogical views on the essence, goals and objectives of pedagogy.
Thanks to the organic unity of these anthropological disciplines, it is possible to reveal the real pedagogical relations, within which the formation of the human in the person takes place. Pedagogical anthropology interprets philosophical and anthropological ideas in relation to pedagogy, revealing the content of different concepts of education from the point of view of human nature, his place in the world in general, and in the structures of education in particular. It gives pedagogy, based on various philosophical and anthropological concepts, an answer to the question: who is a person - an end or a means, is he an object or subject of pedagogical relations?
In this case, a person is understood either as a person (the goal of oneself), a being who realizes himself in diverse, free and creative communication with others, or as an atomized, autonomous and impersonal individual.
Philosophical and anthropological trends that have developed by the beginning of the XXI century serve as the theoretical and methodological foundation of pedagogical currents.
The classification of pedagogical currents on the basis of a set of general approaches, basic system-forming philosophical and anthropological ideas and principles, allows them to be meaningfully and formally integrated into pedagogical anthropological paradigms corresponding to certain models of education. The paradigms built on philosophical and anthropological foundations set pedagogical models, conceptually comprehending and pedagogically interpreting the basic models of education.
In pedagogy, attempts have been made repeatedly to isolate, as well as develop a paradigmatic-pedagogical typology of basic education models, built on various foundations and allowing one to navigate in an almost endless variety of pedagogical systems, concepts, theories, technologies, and methods of the past and present.
However, in pedagogical science there were no attempts to systematize pedagogical currents and typologize pedagogical paradigms on a broad philosophical and anthropological basis, taking into account both Western and Russian historical and pedagogical experience.
At the same time, philosophical ideas about man, in explicit or implicit form, were laid in the foundation of any pedagogical doctrine, along with psychological, natural science and others.
It is the anthropological aspects of philosophical knowledge that give pedagogical anthropology the most general ideas about man, his nature and place in the world, which underlie pedagogical views on the essence, goals and objectives of pedagogy.
In the currently coexisting various philosophical teachings - in existentialism, pragmatism, dialectical materialism, personalism, neo-Thomism - there is also an anthropological component.
Thomism as a philosophical foundation of modern pedagogy
Thomism- a teaching coming from the medieval religious philosopher Thomas Aquinas, who, in order to strengthen the influence of the church on people, recognized reason as a means necessary to prove religious dogmas.
Neo-Thomists, developing the ideas of the medieval philosopher in modern conditions, take into account the fact that scientific knowledge has firmly entered the life of people. But the world for them is bifurcated into: material and spiritual.
The material world is the world of "the lowest rank", "it is dead", "has no purpose and essence", science is engaged in its study. Collecting empirical data, science at the same time turns out to be unable to reveal the essence of the world, since it is determined by God. Therefore, the neo-Thomists assert, the highest truth is comprehended only by the "supermind," by approaching God and comprehending the revelation given to him.
The neo-Thomists prove the leading role of religion in the upbringing of the younger generations.
Their works (J. Maritain, W. Kanin-gham, M. Adler, M. Casotti) contain a sharp criticism of the fall of moral foundations in the modern world. They point to the growth of crime, cruelty, drug addiction, which lead to the destruction of society.
Man, says J. Maritain, is dual, in him two worlds meet - the physical and the spiritual. The latter is richer, more noble and has a higher value. This is the world of God, created for eternal life.
Thus, neo-Thomists recognize the existence of an objective reality, but make this reality dependent on the will of God. The world is the embodiment of "Divine reason", and theology is the highest degree of knowledge. The essence of the world, according to the neo-Thomists, is incomprehensible to science. It can be cognized only by approaching God, the "superintelligent".
In the field of education, science and religion should interact and complement each other: science should be assigned to the area of earthly natural phenomena, religion - spiritual ideas that come from God and do not obey the laws of nature.
The basic principles of neo-Thomism pedagogy are determined by the "double nature" of man: man is the unity of matter and spirit, therefore he is both an individual and a personality at the same time; as an individual, a person is material, a corporeal being that obeys all the laws of nature and society; as a person, he owns an immortal soul, rises above everything earthly and obeys only God; science is powerless to determine the goals of upbringing, this can only be done by religion, which knows the real answer to the question about the essence of a person, his life; the main thing is the soul, therefore upbringing should be based on the priority of the spiritual principle.
The Thomists accuse the school of excessive rationality and oblivion of the "preconscious", which supposedly contains the sources of love, happiness, freedom and the meaning of life. Therefore, the entire system of education and upbringing, in their opinion, should be aimed at developing a "preconscious" desire to get closer to God.
Neo-Thomists deduce the goal of upbringing from Christian morality, religious provisions on humility, patience, non-resistance to God, who tests everyone, but in different ways: some with wealth, others with poverty, you cannot fight against this.
The immediate goal is the Christian improvement of man on earth.
Distant - taking care of his life in the other world, salvation of the soul. In the content of education, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between "the truths of reason and the truths of faith." This formula, in the words of J. Maritain, should be "inscribed in gold letters above the entrance to any educational institution."
Thomist strategy today dominates the education of Austria, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Spain and other countries.
CONCLUSION
Thus, summing up all of the above, it is necessary to draw a number of the following conclusions.
Each epoch has its own philosophical vision of man, its own ideas about his ideal and the corresponding educational model. Throughout the history of pedagogy, there has been a change in the philosophical and anthropological foundations of education, associated with a change in both ideas about a person and the methods and methods of his upbringing and education. At present, despite many useful developments, the traditional education model, which has been developing for centuries, based on the principles of scientism, monologism, authoritarianism and utilitarianism, on the concept of a "one-dimensional" person-function, has exhausted itself. At the beginning of the third millennium, pedagogical science is trying to find and formulate those limiting foundations on which a modern model of education can be built.
The scientific and pedagogical community is increasingly realizing that the solution to this problem presupposes a new philosophical view of man.
To solve this problem, it is necessary to study the pedagogical foundations of the philosophical concept of neo-Thomism.
Thomism is a religious philosophical doctrine that got its name from the Catholic theologian Thomas (Thomas) Aquinas (1225-1274). The medieval scholastic is glorified as an apostle of the past and a prophet of the future, and religion - as an eternal and main philosophy that guides human existence and upbringing.
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